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Talks about the conclusion of the 30 Years' war and how the Treaties of Westphalia played a role

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The Peace of Westphalia, which brought the brutalities of the Thirty Years' War to an end in 1648, still looms large as a major turning point in the history of both international law and international politics. Indeed, few historical events can match the prevalence of the Westphalian myth, which holds that the Peace marked the emergence of the sovereign state and the modern international system as we know it.

The source of this enduring myth can be traced to an influential article by Leo Gross, described by one critic as 'the Homer of the Westphalia myth', which was published in the American Journal of International Law in 1948. Writing on the tercentenary of the Peace, soon after the founding of the United Nations, the Austrian-born legal scholar described 1648 as 'the majestic portal which leads from the old into the new world' and 'the starting point for the development of international law'. This is still the dominant image of Westphalia: a major turning point between the medieval and the modern, the birth certificate of the international legal order. Political and legal theorists generally adopt wholesale the views promoted by Gross, while historians have done little to dispel this myth.

Even today, when scholars regularly invoke the need for a 'post-Westphalian' order, or wonder what lies 'beyond Westphalia', they implicitly take Westphalian sovereignty as their natural starting point. It is rare to ask 'why Westphalia?', though it is a far more useful query if we aim to broaden the scope of the history of international law and politics.

For when we consider the content and context of the treaties of Westphalia, it is clear that they did not radically alter the nature of sovereignty, nor did the Peace invent a new international system.

The idea that Westphalia paved the way for an international system of sovereign states relies on the argument that the treaties dismantled the twin supreme authorities of the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. Yet there was nothing particularly new or groundbreaking in the treaties that caused this: Protestantism had been recognised by the Empire as early as 1532 in the Treaty of Nuremberg. Though the Catholic Church's political authority was certainly declining throughout the early modern period, there is nothing to suggest that Westphalia provided the ultimate turning point. Similarly, the idea that the Holy Roman Empire was replaced by a network of independent states after 1648 is exaggerated. The Peace of Westphalia officially gave imperial princely states the power to sign treaties, but this had already been widely practised for at least a half century before. Brandenburg, for example, had independently formed an alliance with the Netherlands in 1605. The German states still thought of themselves as a single body after the Peace: the Emperor was recognised as their overlord and representatives were still sent to the Imperial Diet, which retained control over legislation, warfare and taxation. Overlapping sovereignties were as much a fact of life and a source of conflict after 1648 as they had been before.

So why does Westphalia still figure so prominently in the history of international law and politics? One answer is perhaps the ahistorical nature of those two disciplines. Westphalia is detached from its context and assigned great importance because it suits the narrative of existing international law and international relations as Whiggish, evolutionary processes. So 1648 marks the first stepping stone on a path that leaps neatly from there to 1815, 1919, 1945 to the present day. By cutting out events before this date and painting Westphalia as the birthplace of the sovereign states system, the historiography of international law and politics is narrowed to make the formation of the existing settlement seem inevitable. Any alternatives outside the realm of sovereign states are discounted.

The results of this narrowing are clear. It is as difficult for us to properly envision the Holy Roman Empire, with its confused sovereignties and stubborn refusal to act like a conventional 'state', as it is for many international relations scholars to account for the increasing influence of non-state actors in contemporary politics. The challenge, then, is not to imagine a 'post-Westphalian' world order, but instead to apply a historical, non-Westphalian perspective to our study of international law and politics in the past, the present and the future.

Cormac Shine is a Scholar in History and Political Science at Trinity College Dublin and a member of the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva.

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Treaties and Turning Points: The Thirty Years' War

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The Peace of Westphalia, which brought the brutalities of the Thirty Years' War to an end in 1648, still looms large as a major turning point in the history of both international law and international politics.

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This source has information about some of the lesser known information on the 30 years' war.

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This source has a lot of information about the Bohemian empire, which was a major contender in the Thirty Year war.

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Citation: C N Trueman "Bohemia"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 Mar 2015. 15 Jun 2018.

Bohemia was to play a pivotal role in the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. Bohemia had been an area known to be religiously tolerant. The region was a mixture of Calvinists, Lutherans, Catholics and Anabaptists. They all lived in relative harmony. About two-thirds of the population was Protestant and just 10% were Catholic. Most of Bohemia's senior nobility were Catholic.

Rudolf II, as the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor, wanted to remove the Protestants from the region but this was an impossible task. Bohemia was one of the more important economic regions of the empire and it was a melting pot of all religions whose people brought their respective expertise to the area.

Rudolf could not concentrate on Bohemia as he felt threatened by his brother Matthias and he needed the support of the Bohemian Estates if he was to maintain his strength within the empire. Bohemia could, if necessary, provide him with money and men in any clash with Matthias.

In July 1609, Rudolf granted the Letter of Majesty which guaranteed freedom of conscience for all; the liberty of worship for nobles and those towns belonging to the crown and the control of ecclesiastical organisation within Bohemia was to rest with the Bohemian Estates. This agreement gave Bohemia the right to effectively control their religious structure free from imperial interference. However, Rudolf did not see this agreement as being permanent.

In 1611, Rudolf attempted to assert his authority over Bohemia The Bohemian Estates called on Matthias to help them and Rudolf's attempt came to nothing but it had marked out to the nobles in Bohemia the way events might turn in the future. In return for his support, Matthias was crowned King of Bohemia and from 1611 to 1616, there was relative peace in the region.

In 1612, Rudolf died and Matthias became Holy Roman Emperor. He remained childless and the obvious question that needed to be answered was who would succeed him ? The Habsburgs wanted Archduke Ferdinand of Styria. He was a hard line Catholic who would not tolerate non-Catholics in Bohemia. The Catholic nobles of Bohemia elected Ferdinand King of Bohemia in June 1617. The Protestants of Bohemia had reason to fear this appointment as they had wanted the Elector of Saxony or the Elector Palatine. Ferdinand was offered the title on condition that he upheld the Letter of Majesty. Ferdinand agreed to do this but did not feel obligated to be bound by the letter.

Ferdinand's approach to running Bohemia was seen in his appointment of the ten deputies he needed to help him run Bohemia. Seven were Catholic and only three were Protestant despite the Catholics only forming 10% of the area's population.

The region's Protestants fell out with Ferdinand over what appeared to be a trivial incident concerning two churches at Klostergrab and Brunau. This lead to two Catholic Deputies (Martinitz and Slavata) being thrown out of a window at a Prague government office - a traditional Bohemian way of showing your anger against someone in authority. This incident is known as the "Defenestration of Prague" and it was a deliberate challenge to the authority of Ferdinand.

