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Climate Refugee: A new term to be identified

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Is it our hate or what we do to the earth that will hurt us first?

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Here's your auntie, in her best gold-threaded shalwaar
kameez, made small by this land of american men.

Everyday she prays. Rolls attah & pounds the keema
at night watches the bodies of these glistening men.

Big and muscular, neck full of veins, bulging in the pen.
Her eyes kajaled & wide, glued to sweaty american men.

She smiles as guilty as a bride without blood, her love
of this new country, cold snow & naked american men.

" Stop living in a soap opera" yells her husband, fresh
from work, demanding his dinner: american. Men

take & take & yet you idolize them still, watch
your auntie as she builds her silent altar to them-

her knees fold on the rundown mattress, a prayer to WWE
Her tasbeeh & TV: the only things she puts before her husband.

She covers bruises & never lets us eat leftovers: a good wife.
It's something in their nature: what america does to men.

They can't touch anyone without teeth & spit
unless one strips the other of their human skin.

Even now, you don't get it. But whenever it's on you watch
them snarl like mad dogs in a cage-these american men.

Now that you're older your auntie calls to say he hit
her again, that this didn't happen before he became american.

You know its true & try to help, but what can you do?
You, little Fatimah, who still worships him?

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i don't know what will kill us first: the race war or what we've done to the earth

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I Don't Know What Will Kill Us First: The Race War or What We've Done to the Earth

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Here's your auntie, in her best gold-threaded shalwaarkameez, made small by this land of american men. Everyday she prays. Rolls attah & pounds the keemaat night watches the bodies of these glistening men. Big and muscular, neck full of veins, bulging in the pen.Her eyes kajaled & wide, glued to sweaty american men.

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"If we do not change our negative habits toward climate change, we can count on worldwide disruptions in food production, resulting in mass migration, refugee crises and increased conflict over scarce natural resources like water and farm land." - Michael Franti

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"No one leaves home if the hurt that will come is greater than the hurt that they will leave behind" - JJ Bola

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JJ Bola | Curb Call | Refuge | Spoken Word | Word On The Curb

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Before scrolling through this blog, please note:

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Before scrolling through this blog, please note:

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Below each blog post are references that aim to expand your reading! 

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Below each blog post are references that aim to expand your reading! 

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We have segregated each reference into the following:

White Notes - Main Blog Content

Red Notes - Quotations

Blue Notes - Creative Think Pieces

Purple Notes - Videos

Yellow Notes - Articles

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Blog post #1 - “AWARENESS”
Who are the climate change refugees? What are the implications of climate change with migration? What is climate change?
Basic information just to lay the groundwork of the entire blog

Blog post #2 - “ADVERSITY”
Show concrete cases. Documentaries. Cases. Firsthand interviewees.
Allows our blog to establish the concrete reality of this problem which goes beyond research

Blog post #3 - “ANALOGY”
How are climate refugees different from other migrants? Nuanced details about climate change.
Comparing and contrasting will allow us to flesh out the distinction of this problem and its urgency

Blog post #4- “ADAGES”
Amongst the well-known people, who knows about this problem and what is their stance about it?
Use quotes by people

Blog post #5- “ACCENTUATE”
Additional research and journals that establish the problem.

Blog post #6- “ACTION”
From a macro POV to a micro POV, what can we do about it? As a collective? As an individual?

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Learn the foundational information about the climate refugees and the global implications.

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TYPES OF MIGRATION
Although there are a multitude of types of migration, these are some of the most common.

First, we have Labor Migration. Labor Migration, as we know, is the movement of persons in their native or non-native country for the purpose of employment. We usually call these Migrant Workers.

Second, we have Forced Migration or Displacement. The ultimate purpose for this is for people to avoid life-threatening or violent conflicts in their country where their human rights are being questioned. These people are usually called Refugees or Internally Displaced Persons

Third is Human Trafficking and Modern Slavery which is the illegal transport of people for the purpose of Forced Labor or Sexual Exploitation. We call these people Migrants or Victims.

Lastly, we have Environmental Migration which is the movement of persons due to environmental disasters that has threatened their homes and their day-to-day living. We call these people climate/environmental refugees.

(Source: Population Education)

CLIMATE REFUGEES  are classified under environmental migration as it is solely due to changes in environment, whether sudden or progressive, that has affected their current way of living. Although the act of climate migration is forced rather than voluntary and due to external factors, it is not Forced Migration as the purpose is entirely different.

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“For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them – beginning from now…”  -Anote Tong, President of Kiribati (April 2013)

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“For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them – beginning from now…”  -Anote Tong, President of Kiribati (April 2013)

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Feel free to share your insights through commenting them down below each post!

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Feel free to share your insights through commenting them down below each post!

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"Refugees are mothers, fathers, sisters, brothers, children, with the same hopes and ambitions as us - except that a twist of fate has bound their lives to a global refugee crisis on an unprecedented scale." - Khaled Hosseini

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Climate refugees are people who must leave their homes and communities because of the effects of climate change and global warming.

Climate change is caused by natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities. Climate change has happened many times since Earth was formed billions of years ago.

Global warming is the most recent period of climate change. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and cutting down forests contribute to global warming because they release greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.

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Climate refugees are people who must leave their homes and communities because of the effects of climate change and global warming.

Climate change is caused by natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities. Climate change has happened many times since Earth was formed billions of years ago.

Global warming is the most recent period of climate change. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and cutting down forests contribute to global warming because they release greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.

Rising temperatures associated with global warming cause glaciers and ice caps to melt. This can cause flooding and make sea levels rise. Rising temperatures also lead to droughts and desertification-the transformation of arable land to desert. Some of these effects, such as sea level rise, can put land completely underwater, making it uninhabitable. Others effects, such as drought, make it impossible for people in the region to support themselves.

Climate refugees belong to a larger group of immigrants known as environmental refugees. Environmental refugees include immigrants forced to flee because of natural disasters, such as volcanoes and tsunamis.

The International Red Cross estimates that there are more environmental refugees than political refugees fleeing from wars and other conflicts. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) says 36 million people were displaced by natural disasters in 2009, the last year such a report was taken. Scientists predict this number will rise to at least 50 million by 2050. Some say it could be as high as 200 million.

Sea Level Rise

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that sea levels will rise a total of 0.18 to 0.6 meters (7 inches to 2 feet) between 1990 and 2100. Rising sea levels already cause problems in low-lying coastal areas of the world.

For instance, about half the population of Bangladesh lives less than 5 meters (16.5 feet) above sea level. In 1995, Bangladesh's Bhola Island was half- submerged by rising sea levels, leaving 500,000 people homeless. Scientists predict Bangladesh will lose 17 percent of its land by 2050 due to flooding caused by climate change. The loss of land could lead to as many as 20 million climate refugees from Bangladesh.

The U.S. state of Louisiana loses about 65 square kilometers (25 square miles) to the sea every year. Most land is eroding near the Mississippi delta. Sea level rise puts the productive fisheries around the delta at risk as wetlands are submerged. The wetland ecosystem will be lost to more saltwater habitat, and fishermen will have to go further from shore to pursue fish. The loss of wetlands also makes damage from storms like Hurricane Katrina more likely.

Maldives
Maldives, an island nation in the Indian Ocean, is perhaps the country most threatened by sea level rise. Maldives rises only 2.4 meters (8 feet) above sea level at its highest point. Sea level rise will likely create climate refugees because of changes in both economy and habitat.

Tourism supports more than 25 percent of the Maldivian economy. As the islands slowly sink underwater, they can support fewer tourists and tourist facilities, such as hotels. Fishing is the nation's second-largest industry.

The environment and economy of Maldives are threatened as sea levels rise and become less salty. The melting of polar ice caps increases the amount of freshwater in the ocean, as well as causing sea levels to rise. The increased amount of freshwater in the marine environment threatens the delicate ecosystem of coral reefs that surround the islands. The habitat may not be able to support as many fish, threatening the fisheries around Maldives. Other fish may not be able to adapt to the less-salty water. Without income generated from tourism or fishing, many Maldivians may be forced to migrate to seek new jobs.

Finally, sea level rise may sink all 1,200 islands of Maldives. This would force all Maldivians to find new places to live. Maldives leaders have worked with leaders in Australia, India, and Sri Lanka to plan an evacuation program should Maldives become uninhabitable.

Venice
The urban area of Venice, Italy, is also threatened by sea level rise. Venice is an ancient city built on a series of islands in a lagoon on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The city has always been threatened by storms and storm surges. Venice's main "streets" are actually canals and smaller waterways. As the tide comes in, entire s, or town squares, are put under several centimeters of water. In the past century, flooding has become more frequent. In 1900, the city's main piazza was underwater seven times. In 1996, it flooded 99 times.

Like Maldives, Venice depends on tourism to support its economy. As the city floods more often, fewer tourists will visit and tourism facilities will be harder to maintain. Flooding and mold will threaten popular tourist sites, such as St. Mark's Basilica and the Doge's Palace. Venetians may be forced to migrate as their city and their economy sink.