In a direct challenge to Ferdinand, the Bohemian Protestants appointed 36 Directors to administer Bohemia. The Estates agreed to this. A national militia was set up under Count Thurn as the Estates believed that Ferdinand was sure to make a stand. The militia had no money, no military experience and only the most basic of equipment. Also support for the militia was minimal as the peasants believed that the Estates were simply trying to advance their own position in Bohemia but that they, the peasants, would have to fight if it came down to this. If the Bohemian Estates wanted to be successful, they needed foreign support as they were not likely to get it from the people of Bohemia who thought that they had nothing to gain from the venture.

Foreign support was difficult to get. The Dutch promised some help but were extremely vague as to what that help would be; Charles Emmanuel of Savoy sent 2,000 men and Ernst von Mansfeld to command them. The Evangelical Union was on the verge of breaking up so the Protestant North German states were in no position to help.

In March 1619, Matthias died and Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. Ferdinand made it his crusade to re-Catholicise the empire. Other eastern states in the Holy Roman Empire feared this approach and Lusatia, Moravia and Silesia agreed to support Bohemia. They believed that if they stood alone, they would be easily picked off by Ferdinand. But as a union of four, they stood a better chance. Even the Habsburg's Upper Austria was opposed to what Ferdinand was doing.

In July 1619, the Act of Confederation was signed between Bohemia, Lusatia, Moravia and Silesia. This agreement stated that the crown of Bohemia would remain elective; Austria and Hungary would be incorporated into the Confederation if circumstances were right; the Letter of Majesty would be upheld and that crown land and confiscated Catholic property would pay for the Confederation.

The Confederation had to appoint a new king. The rebels chose Frederick, Elector of the Palatine. Frederick's father-in-law was James I of England and Scotland. It was hoped that this connection would give the Confederation more authority and clout. But James would have none of it - least of all did he want to get involved in an eastern European problem.

In August 1619, the Bohemian throne was declared vacant by the Estates and it was duly offered to Frederick. He arrived in Prague in October 1619 having accepted the crown. War clouds were gathering fast.

The Habsburg's, from both Spain and Austria, could not allow Bohemia to rebel if only that the example set by a successful rebellion could spell doom for the Holy Roman Empire. If Bohemia was successful, other states could also be.

Spain improved her relations with Sigismund of Poland and sent a fleet to Flanders. Phillip III made plans to occupy the Lower Palatinate as in Phillip's reckoning "these measures are so urgent........Germany simply cannot be lost."

In 1620, the Spanish general Spinola, moved his forces from Flanders to the Palatinate and took over Frederick's most prized territory - the Lower Palatinate on the left bank of the River Rhine.

Maximillian of Bavaria offered Ferdinand the armed forces of the Catholic League. Secretly, Ferdinand had offered the Electoral title held by Frederick to Maximillian so his motives were not entirely altruistic.

Ferdinand accepted Maximillian's offer and in July 1620, 30,000 troops under Count von Tilly moved into Austria and the Austrian Estates were forced to break their alliance with Bohemia. From Austria, Tilly marched into Bohemia.

Frederick's army faced Tilly alone. His army was lead by Christian of Anhalt and Thurn. Appeals for foreign help had not been successful. The Dutch offered 5,000 troops and 50,000 florins per month (about £5000). James I stayed outside of the problem. Most of Germany signed the Treaty of Ulm in 1620 in which they declared their neutrality.

On November 8th, 1620, Frederick's army was destroyed at the Battle of White Mountain, west of Prague. Frederick was forced into exile. The territory of the rebels was confiscated and a Regional Commission was created by Ferdinand to establish the Holy Roman Emperor's rights over these territories.

In June 1621, 27 rebel leaders were executed. By December 1621, 486 estates had been confiscated. All Protestant ministers were forced to leave Bohemia by 1624 and in 1627, all Bohemian families had to make a choice : Catholic or exile. Over 30,000 families emigrated. By 1650, the population of Bohemia had fallen by 50%. Those that remained found their obligations to their masters increased which provoked a short-lived revolt in 1624.

In May 1627, Bohemia was made a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs. All rights of towns and nobles were abolished. German became the official language of Bohemia and only Catholicism was tolerated.

The revolt in Bohemia had been disastrous for the Bohemians but it had also left an important strategic area of Europe in the hands of the Catholics. Protestant leaders of Europe were not willing to tolerate this.

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Bohemia was to play a pivotal role in the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. Bohemia had been an area known to be religiously tolerant. The region was a mixture of Calvinists, Lutherans, Catholics and Anabaptists. They all lived in relative harmony. About two-thirds of the population was Protestant and just 10% were Catholic.

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This source has a lot of basic information about the Defenestration, it will provide us with a place to start and to build off of.

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Defenestration of Prague | 1618, Thirty Years’ War, Summary, & Facts

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Defenestration of Prague, incident of Bohemian resistance to Habsburg authority that took place on May 23, 1618, preceding the Thirty Years’ War. After Roman Catholic officials in Bohemia closed Protestant chapels under construction, the imperial agents were found guilty of violating the Letter of Majesty.

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This website gives us a general gist of the 30 year war, and provides some of the causes for the war.

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Thirty Years' War - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com

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Find out more about the history of Thirty Years' War, including videos, interesting articles, pictures, historical features and more. Get all the facts on HISTORY.com

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This source has incredible information on the effects, and fully answers our questions.

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To fully understand modern history, it is important to comprehend the full effects of the Thirty Years War. The end of the Thirty Years War produced a number of dramatic consequences and altered Western Europe in significant religious, political, and social ways. Generally speaking, the post-war period produced the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the subsequent fall of the Hapsburg powers. The later divisions that occurred made Europe more like it is now with the Catholic areas in the south and the Lutherans farther north and more importantly, it took the central power from the Catholic Church. It also worked to quelled some of the religious struggles with the eventual Peace of Westphalia. The war also had a large impact on society as it decimated a large portion of the German population, destroyed crops, aided in the spread of disease and obliterated the German economy from the small to large scale. The average people living in Europe during this time were perhaps the most affected by the war. The armies were huge and in order to fund them, states had to raise taxes. In addition, many of the mercenaries went through villages and towns taking all they could from already destitute towns and this, coupled with the increasing demands of the state, planted the seed of anger toward governments that would later emerge throughout the Enlightenment and future rebellions.