Many other coastal cities throughout the world are located in low-lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise: Manhattan, New York; London, England; Shanghai, China; Hamburg, Germany; Bangkok, Thailand; Jakarta, Indonesia; Mumbai, India; Manila, Philippines; and Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Drought

While rising seas threaten coastal regions, drought can create climate refugees inland. When people cannot grow crops on the land where they live, they have to move somewhere else in order to survive. For example, the Gobi Desert in China expands more than 3,600 square kilometers (1,390 square miles) every year. Farmers and merchants in the area surrounding the Gobi migrate to China's crowded urban areas as grasslands are overtaken by desert.

Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya each lose more than 1,000 square kilometers (386 square miles) of productive land every year to desertification. These residents on the edge of the Sahara Desert may move to cities in the Maghreb, a region of northwest Africa. They may also choose to move to the more developed countries of Europe.

Residents near the Horn of Africa are especially vulnerable to drought and desertification. Most rural residents in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea engage in subsistence agriculture. Subsistence agriculture means the farmers produce enough crops for themselves, their families, and communities. They do not sell their produce on the national or international market. Many subsistence farmers depend on their crops to feed their livestock. Years of severe drought prevent crops from growing, which also prevents livestock from being raised.

Thousands of Somalis and Ethiopians, threatened by starvation and poverty, have already fled to refugee camps in Kenya. Camps that were designed to provide temporary shelter for 90,000 people are now home to twice that number.

Refugee Status

Environmental refugees are not protected by international laws. They face greater political risks than refugees who flee their homes due to conflict or political oppression. Unlike traditional refugees, climate refugees may be sent back to their devastated homeland or forced into a refugee camp.

Most climate refugees are internal migrants. Internal migration is the process of people moving elsewhere in their own country. Often, climate refugees are rural and coastal residents who are forced to migrate to urban areas. These climate refugees face numerous problems. Skills such as herding and farming are not relevant in urban areas. Rural farmers are often more self-sufficient than many urban dwellers; they may not be familiar with depending on a corporation or other people for employment.

Climate refugees who migrate outside their home countries face other difficulties. They must adjust to different laws, languages, and cultures.

Climate refugees may encounter conflict with indigenous residents. Educational and health care systems must adjust to a sudden, new population. This population may speak a different language or have different customs than the native population.

Climate change may also increase the number of traditional refugees. Antonio Guterres, the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees, has noted, "Climate change can enhance the competition for resource s-water, food, grazing lands-and that competition can trigger conflict."

Articles & Profiles

Worksheets & Handouts

Websites

Credits

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Writers

Diane Boudreau
Melissa McDaniel
Erin Sprout
Andrew Turgeon

Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society
Tim Gunther, Illustrator

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing
Kara West

Educator Reviewer

Nancy Wynne

Producer

Caryl-Sue, National Geographic Society

Sources

Dunn, Margery G. (Editor). (1989, 1993). "Exploring Your World: The Adventure of Geography." Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Last Updated

June 17, 2011

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Climate refugees are people who must leave their homes and communities because of the effects of climate change and global warming. Climate change is caused by natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities. Climate change has happened many times since Earth was formed billions of years ago.

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Problems of Today's Society - Illustrations by Steffen Kraft

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How has climate change affected the Philippines and displaced thousands?

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By Rama O. Co | UNHCR Philippines | 15 Nov 2016

When forced displacement becomes the topic of conversation, rarely does talk of climate change become part of the discussion. Images of refugees and displaced persons are often accompanied by buzzwords like 'war' and 'armed conflict', but not much is said about the role environmental degradation plays in the global humanitarian crisis we face today.

A World Bank study estimates that by 2030, more than 100 million people will be pushed into poverty by climate change. According to the report, the effects of rising sea levels and severe weather conditions are borne disproportionately, with the world's poorest carrying the brunt of the impact. While the year 2030 seems like a lifetime away for some, skeptics need only turn to the 22.5 million individuals displaced by climate-related events since 2008, for a preview of what is to come.

While African nations are the most affected by water deficits, Asian countries lie on the opposite end of the natural disaster spectrum, suffering heavily from rising sea levels, flooding, and intense storms. In the last decade, the most prominent example of the latter would be Typhoon Haiyan (local name Yolanda) in the Philippines.

In November 2013, Typhoon Haiyan made landfall in the central Philippines. Packing sustained winds of 315 KPH, Haiyan, the strongest tropical cyclone in recorded history, claimed more than 6300 lives and left an estimated 4.1 million displaced.

UNHCR staff dispatched to affected areas were tasked with accomplishing five main goals: provision of emergency shelter and core relief items, protection monitoring and mainstreaming, capacity building and protection training, mobile civil registration, and advocacy.

In the aftermath of the initial relief effort, 700,000 affected persons have benefitted from life-saving assistance. About 90,000 civil registration documents have been processed for the most vulnerable. UNHCR was also able to distribute 88,000 blankets, 123,337 tents, 14,000 kitchen sets, 8,800 mosquito nets, 19,000 solar lanterns, and 33,000 jerry cans.

These figures, though small compared to the millions displaced by climate-change, proved to be invaluable in the road to recovery. They represent the combined efforts of dedicated UNHCR staff, volunteers, and generous donors.

The damage caused by climate change does not end there.

Even events that seem divorced from climate or weather-related developments are in no way independent. One prime example of this would be the Syrian civil war. Perhaps the poster child for the global refugee crisis, the conflict that has raged-on since 2011 has internally displaced over 13.5 million people, and has forced over 4.8 million to seek refugee status in other countries. Experts such as the Washington-based Center for Climate and Security has highlighted the role climate change played as a catalyst of the conflict.

Between 2006 and 2011, Syria's agricultural regions suffered one of the worst droughts on record, destroying crops and killing 85% of livestock. As a result, millions of rural citizens were forced to seek refuge in already overcrowded cities like Daraa, Aleppo, and Damascus.

As urban unemployment and a rising scarcity of water drove once prosperous farmers into poverty, the civil unrest that followed grew into the multi-sided armed conflict that continues onto its fifth year in 2016. According to the Center for Climate and Security, even if the climate-stressed country recovers politically, Syria is on the path to losing nearly 50% of its agricultural capacity by 2050. Given this projection, it is expected that the suffering faced by displaced persons will only continue, as climate change remains a looming threat.

Despite this daunting task, the UNHCR remains steadfast in its mission to safeguard the rights and wellbeing of refugees and forcibly displaced persons. Nearly seven decades since our founding in 1950, we continue to pave the way to a better world with humanitarian and solutions-based efforts.
Rama O. Co is an 18-year-old student at the Chinese International School Manila. He served as an intern for UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency, in 2016. He writes for the Philippine Daily Inquirer as a student correspondent and is part of the National Youth Council of an environmental organization. To learn more about UNHCR's response to climate change and displacement, you may read our answers to Frequently Asked Questions here.
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Climate Change and Displacement - UNHCR Philippines

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By Rama O. Co | UNHCR Philippines | 15 Nov 2016 When forced displacement becomes the topic of conversation, rarely does talk of climate change become part of the discussion. Images of refugees and displaced persons are often accompanied by buzzwords like 'war' and 'armed conflict', but not much is said about the role environmental degradation plays in the global humanitarian crisis we face today.

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Who were the first to seek asylum from the climate?

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"There are many war refugees and three times as many climate refugees. All of them are people who can no longer live where they were born." - Vivienne Westwood

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Who to blame, who should step forward, who is responsible for the fate of climate refugees? More importantly who should answer the problem of climate change?

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Who Is Responsible For Climate Change? – Who Needs To Fix It?

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A brief yet powerful explanation by CNN about Climate Refugees

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Cornell Research: Migration, Forced by Climate Change

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Cornell Research: Migration, Forced by Climate Change

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García is especially concerned about climate refugees because they do not fall under the current definition of refugee. “The term refugee is defined very precisely in international law,” she explains. “In U.S. law, for example, refugees are defined as individuals persecuted because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular group, or political opinion. Nowhere does climate figure into it. It leaves this entire group of people without international protection or recognition. I’ve seen projections that put the number of people who will be displaced by climate change as high as 200 million by mid-century, so the international community will have to come up with creative solutions to address the problems generated by internally displaced populations and mass migrations.”
- Maria Cristina Garcia, Howard A. Newman Professor of American Studies, College of Arts and Sciences

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Policy and Reform is needed; life must be prioritized

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Policy and Reform is needed; life must be prioritized

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"Our social, political, and economic systems of extraction must be transformed into systems that regenerate the earth and advance human liberty globally" - Colette Battle

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Climate change will displace millions. Here's how we prepare | Colette Pichon Battle

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"More than 100 million people will be pushed into poverty by climate change. According to the report, the effects of rising sea levels and severe weather conditions are borne disproportionately, with the world’s poorest carrying the brunt of the impact. While the year 2030 seems like a lifetime away for some, skeptics need only turn to the 22.5 million individuals displaced by climate-related events since 2008, for a preview of what is to come." - Rama Co, 2016.

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Sabrina's touching story about her time at the Environmental Refugee Holding Centre (ERHC)

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'The Environmental Refugee Holding Centre (ERHC)'

A new poem from Cape Farewell Poet In Residence Sabrina Mahfouz

Cape Farewell is proud to present this brand new animated poem from Sabrina Mahfouz which explores the increasing relevence of climate refugees. This poem imagines a future that, unless we take serious action now, will come all too soon. These images and words already find haunting echo in the daily media coverage and plight of refugees flooding towards Europe and Calais - some of whom whose flight may well have been influenced in some way by climate change.