Although it was not easy to come to a resolution the Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1648 and as a result, Western Europe was changed politically. Because of the war, a number of important geographical consequences occurred; Germany was broken up, the Swiss Confederation and the Netherlands were declared as autonomous nations, but most importantly, the Holy Roman Empire lost power and began to decline from the signing of the Peace until modernity. Another significant development that arose in the wake of the Peace of Westphalia is that France and Sweden came to the forefront of European commerce, pushing Spain out and changing the course of European history up until that point. The Spanish Hapsburgs were no longer the primary power and were eventually forced to declare Dutch and Swiss independence. The political tides changed when the Holy Roman Empire was no longer the center of Europe as other countries began to take over. This would become even more important later with the rise of secularism as a result of the Enlightenment. In addition to the more geographical political changes, other alterations occurred throughout Europe such as a new way of going about warfare. The Thirty Years War required vast armies of mercenary troops and this, although militarily wise, was a large drain on state resources. All parties involved in the war went nearly broke because of the size of their respective armies and this in turn had a devastating impact on the economies as a whole. In addition to this, new bureaucracies were needed to keep up with the increasing demands of state and such changes are still present today in European politics. Also of related importance is the fact that in order to fund these vast armies the states were pressed to collect an increasingly higher number of taxes. This meant more paperwork and of course, more anger on the part of the working people and peasants-those who bore the financial brunt of the costly wars. Such unfair taxation would certainly be called into question as the years wore on, particularly in France, but it is clear that the excessive spending seen during the Thirty Years War had an impact on the economy and thus the peasants. Inward political strife would soon follow based on the external struggles that began before the Thirty Years War.

When discussing the last years of the Thirty Years War it is almost easy to forget that it all began because of religious differences rather than those based on politics and geography. One consequence of the end of the war was that the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic Hapsburgs would no longer dictate the religious beliefs to a large portion of Europeans. Instead, after the war was over and princes of Germany were allowed to declare their own affiliations, Western Europe changed a great deal. Another important aspect of the Peace of Westphalia in terms of overall European history and its religious struggles, is that after its was agreed upon, all the princes within Germany had the right to declare their provinces as either Catholic, Lutheran or Calvinist. This allowance created divisions throughout Europe based on religious affiliation with the Catholics in the south of Europe, the Lutherans in central Germany, and the Calvinists in the northern part of Europe. While this is not to say that the close of the war mended relations between those of diverse faiths, this separation made it so that this was the last real religious war fought.

Socially, the Thirty Years War caused a significant number of problems, particularly for the peasants and working people. The sizes of the armies required for the prolonged fighting required vast amounts of money and because the fighting went on so long with mercenary troops, the only alternative was to heavily tax the citizens of the states going to war. There were a large number of uprisings throughout Europe, particularly in France, which was a shadow of things to come. The cycle of unfair taxation and the abuse of state bureaucratic power was a major problem for the people of the counties but this was also because times were hard in every aspect of their lives. During the years of the Thirty Years War agricultural production declined significantly. As a result, people who at least worked for enough to eat were having trouble feeding their families. This was made even worse because oftentimes the mercenary troops would lay siege to small and large towns alike, plundering if need be because even they were not given enough. This was compounded by the fact that many of the troops had a large entourage of women, children, and others who came along with them and they too needed to eat as well. These problems were all combined and a long period of disease and general famine swept across Europe and was particularly bad where the armies passed by. "At times desperate peasants revolted and attacked nearby castles and monasteries. War and intermittent outbreaks of plague cost some German towns one-third or more of their populations. One-third of the inhabitants of Bohemia also perished" For the common people, the number of social ills were stacking up but despite some uprisings, these people were generally not heeded by their governments until much later in history.

Generally speaking, the Thirty Years War began because of religious conflict. While this was one of the main instigators for the ensuing military action, it should also be noted that there was already a great deal of instability throughout Europe, particularly because of the fragmented nature of the individual states and their mixed alliances. With the fall of the Holy Roman Empire and the Hapsburgs, Western Europe changed dramatically as the balance of power shifted from Rome and religion to a more secularly-based set of nations that were more interested in trade, economics, and non-religious affairs. With this in mind, one of the most significant consequences of the Thirty Years War is that is was, essentially, the religious war to end all wars. After this point, religious differences were no longer of primary importance, especially because there was an increasingly unbalanced distribution of wealth between countries in the few years to follow the Peace of Westphalia. Countries that had proven themselves strong (such as Sweden and Denmark, for instance) during the first years of the Thirty Years War were to find themselves in the shadow of wealthier nations such as France. In many ways then, another more general consequence of the War was that it allowed, for the first time in European history, a country to obtain prominence because of trade, economics, and politics rather than because it was the center of a religious hierarchy. In other words, without the events and resolutions of the Thirty Years War Europe and the balance of wealth and power would be dramatically different.

For more essays and articles on this and other historical topics, please visit the history archives *
Works Cited
1) Asch, Ronald G. The Thirty Years' War: The Holy Roman Empire and Europe, 1618-48. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.

2) Maland, David. Europe at War, 1600-1650. Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980.

3) Polisenský, Josef V., and Frederick Snider. War and Society in Europe, 1618-1648. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

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The Consequences and Effects of the Thirty Years War

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To fully understand modern history, it is important to comprehend the full effects of the Thirty Years War. The end of the Thirty Years War produced a number of dramatic consequences and altered Western Europe in significant religious, political, and social ways.

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This has lots of information about all parts of the 30 year war, the beginning, the middle, and the end. It has information about most countries involved.

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This source has lots of information about the people involved in the war, and their role in the war.

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Battle of White Mountain and Defenestration of Prague

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Battle of White Mountain and Defenestration of Prague

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This website has a lot of information about events after the Defenestration of Prague. For example the Battle of White Mountain.

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Steven's Balagan | Timeline of Thirty Years Wars

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Steven's Balagan | Timeline of Thirty Years Wars

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This source provides us with a basic timeline that we can work off of. It gives us a base that we can edit, add to, and remove from.

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The 30 Years War can be divided into five major phases:

The following Timeline just lists the major battles. See Atkinson: Thirty Years War and Wikipedia: Thirty Years War for more details.

Check out Musings on Renaissance Tactics.