"This poem was written as part of my poetry residence with Cape Farewell in 2013. The UK is often thought of as somewhere that won't suffer as many drastic environmental changes as other areas in the world, apart from increased flooding, so it is predicted to become a major destination for environmental refugees in the future. Considering how the UK currently treats refugees forced to flee their homes, it is easy to imagine this future migration will not be a positive experience, even though it should not only be possible to make it mutually beneficial, but a moral and economic imperative to do so." - Sabrina Mahfouz

Performance poet and writer Sabrina Mahfouz was Cape Farewell's climate poet-in-residence for 2013/14. Taking over the residency occupied by Tom Chivers in 2012, Sabrina created a multi-strand narrative project, featuring text, sound, visual art, and film. As part of the residency Sabrina headlined and curated Rhyme and Reason, a slam poetry event at the London School of Economics.

Following the residency, we were pleased to continue working with Sabrina for a following year. In this time Sabrina began working on an adaptation of the story of Prometheus, using the original ancient structure and characters to tell an epic modern tale about climate change - how humans have misused the gifts given to them and yet how there is still hope in their potential.

The story of Prometheus is an Ancient Greek myth dramatized by Aeschylus. In crude terms, Prometheus gave fire and arts, reason and skills to humans and Zeus punished him for this by tying him to a rock and having an eagle peck his liver every night, only for it to grow back in the morning.

This adaptation will be written and performed in Sabrina's significant spoken word poetry style.

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A new climate poem from Sabrina Mahfouz - ArtCOP21

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Cape Farewell is proud to present this brand new animated poem from Sabrina Mahfouz which explores the increasing relevence of climate refugees. This poem imagines a future that, unless we take serious action now, will come all too soon.

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Climate change is changing the way we interact with our environments. With a changing climate come potential consequences for life on Earth.

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Image

Refugees are often forced to flee their homes due to human violence: war, terrorism, and persecution. However, climate can also play a role. A severe drought forced this woman and her clan to move over 240 kilometers (150 miles) in order to find water.

Photograph by Thomas J. Abercrombie

Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary

Climate change is the alteration of temperature and normal weather patterns in a place. This could refer to a particular location on the planet or the planet as a whole. Climate change is currently happening throughout the world as a result of global warming. When humans burn fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil, and coal, gases are released into Earth's atmosphere. These gases trap the heat from the Sun's rays inside the atmosphere, causing global warming, or a rise in the planet's overall temperature.

The warming of the planet impacts local and regional climates. The term climate refers to the usual weather of a place. This includes average seasonal temperatures, rainfall, snowfall, and wind patterns. Different places have different climates. A desert, for example, is referred to as an arid climate because it is usually hot in summer, cold in winter, and dry all year round. The effects of climate change, however, make weather patterns more unpredictable. In a desert, that may mean that higher than average temperatures can produce more severe and prolonged droughts. Unpredictable weather patterns can also make it difficult to grow crops and maintain farmland.

In polar regions, climate change has meant that ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to season. This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together with expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level has begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.

coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals.

Credits

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society
Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society
Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

Last Updated

March 28, 2019

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Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society
Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society
Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

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Image Refugees are often forced to flee their homes due to human violence: war, terrorism, and persecution. However, climate can also play a role. A severe drought forced this woman and her clan to move over 240 kilometers (150 miles) in order to find water. Photograph by Thomas J.

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5 facts on climate refugees - and why you should care

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5 facts on climate refugees - and why you should care

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Watch out for these facts that will surely make you see Climate Migration in a different perspective

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My morning ritual is this: wake up, run, and come home for a strong cup of coffee while listening to NPR news. This past week, I heard a novelist speaking about a book on one of my fav morning radio programs, and he dropped the phrase "climate refugee." I realized as he continued talking, I didn't really know what the term meant. So, off Googling I went.

My research led to a bit of a 101 crash-course into the plight of individuals forced to leave their native places due to climate change. Here's what I discovered:

1.) First things first, who are climate refugees?

Photo: Balazas Gardi | People in flood water

A climate refugee is an individual who has been forced to move because of an environmental disaster (think flooding, hurricanes, cyclones, fired, tornadoes... you get the idea). Natural disasters result from both incremental and fast ecological shifts that cause droughts, sea level rise, and the frequent occurrence of extreme weather. As a result of these environmental changes, mass global migration and border conflicts are increasing.

Often, climate refugees are internal migrants, or people moving elsewhere within their home country. Climate refugees could be rural or coastal residents who have to migrate to urban areas. While a move within your own country might not seem like too big a deal, consider this: skills such as herding and farming are not going to be useful in urban areas. So, it means once you move, work is hard to find, in addition to not having the same social networks you did in your hometown.

2.) How many climate refugees are there?

Photo: Balazas Gardi/Flickr | Men walking through flood water

The United Nations thinks that there are roughly 25 million climate refugees - and this number is expected to double over the next five years (i.e.: less time than it takes to make it through grade school). And it won't stop there - the Red Cross believes that as many as 1 billion people will be displaced by climate change over the next four decades - so, yep, a huge increase over the course of our lifetimes.

3.) What are the challenges that climate refugees face?

Photo: Balazas Gardi/Flickr | Girls sitting on an elevated bed in a refugee camp tent flooded by knee-deep water

Climate refugees face a lot of problems - one of which is not being protected by international laws. They experience greater political risks than other refugees who are able to receive protection under international law. Unlike "traditional" refugees, individuals who are climate refugees have a greater likelihood of being sent back to the homelands or forced into a refugee camp.

4.) Isn't this more of a "future problem?"

Photo: Balazas Gardi/Flickr | A man walking with an umbrella

Au contraire mon ami. It's a problem now as millions of climate refugees exist today. The United Nations estimates that more people are displaced due to climate change than war! If this stat doesn't make it clear that the plight of climate refugees is a serious, current problem, I am not sure what will.

5.) And for those who doubt the existence of climate change, let me close with this argument

Photo: Balazas Gardi/Flickr | Flooded makeshift latrines

Whatever is causing global warming - be it natural or man-made (*cough* man-made), the fact of the matter is climate change is increasing the number of climate refugees. This is a BIG concern, as the increase in climate refugees will not only endanger the lives of individuals affected, but it could have massive effects for humanity as a whole.

The biggest thing for me in researching climate refugees boils down to this: climate change isn't simply this remote thing that scientists will simply work out. It's a problem of global scale - and we all need to pay attention to the human costs that climate change creates.

Forced movement of people due to climate change has increased border conflicts and political instability - so much so that the Pentagon now thinks that climate change is a US national security risk. Now is the time to take action. Sign-on to the climate series petition (to the top left!) to help fight against the effects of climate change.... AND make small changes in your everyday life to live more sustainably. True - cutting down on the amount of meat you eat or recycling may seem too small to make an impact, but if we all do our part, collectively change will happen to help reverse climate change - and subsequently help in lowering the number of climate refugees.

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5 facts on climate refugees - and why you should care

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My morning ritual is this: wake up, run, and come home for a strong cup of coffee while listening to NPR news. This past week, I heard a novelist speaking about a book on one of my fav morning radio programs, and he dropped the phrase "climate refugee."

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Climate-induced migration in the Arab region – Interview with Hammou Laamrani

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Climate-induced migration in the Arab region – Interview with Hammou Laamrani

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Know more about what is happening in the Arab region with regards to Climate Migration.

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Climate-induced migration in the Arab region – Interview with Hammou Laamrani

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T20 Recommendation - R. A. Kraemer on Forced Migration

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How climate change exacerbates the refugee crisis 

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How climate change exacerbates the refugee crisis 

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Through this link, you will be able to find out why Climate-related displacement and migration is set to be the greatest challenge of our era. While there is a general consensus that global warming impacts us all, the role it will play in future human migration is often underestimated.

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How climate change exacerbates the refugee crisis - and what can be done about it

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For World Refugee Day, the time has come to recognize how our changing climate is forcing people from their homes.

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New Zealand: ‘Climate Change Refugee’ Case Overview

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New Zealand: ‘Climate Change Refugee’ Case Overview

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Learn about the famous New Zealand case involving an application for refugee status based on the effects of climate change in the Pacific Island nation of Kiribati has received media attention around the world.

As Mr. Teitiota claimed that he was entitled to be recognized as a refugee “on the basis of changes to his environment in Kiribati caused by sea-level-rise associated with climate change.”, observe and witness how this is handle by the respective stakeholders.

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I. Introduction

A New Zealand case involving an application for refugee status based on the effects of climate change in the Pacific Island nation of Kiribati has received media attention around the world. The proceedings in the case came to a close in July 2015, when the Supreme Court of New Zealand, the highest court in the country, dismissed an application for leave to appeal the Court of Appeal's decision in which it ruled against the applicant.

This report summarizes the decisions of the different courts that issued rulings in the case and provides information on other Australian and New Zealand cases that involved refugee claims based on the impacts of climate change in different countries. Links to media articles and academic writings that include discussion of the New Zealand case are provided at the end of this report.

II. Case Summary

Mr. Ioane Teitiota and his wife moved to New Zealand from Kiribati in 2007. They subsequently had three children, who were born in New Zealand but not entitled to New Zealand citizenship under the Citizenship Act 1977. The family remained in the country illegally following the expiration of their visas in October 2010. To avoid deportation, Mr. Teitiota applied for refugee status under Part 5 of the Immigration Act 2009. This legislation incorporates into domestic law the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.