Imperial Circles
c 1512

Background

The Map, from Wikipedia: Imperial Circle, shows the imperial circles in 1512. It is based in part on a map published in the "Historical Atlas" by Prof. William R Shepherd, pub. Henry Holt & Co. (New York, 1911)

1618-21: Bohemian Revolt

In 1617 Ferdinand of Styria, was elected by the Bohemian Estates to become the Crown Prince of Bohemia and the heir to the throne ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). In May 1618 Ferdinand sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice) to Prague as his representatives. On 23 May 1618 a group of Bohemian Protestants seized the governors and threw them out of the palace window. Unexpectedly they survived unharmed. This event, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague, is what started the Bohemian Revolt. The conflict soon spread through all of Greater Bohemia (Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia and Moravia), then Upper and Lower Austria. The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the Emperor, applied to be admitted into the Protestant Union led by the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted that Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, the Elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public. This unravelled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony.

19 Sep - 21 Nov 1618: Siege or Battle of Pilsen (Plzeň)

A Bohemian Protestant army under General von Mansfeld successfully besieged and assaulted the city of Pilsen in Bohemia ( Wikipedia: Siege of Plzeň).

Ferdinand II

20 Mar 1619: Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemia

On 20 Mar 1619 Matthias died and Ferdinand automatically became the King of Bohemia ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). Ferdinand was also subsequently elected Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand II.

10 Jun 1619: Battle of Sablat (Záblati)

An Imperialist Army under Count Bucquoy defeated a Protestant Bohemian army led by Count Mansfeld ( Wikipedia: Záblati). Mansfeld lost at least 1,500 infantry and his baggage train.

5 Aug 1619: Battle of Wisternitz (Věstonice)

A Protestant Bohemian army defeated an Austrian army under Dampierre ( Wikipedia: Dolní Věstonice).

17 Aug 1619: Frederick V becomes King of Bohemia

The Bohemian rebels formally deposed Ferdinand as King of Bohemia and replace him with the Palatine Elector Frederick V ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War).

8 Nov 1620: Battle of White Mountain

A Catholic army of 25,000 men including Imperialists under Buquoy and of the Catholic League under Count Tilly decisively defeated 21,000 Bohemians and mercenaries under Christian of Anhalt near Prague ( Wikipedia: White Mountain). The Catholics had 18,500 infantry and 6,500 cavalry, and suffered 700 dead or wounded. Christian had 10,000 infantry and 11,000 cavalry, and lost 5,000 dead or wounded. In addition to becoming Catholic, Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for nearly three hundred years ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War).

1621-24: Palatinate Phase

With the defeat of the Bohemian revolt Frederick V lost his territories and was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, and his lands in the Palatinate were given to Catholic nobles. Catholic League and Spanish forces began the subjugation of the Palatinate.

24 May 1621: Protestant Union dissolved

The Protestant Union was formed 14 May 1608 and dissolved 24 May 1621 ( Wikipedia: Protestant Union).

At the village of Mingolsheim a Protestant army under General von Mansfeld rebuffed a Catholic League army under Count Tilly. ( Wikipedia: Wiesloch).

6 May 1622: Battle of Wimpfen

A Catholic army including forces of the Catholic League under Marshal Tilly and Spanish troops from the Low Countries under Gonzalo de Córdoba defeated a Protestant army ( Wikipedia: Wimpfen). Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, had only 14,000 men (mostly mercenaries) to face the approximately 25,000 Catholics.

20 June 1622: Battle of Höchst

A Catholic army mauled a much smaller Protestant Union army under Christian of Brunswick as the Protestants crossed the Main river west of Frankfurt ( Wikipedia: Battle of Höchst). The approximately 25,000 Catholics comprised forces of the Catholic League under Marshal Tilly and Spanish troops from the Low Countries under Gonzalo de Córdoba. Brunswick managed to cross the river but lost 2,000 of his 12,000 men and most of his baggage.

A Spanish army under Gonzalo de Córdoba defeated a German Protestant mercenary army headed for Dutch service in the Low countries ( Wikipedia: Fleurus). Wikipedia: Fleurus has a comprehensive Order of Battle and deployment for both armies. Córdoba had the smaller army, with only 8,000 against the 14,000 in the German army. Córdoba had 5,200 infantry in the centre deployed in four composite squadrons. The 2,000 cavalry were deployed on the wings. Gauchier, on the right, had five cavalry squadrons plus 800 commanded musketeers deployed in woods. De Sylva had four cavalry squadrons on the left. About half of the Spanish infantry were veterans. The majority of the cavalry were Walloon recruits. Amongst the cavalry there were four veteran cuirassier companies, 25 newly raised cuirassier companies, and 23 newly raised arquebusier companies. The Spanish had 4 guns. The Protestants were under von Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick. Mansfeld had 8,000 infantry in the centre formed into eight composite battalions and deployed in a checker board of two lines. The 6,000 cavalry were on the wings, 10 companies on the right under Streiff and 50 companies on the left under Brunswick. The Protestants had 11 guns. The Protestant infantry were poor quality but the cavalry were good quality and predominantly cuirassiers. Córdoba had assumed a blocking position north of the town of Mellet, near Fleurus. Being much weaker in cavalry he secured his flanks with woods. After a short bombardment the Protestant commanders launched a general assault in an attempt to break through the Spanish position. The poorly trained German infantry in the centre became disordered as they advanced, inviting the Spanish left flank cavalry to attack. The opposing German cavalry drove the Walloons off, but had no luck against the Spanish infantry. The massed troopers on the German left drove the Spanish right flank cavalry back on the second attempt and attacked the Tercio of Naples (the best unit in the Spanish array). The German infantry failed to close and the Spanish veterans held their ground, and assisted by the musketeers in the woods, wounded Brunwick and drove off his troopers. After five hours of fighting Mansfeld conceded the field. The Protestants lost 5,000 dead, wounded, or captured, compared to the Spanish 300 dead and 900 wounded. The following day the Spanish cavalry destroyed the remaining Protestant infantry as they marched. Of the 24,000 men that left the Palatine only 3,000 Protestant cavalry managed to reach the Dutch.

Count Tilly defeated a smaller Protestant army under Christian of Brunswick near Stadtlohn in Westphalia ( Wikipedia: Stadtlohn). Tilly's approximately 25,000 men caught Brunswick's 15,000 recently raised troops as they retreated towards the United Provinces. Brunswick deployed on a hill from where they saw off several attacks. Eventually the Catholics broke the Protestant's cavalry flanks. Brunswick's infantry then tried to flee, but were prevented by a bog to their rear. Brunswick lost 6,000 killed, 4,000 captured, and presumably 2,000 deserters and all of his artillery and ammunition. Only Christian and 2,000 cavalrymen escaped.