Mr. Teitiota claimed that he was entitled to be recognized as a refugee "on the basis of changes to his environment in Kiribati caused by sea-level-rise associated with climate change."[1] A refugee and protection officer declined to grant refugee status, and this decision was upheld by the Immigration and Protection Tribunal. Mr. Teitiota subsequently sought leave from the High Court to appeal the Tribunal's decision on questions of law under section 245 of the Immigration Act 2009. His application for leave to appeal to the High Court was declined by both the High Court and Court of Appeal in 2013 and 2014, respectively. On July 20, 2015, the Supreme Court upheld the decisions of the lower courts and dismissed Mr. Teitiota's application for leave to appeal.

III. Court Decisions

A. Immigration and Protection Tribunal

The Immigration and Protection Tribunal (IPT) is an independent body that hears appeals from decisions made by Immigration New Zealand, including those of refugee and protection officers within the Refugee Status Branch. Immigration New Zealand is part of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE).

The IPT dismissed Mr. Teitiota's appeal in a decision issued in June 2013. It noted that "the limited capacity of South Tarawa to carry its population is being significantly compromised by the effects of population growth, urbanisation, and limited infrastructure development, particularly in relation to sanitation. The negative impacts of these factors on the carrying capacity of the land on Tarawa atoll are being exacerbated by the effects of both sudden onset environmental events (storms) and slow-onset processes (sea-level-rise)."[2] However, the IPT considered that the appellant "has undertaken what may be termed a voluntary adaptive migration," and that his decision to migrate to New Zealand could not be seen as "forced."[3]

In examining the concept of persecution under New Zealand and international refugee law, the IPT stated that it involves either failure of the state to control its own agents who commit human rights violations, or failure to take steps to reduce the risk of harm being perpetrated by non-state actors.[4] However, it did note that "this requirement of some form of human agency does not mean that environmental degradation, whether associated with climate change or not, can never create pathways into the Refugee Convention or protected person jurisdiction."[5]

The IPT went on to consider international law with respect to natural disasters and environmental degradation, stating that while these can involve significant human rights issues, the claimant must still establish that they meet the legal criteria set out in the Refugee Convention. In the New Zealand context, this means showing "a real chance of a sustained or systemic violation of a core human right demonstrative of a failure of state protection which has sufficient nexus to a Convention ground."[6]

The IPT found that the evidence did not show that the environmental conditions faced, or likely faced, by the appellant should he return to Kiribati "are so parlous that his life will be placed in jeopardy, or that he and his family will not be able to resume their prior subsistence life with dignity."[7] In any event, it considered that the effects of environmental degradation on his standard of living were being faced by the population generally, and it had not been suggested that the Kiribati government has failed to take adequate steps to protect the appellant from harm.[8] Therefore, the IPT found that the appellant was not a refugee within the meaning of the Refugee Convention.[9]

B. High Court

Mr. Teitiota applied to the High Court for leave to appeal the IPT's decision on points of law. In refusing to grant leave to appeal, the High Court called the appellant's arguments "novel and optimistic" but found them "unconvincing."[10] In essence, the judge agreed with the IPT's findings and stated that it was not for the Court to alter the scope of the Refugee Convention so as to entitle people facing medium-term economic deprivation or the immediate consequences of natural disasters or warfare to protection.[11] He stated that "a 'sociological' refugee or person seeking to better his or her life by escaping the perceived results of climate change is not a person to whom Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention applies."[12]

C. Court of Appeal

Mr. Teitiota sought to overturn the High Court's decision by applying to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Appeal also held that the IPT's reasoning had not been erroneous in law and declined to grant leave to appeal, stating that

the Tribunal essentially applied well developed law, which it correctly understood, to the undisputed facts of Mr Teitiota's case. The short point is that the effects of climate change on Mr Teitiota, and indeed on the population of Kiribati generally, do not bring him within the Convention. That is the position even if the most sympathetic, ambulatory approach permissible to interpreting the Convention is taken. The Convention is quite simply not the solution to Kiribati's problem.[13]

The Court further stated that, although it has "every sympathy with the people of Kiribati, Mr. Teitiota's claim for recognition as a refugee is fundamentally misconceived. It attempts to stand the Convention on its head."[14]

D. Supreme Court

Mr. Teitiota subsequently applied to the Supreme Court for leave to appeal against the decision of the Court of Appeal. According to news reports, on June 10, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled that it had jurisdiction to consider the application and ordered the appellant to file and serve submissions by June 26, 2015, and that the MBIE file and serve its submissions by July 3, 2015.[15]