1624

In 1624 England, France, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Savoy, Venice, and Brandenburg formed an anti-Hapsburg alliance to fight against Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor ( Wikipedia: Stadtlohn).

1625-29: Danish intervention

Christian IV of Denmark had a strong interest in the events in Germany ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). He was Lutheran so supported the Lutheran rulers of Lower Saxony. But he also had land in German. He was Duke of Holstein and the ruler of Hamburg (from 1621), and his second son was made bishop of Bremen. As a result Christian had himself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Circle and by 1625 had raised an army of 20,000-35,000 mercenaries, partly funded by France and England. The Protestants were suddenly infused with fresh hope as Denmark became the first major European nation to formally enter the war ( Wikipedia: Dessau Bridge). With the new alliance came ambitious plans involving Christian of Brunswick to attack the forces of Tilly in the Rhineland, and for Mansfeld to challenge Wallenstein in the Archbishopric of Magdeburg.

General Wallenstein defeated Count Mansfeld ( Wikipedia: Dessau Bridge). Wallenstein had 20,000 men to Mansfeld's 12,000, although initially Mansfeld was under the impression he had more men. Because of this misconception Mansfeld attacked across the bridge over the Elbe river. He realised his mistake as the Catholic masses were brought to bear. Trapped against the river Mansfeld lost 4,000 dead, wounded, or captured.

A Catholic League army under Count Tilly defeated the forces of Christian IV of Denmark at Lutter am Barenberge in the Imperial Circle Estate of Lower Saxony ( Wikipedia: Lutter am Barenberge). Both armies had 20,000 men. On three occasions the imperial infantry broke through the Danish line only to be repulsed by a cavalry counter-attack. However when the Catholics captured the entire Danish artillery the Danes paniced and retreated towards the town of Stade. The Danish losses were approximately 4,000 dead, 2,000 wounded, and 2,500 prisoners.

The Imperialist General Wallenstein failed to take the port of Stralsund ( Wikipedia: Stralsund). Wallenstein swore to take the port in three days, but never did, withdrawing after an 11 week siege. The port was defended mainly by the inhabitants, aided by a small garrison of Swedes and Scots.

Imperialists under Wallenstein defeated the army of Christian IV of Denmark at Wolgast, Germany ( Wikipedia: Wolgast).

1629: Treaty of Lübeck

In the Treaty of Lübeck Christian IV retained Denmark but had to stop his support for the Protestant German states ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). This gave the Catholic powers the opportunity to take more Protestant land during the next two years.

1630-35: Swedish intervention

Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav Adolf), King of Sweden, was the next foreign ruler to come to the aid of the German Lutherans and to seek political and financial advantage in Germany ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). Both France and the Dutch sent subsidies. In 1630 Gustav landed 13,000 men at Peenemünde ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). From 1630 to 1634, Swedish-led armies drove the Catholics back, regaining much of the lost Protestant territory.

Imperialist forces besieged Magdeburg from Nov 1630 until 20 May 1631 ( Wikipedia: Magdeburg). When the city fell the Imperial soldiers rapidly went out of control and started to massacre the inhabitants and set fire to the city in twelve different locations. Of the 30,000 citizens, only 5,000 survived. For fourteen days, charred bodies were carried to the Elbe River to be dumped to prevent plague. The devastation was so heavy that the several news expressions entered common parlance:

"magdeburgization" - a a term signifying total destruction, rape and pillaging.

"Magdeburg justice", "Magdeburg mercy" and "Magdeburg quarter", all of which basically meant no quarter specifically as it applied to Catholic prisoners of Protestant forces.

16,000 entrenched Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus drove off 23,000 Imperialists under Count Tilly ( Wikipedia: Werben). The Swedish batteries and the cavalry under Wolf Heinrich von Baudissin were the main contributors to victory. The Imperialists tried again a few days later and won; the Swedes lost 6,000 men.

The Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeated a Catholic League army under Tilly at the crossroads village of Breitenfeld 6 km north of the walled city of Leipzig ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld).

Tilly got the battlefield first ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). He deployed his left flank near Breitenfeld and his right by Seehausen. The Catholics had 14 infantry squadrons of about 1,500 men. These squadrons had a front of 150 men and a depth of 10 men, with a centre of pikemen and musketeers on each flank. One of these infantry squadrons was attached to each wing along with the cavalry. The other 12 infantry squadrons comprised the centre of the army and were grouped into sets of three squadrons. The centre squadron in each set was slightly ahead of the other two. Pappenheim commanded the cavalry on the left and Fürstenburg those on the right. Tilly had no reserves except for some cavalry placed behind his infantry.

The Swedish army had 24,000 men and their Saxon allies had 18,000 under the Elector John George I ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). The allied armies deployed separately with the Swedes on the right and the Saxons to their left. Both Gustav and John George had cavalry on their wings, so the allied army had cavalry in the centre. The Saxon infantry deployed conventionally but the Swedes adopted two long thin lines. Each infantry unit was five men deep for pikemen, and six men deep for musketeers. Then shallow depths allowed Gustav to free up troops for a reserve.

The artillery of each side began firing about midday and the Swedes quickly got the better of the exchange ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). After a couple of hours Count Pappenheim charged with the left flank Catholic cuirassiers. Swedish musketry repulsed the Germans seven times. The Swedish reserve cavalry then counter charged the Imperial cavalry and drove them off towards Halle. The Swedish cavalry pursued until recalled by Gustav.

The right flank Catholic cavalry charged and routed the Saxon cavalry, who fled towards Eilenburg ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). Tilly consequently sent the majority of his infantry in an oblique march diagonally across his front to attack the remaining Saxons. The entire Saxon army fled the field, stopping only briefly to loot the Swedish camp.

As Tilly reorganised his men to attack the Swedish flank, Gustav redeployed his second line at right angles to the front to face the threat ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). Meanwhile the Finnish Hakkapeliittas attacked across the former front and captured the Imperial artillery. These guns were then repositioned to play upon the left flank of the Catholic line. The massed fire power of the Swedish and captured guns soon broke the Imperial troops. Tilly was injured in ensuing retreat.

Losses were ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld):

Catholics: 7,600 dead, 6,000 captured, 12,400 deserted, 3000 wounded.

Swedes: 3,500 dead/wounded,

Saxons: 2,000 dead

Tilly only had 6,000 men left ( Wikipedia: 1st Breitenfeld). In contrast Gustav made up his losses by recruiting prisoners and ended up with more men than he started with.

40,000 Swedish troops under Gustavus Adolphus defeated 25,000 Catholic League troops under Count Tilly near the city of Rain ( Wikipedia: Rain). Tilly had his men entrenched on a hill beyond the River Lech. Gustav hoped to catch the entire Catholic army by launching a strong feint attack across the River Lech directly against the Germans; this attack was supposed to allow his cavalry to cross the river unnoticed 10 km south of the imperial left wing. As it happens, once Tilly was wounded, the flanking manoeuvre wasn't necessary and the Catholic army crumbled in the face of the frontal attack . Operations commenced the night prior with the Swedes building a bridge of boats across the Lech river. In the morning 300 Finnish Hackapelite troops crossed the river in the face of German fire. The Hackapelites dug earthworks for batteries which then protected the rest of the Swedish' army as they crossed the river. With his army across the river, Gustavus immediately stormed the hill. Tilly and his second in command (Aldringen) were both wounded early in the battle - Tilly subsequently died - leaving the army leaderless. As a result Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, ordered a retreat before the Swedish cavalry arrived. The Catholics abandoned their baggage and artillery on the field. A storm and high winds that night blocked the roads and prevented a Swedish pursuit. The Imperial forces lost 3,000 men and the Swedes 2,000.

With Gustavus Adolphus triumphant in Germany Ferdinand II recalled Wallenstein into military service ( Wikipedia: Battle_of_Allte Veste). Wallenstein raised a new army and in late summer moved to threaten the Swedes at Nürnberg by creating a fortified camp nearby. Gustavus Adolphus repeatedly, and unsuccessfully, tried to entice Wallenstein into open battle. With supplies dwindling the Swedes attacked the Imperial camp at the Alte Veste (Old Fortress). This was a derelict castle on a wooded hill that dominated the Imperial camp. When the Swedish infantry failed against the enemy trenches and abatis, the cavalry were sent in dismounted. Wallenstein saw his opportunity, sallied his cavalry and cut down many of the exhausted Swedes. The Swedish cavalry reserve prevented a complete disaster, but it was a clear Imperial victory. Lennart Torstenson, the Swedish artillery commander, was taken prisoner. Gustav Adolf received reinforcements days later and Wallenstein left camp and moved north.

Wallenstein and Maximilian joined forces on 11 Jul 1632 forcing Gustav to retreat to Fürth on the outskirts of Nuremberg (Wedgwood, 1992). The allies followed and built a strong encampment on a long ridge overlooking the river Rednitz near Gustav's position. Being numerically weaker Gustav summoned his forces from all over Germany. Thus began a battle of attrition. The Swedes and Bavarians suffered from lack of food and fresh water, but Wallenstein's men did not. The Swedish reinforcements arrived 16 Aug and on 3-4 Sep Gustav attacked the Catholic camp. The Swedish cavalry could not deploy in the rough shrub covered slopes so the infantry attacked alone. They were repulsed with heavy losses. On 18 Sep Gustav abandoned his position and headed south towards Austria. Wallenstein headed north towards Saxony.

16 Nov 1632 Battle of Lützen

( Wikipedia: Lützen)

Autumn 1632 - 33

In Autumn 1632 Marshal Horn led a large detachment of Swedish up the Rhine and occupied most of Alsace (Wedgwood, 1992). In Mar 1633 Horn joined up with a force under Bernard of Sae-Weimar at Oberndorf in the Black Forest. They turned their attentions to Bavaria. The Bavarians under Aldringer retreated into Munich, although many men surrendered to the Swedes. Horn's first target was the fortress city of Breisach on the upper Rhine. Maximilian unsuccessfully appealed to Wallenstein for assistance; Wallenstein was actually engaged in peace talks with his opposite number Arnim and sent no aid. The Bavarians were more successful with the Spanish. In May the Spanish agreed to shoulder the expenses of the war and the Cardinal-Infant had an army ready to cross the Alps. In July the Swedish closed around Breisach. Wallenstein then launched into action, but only to send Holk into Saxony where in August Holk died and his army disintegrated due to rain and disease. In September Wallenstein again engaged Arnim in peace talks, which came to nothing. By then the Spanish advance guard (under the Duke of Feria) was at Innsbruck on its way to Breisach. Wallenstein had been preventing Aldringer joining the Spanish but the latter disobeyed orders and met Feria at Schongau. (stopped at p 351)...

6 Sep 1634 Battle of Nördlingen

This is a summary only. For the full story have a look at Picouet: The Battle of Nordlingen.

A Catholic army comprising Imperialist and Spanish troops decisively defeated the Protestant army of Sweden and Saxony ( Picouet: The Battle of Nordlingen; Wikipedia: Nördlingen). The Protestants were trying to break the Catholic siege of Nrdlingen. Ferdinand of Hungary, the future Holy Roman Emperor, commanded the Imperialists and his cousin the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand led the Spanish. The Catholics had 23,000 infantry, 13,000 cavalry and 32 guns. The Spanish contingent comprised 18,000 men, including 13,500 infantry; of the latter 3,100 were actual Spanish nationals. The Spanish included reinforcements under the Count of Cervellón or Serbelloni (joined 26 Aug 1634). The Protestants were unaware of the Spanish reinforcements so expected their enemies to have only 7,000 infantry. The Protestant commanders were Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (Saxons) and Gustav Horn (Swedes). The Protestants had 16,300 infantry, 9,300 cavalry and 62 guns. Operations began at 1400 hours on 5 Sep 1634 when the Protestant vanguard encountered the Catholic piquets. Skirmishing began at 1500 hours near Lachberg's hill as the Protestants tried to drive off the Spanish dragons and imperial Croats . The Catholics began a delaying action to allow the main body to deploy near Albuch hill. An additional 3,000 Catholic cavalry joined the fray and it took the Protestants until 1800 hours to capture Lachberg's hill. The Protestants reached the next obstacle, Haselberg hill, at 2100 hours. This was defended by a Spanish force of 600 musketeers (three mangas) and 200 dragoons, subsequently reinforced by an addition 400 musketeers. It took the Protestants another four hours convince the Spanish to withdraw. By this time the Catholics were deployed, and had six infantry regiments/tercios dug in on Albuch hill. The battle began at 0500 hours on 6 Sep 1634. The mercenaries of the Swedish Blue, Black and Yellow Horn regiments repeatedly threw themselves against the defences on Albuch hill but without lasting success, largely thanks to the Old Tercios ( Tercios Viejos) of Fuenclara, Idiáquez, and Toralto,. The Imperial and Saxon forces were largely observers of this engagement. Ferdinand of Hungary launched his men into attack, however, when Saxe-Weimar depleted the Saxon line by sending two of his three infantry brigades to reinforce his Swedish allies. The Saxons quickly broke and the Swedes soon followed suit when they saw their line of retreat being blocked. The Protestant survivors fled to Heilbronn and Horn was captured in the pursuit.

Protestant Losses: 12,000 - 18,000 killed, wounded, deserted or prisoner
Catholic Losses: 3,500 men (1,500+ for the Spanish Army)

The battle marked the end of the Swedish attempts to dominate Germany ( Wikipedia: Nördlingen). Most of the German Protestant princes sought peace with the Emperor (the 1635 Treaty of Prague) but France entered the war to combat Spain's ambitions.

30 May 1635 Peace of Prague and Demise of the Catholic League

The Catholic League ceased to exist with the Peace of Prague of 30 May 1635 ( Wikipedia: Catholic League (German)).

4 Oct 1636 Battle of Wittstock

A Swedish army under Baner defeated a combined Imperialists (under von Hatzfeldt) and Saxons
(under John George I) in the hills and forests south of Wittstock in north Germany ( Wikipedia: Wittstock).
Baner had only 16,000 men to the enemies 22,000. For 11 days Baner had been trying to gain a
tactical advantage over his larger enemy, and on 4 Oct 1636 Banér's army intercepted their
opponents. The Imperials formed up a range of sandy hills called the Scharfenberg. They
strengthened their front with six ditches and a wall of linked wagons. Baner, however, elected not
to attack over the open fields in front of the enemy position, and instead attacked the
Imperialist left flank. The Imperials were forced to redeploy to meet the new threat ... The
Swedes lost only 3,100 dead or wounded but inflicted 7,000 killed and a further 2,000 prisoners
who were subsequently recruited into the Swedish army.

1636-48: French intervention

Catholic France now pitched in on the side of the Protestants, specifically the Dutch and the Swedes ( Wikipedia: Thirty Years War). This was as a direct result of on-going competition between France and the Hapsburgs in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Spain, in retaliation, invaded French territory.

10 Oct 1637: Fall of Breda

Feb 1638: Battle of Rheinfelden

26 May 1642: Battle of Honnecourt

Wikipedia: Battle of honnecourt

23 Oct 1642: 2nd Battle of Breitenfeld

Wikipedia: 2nd Breitenfeld

19 May 1643: Battle of Rocroi

Picouet: Myth of Rocroi

24 Nov 1643: Battle of Tuttlingen

3, 5, and 9 Aug 1644: Battle of Freiburg

Three day battle.

Nov 1644: Battle of Jüterbog

Wikipedia: Jüterbog

The Swedes under Field Marshal Torstensson decisively defeated the Imperialists under General von Hatzfeldt at Jankov (Jankau) in southern Bohemia (~50 km SSE of Prague) ( Wikipedia: Jankov). The Swedes had 6,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 80 guns to the Imperialists 5,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 26 guns. The Swedes suffered 1,500 dead, wounded or missing, and inflicted 8,500-9000 dead, wounded or captured on their enemy. Hatzfeldt was captured.

2 May 1645: Battle of Mergentheim

Wikipedia: Mergentheim

3 Aug 1645: Battle of 2nd Nördlingen

Wikipedia: 2nd Nördlingen

In the last major battle of the war a French army under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, defeated a Spanish army under Archduke Leopold ( Wikipedia: Lens). The French had captured Lens, a fortified city in the Spanish Netherlands, in 1647. A year later the French government was distracted by the Fronde (a rebellion), and the Spanish saw an opportunity to retake the city. The Prince de Condé rushed from Catalonia to Flanders and cobbled together an army of 16,000 men and 18 guns (including a Swedish contingent) to face the Archduke's 18,000 men and 38 guns. Cavalry dominated both armies, with more than half the troops being horse. The Spanish deployed on high ground so Condé decided to withdraw. This encouraged the Spanish cavalry to skirmish with the French rear guard. The fighting escalated into a fully fledge battle. The Spanish infantry under Nelson Antonio Fernandez III drove their French counterparts back, breaking the Gardes Françaises regiment. However, on French cavalry routed the Spanish horse and enveloped the Spanish centre. The French lost 3.500 casualties, but inflicted 3,000 dead or wounded and took 5,000 prisoners.

7 May 1648: Battle of Zusmarshausen

Wikipedia: Zusmarshausen

Battle on Charles Bridge
Siege of Prague
1648

In the finale of the siege of Prague the Swedish army under General Hans Christoff von
Königsmarck stealthily entered the city and captured Prague Castle on the western bank of the
Vltava river ( Wikipedia:
Prague (1648)). When Swedes tried to cross the Vltava river into the Old Town on the eastern
bank, the city residents stopped them in bitter fighting on the Charles Bridge. The Swedes settled
for looting the Castle.

Post War

References

Atkinson: Thirty Years War

Father Tilly - Thirty Years War Rules

Gush, G. (1975). Renaissance Armies 1480-1650. Patrick Stephens.

Early Modern Warfare Society (Curt Johnson) including:

Picouet: Myth of Rocroi

Picouet: The Spanish Tercios from 1525 to 1704

Parker, G. (1979). Europe in Crisis 1598-1648. Fontana Paperbacks.

Wedgwood, C. V. (1992). The Thirty Years War. Pimlico.

Wikipedia: Thirty Years War
Wikipedia: Imperial Circle

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The 30 Years War can be divided into five major phases: The following Timeline just lists the major battles. See Atkinson: Thirty Years War and Wikipedia: Thirty Years War for more details. Check out Musings on Renaissance Tactics. Imperial Circlesc 1512 The Map, from Wikipedia: Imperial Circle, shows the imperial circles in 1512.

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This has information about causes of the Defenestration of Prague and what was happening in the different empires while preparing for the Bohemian Revolt.

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The religious situation in Bohemia was complex: the Habsburg rulers were staunch defenders of the Roman church. The Bohemian population was divided among a Catholic minority (many of them associated with the Habsburg court) and various species of Protestant. Among these were the Utraquists, followers of Jan Hus.

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This source is a useful source that shows the differences between Catholic beliefs and Protestant beliefs, which will be useful in order to further determine minor sources of conflict that could have contributed in the starting of the Bohemian Revolt.

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Definition

Catholic is an adjective derived from the Greek adjective καθολικός, meaning "general; universal" (cf. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon). In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has several usages:

1. The word commonly refers to the members, beliefs, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and those sui juris churches that are in full communion with the Pope (Bishop of Rome). It comprises the Latin Rite and twenty-two Eastern Catholic Churches. The Eastern Catholic particular Churches include the Ukrainian, Greek, Greek Melkite, Maronite, Ruthenian Byzantine, Coptic Catholic, Syro-Malabar, Syro-Malankara, Chaldean, and Ethiopic Rites.

2. The Eastern Orthodox Church also identifies itself as Catholic, as in the title of The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church.

3. Most Reformation and post-Reformation Churches use the term Catholic (sometimes with a lower-case c) to refer to the belief that all Christians are part of one Church, regardless of denominational divisions. It is in line with this interpretation, which applies the word "catholic"/"universal" to no one denomination, that they understand the phrase "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church" in the Nicene Creed, the phrase "the catholic faith" in the Athanasian Creed, and the phrase "holy catholic church" in the Apostles' Creed.

4. The term is used also to mean those Christian Churches which maintain that their Episcopate can be traced unbrokenly back to the Apostles, and consider themselves part of a broad catholic (or universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as "Catholic", but not "Roman Catholic" , are Anglicans, and some small groups such as the Old Catholic Church, the Polish National Catholic Church, the Independent Catholic, the Ancient Catholic and Liberal Catholic Churches, as well as Lutherans (though the latter prefer the lower-case "c," and, like Anglicans, stress that they are both Protestant and Catholic).

5. The term can refer to the one Church founded by Jesus through the Apostle Peter, according to Matthew 16:18-19: "And I tell you, you are כיפא (Kepha) (Aramaic for "rock"), and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.'" In Roman Catholic theology, this is understood to mean specifically the Roman Catholic Church.

6. Some use the term Catholic to distinguish their own position from a Calvinist or Puritan form of Reformed-Protestantism. These include High Church Anglicans, known also as "Anglo-Catholics", 19th century Neo-Lutherans, 20th century High Church Lutherans or evangelical-catholics and others.

Protestantism encompasses the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated with the doctrines of the Reformation. The word protestant is derived from the Latin protestatio meaning declaration which refers to the letter of protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation. Since that time, the term has been used in many different senses, but not as the official title of any church until it was assumed in 1783 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, a branch of the Anglican Communion.

Usage of the Name

History

A letter written by Ignatius to Christians in Smyrna around 106 AD is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term "Catholic Church". St Cyril of Jerusalem (circa 315-386) urged those he was instructing in the Christian faith: "If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is, nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God". The term "Catholic Christians" entered Roman Imperial law when Theodosius I, Emperor from 379 to 395, reserved that name for adherents of "that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff (Pope) Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria. The use of the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" Church from heretical groups is found also in Augustine's writings. Protestantism generally refers to the faiths and churches born directly or indirectly of the Protestant Reformation in which many Roman Catholics split from the larger body and formed their own communions. In common Western usage, the term is often used in contradistinction to Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. This usage, however, is regarded by many groups as improper since, among other things, there are many non-Roman-Catholic, non-Eastern-Orthodox communions that long predate the Reformation (notably Oriental Orthodoxy). The case of the Anglicans can be argued to be different as well in that, although born during the Reformation era, the Anglican doctrine is substantially different from the Reformation principles of most of the other Protestants of the time and is sometimes referred to as a middle path - a via media - between Roman Catholic and Protestant doctrines. Yet some other groups, such as the Mormons and the Jehovah's Witnesses, reject Protestantism as having deviated from true Christianity and see themselves as Restorationists.

The churches most commonly associated with Protestantism can be divided along four fairly definitive lines:

1. Mainline Protestants - a North American phrase - are those who trace their lineage to Luther, Calvin, or Anglicanism. The doctrines of the Reformation are their doctrines. They include such denominations as Lutherans, Presbyterians, and Methodists.

2. Anabaptists are a movement that developed from the Radical Reformation. Today, denominations such as Baptists, Pentecostals, Brethren, Mennonites and Amish eschew infant baptism and see baptism as aligned with a demonstration of the gifts of the spirit.

3. Nontrinitarian movements reject the doctrine of the trinity. Today, they include such denominations as the Universalists, Unitarians, and some Quakers.

4. Restorationists are a more recent movement. Today, they include such denominations as the Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventists.

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What's the difference between Catholic and Protestant? Catholicism and Protestantism are two denominations of Christianity, just like Shia and Sunni are sects of Islam. While the Pope is the head of the Catholic Church, Protestantism is a general term that refers to Christianity that is not subject to papal au...

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New World Encyclopedia        |   Second Defenestration of Prague

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New World Encyclopedia        |   Second Defenestration of Prague

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Has great info on what lead to the second defenestration, and also has info on the first one. Has a ton of info on the aftermath as well.  (I don't know what the image below is.)

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Defenestrations of Prague - New World Encyclopedia

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The chronologically second defenestration occurred on September 24, 1483, under the reign of Vladislaus of the Jagellon Dynasty, although this was a marginal event. The Hussites, feeling jeopardized by Catholics, who dominated the Old Town Hall, overthrew the municipal governments of the Old, New, and Lesser Towns.

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History Articles | Second Defenestration of Prague

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History Articles | Second Defenestration of Prague

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This source provides a nice, general summary of the event and provides info on the cause and some info on the aftermath of the Defenestration.

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Defenestration of Prague of 1618 - World History Online

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Information about the Defenestration of Prague of 1618, also called the Second Defenestration of Prague, its causes and aftermath.

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Mr. Casey History|  The Thirty Years War

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Mr. Casey History|  The Thirty Years War

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This source will help plan the scene of the Defenestration of Prague. It provides us a visual representation of the Defenestration of Prague. It also shows us what type of clothing was worn. This source also has multiple maps of Europe during that time period.
(Link to Website - https://mrcaseyhistory.com/2015/05/14/lesson-teaching-the-thirty-years-war/)