The Supreme Court's decision was subsequently issued on July 20, 2015.[16] In agreeing with the courts below, the five-member panel held that "in the particular factual context of this case (even with the addition of the new evidence), the questions identified raise no arguable question of law of general or public importance."[17] The new evidence referred to was the November 2014 Synthesis Report of the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, as well as the original MBIE decision. It confirmed the lower courts' findings that, in relation to the Refugee Convention, Mr. Teitiota does not face "serious harm" and further that "there is no evidence that the Government of Kiribati is failing to take steps to protect its citizens from the effects of environmental degradation to the extent that it can."[18]

The Supreme Court did note, however, the statements of the IPT and High Court that their decisions "did not mean that environmental degradation resulting from climate change or other natural disasters could never create a pathway into the Refugee Convention or protected person jurisdiction."[19] The Court similarly explicitly stated that its decision in this particular case "should not be taken as ruling out that possibility in an appropriate case."[20]

IV. Other Refugee Cases Involving Climate Change

The decision of the IPT in the Teitiota case notes that there were a number of cases in 2000 that involved claimants from Tuvalu seeking recognition as refugees in New Zealand due to various environmental factors, including "inundation, coastal erosion, salination of the water table, combined with factors at the individual and household levels."[21] The IPT lists the following seven such cases, in which all of the claims were dismissed by the New Zealand Refugee Status Appeals Authority, the predecessor of the IPT, "because the indiscriminate nature of these events and processes gave rise to no nexus to a [Refugee] Convention ground":[22]

In the High Court, Mr. Teitiota's lawyer "candidly submitted" that he had been unable to find "any New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, United Kingdom, United States, or European authority which had extended the protection of the Refugee Convention to a person adversely affected by climate change."[23] The High Court judge noted that "[t]o the contrary, there are many decisions rejecting claims by people from Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tonga, Bangladesh, and Fiji on the grounds that the harm feared (environmental problems in low-lying countries attributable to climate change) does not amount to persecution and there were no differential impacts on the applicants."[24] Among the cases he cited were the following:[25]

In the Australian Refugee Review Tribunal Decision in 0907346 [2009] RRTA 1168, the Tribunal affirmed the decision to decline a refugee visa to an applicant from Kiribati, finding that "[t]here appears no doubt that the circumstances the applicant, and others living in Kiribati, face are serious and deserving of significant Governmental consideration and attention. They are not matters against which, however, the Refugees Convention as it applies in Australia is able to provide protection."[26]

In a 2010 paper on climate change displacement, in addition to some of the cases referred to above, an Australian expert on refugee law cited the following Australian refugee or protection visa cases, decided by the Refugee Review Tribunal of Australia, that refer to the impacts of climate change in Tuvalu:[27]

More recently, in 2014, the IPT similarly dismissed an appeal from a Tuvalu family that had sought refugee status in New Zealand on the basis of the effects of climate change in their home country.[28] However, in a separate decision, the IPT allowed the family to remain in New Zealand due to "exceptional circumstances of a humanitarian nature, which would make it unjust or unduly harsh for the appellants to be removed from New Zealand."[29] The relevant circumstances involved close family ties within the country that would be severely disrupted by removal. This case received some media coverage outside of New Zealand and is discussed in an article by the same Australian legal expert referred to above.[30]

V. Media Reports and Other Commentary

Mr. Teitiota's case has been the subject of reports published by multiple media organizations around the world. The following are a selection of articles published by various English-language news outlets in the past two years:

A. 2013 Articles

Gyles Beckford, Pacific Man Seeks Climate Change Asylum in New Zealand, Reuters (Oct. 16, 2013).

World's First Climate Change Refugee Fights to Stay in NZ, New Zealand Herald (Oct. 17, 2013).

Elliot Hannon, Man Attempts to Become World's First Climate Change Refugee, Slate (Oct. 17, 2013).

Man Seeks 'Climate Change Asylum' in New Zealand, BBC News (Oct. 17, 2013).

Pacific Islander Ioane Teitiota Fails in Bid to Be First Climate Change Refugee, ABC News (Nov. 26, 2013).

Nick Perry, Ioane Teitiota, Kiribati Man, Sees Climate Change Refugee Claim Rejected by New Zealand Judge, Huffington Post (Nov. 26, 2013).

Nora Caplan-Bricker, Climate Change Will Force Pacific Islanders to Flee. Should the U.S. be Forced to Take Them In?, New Republic (Dec. 2, 2013).

B. 2014 Articles

Morgan Godfrey, New Zealand Refuses Climate Change Refugees - Mass Action is Now Needed, The Guardian (May 11, 2014).

Kathy Marks, World's First 'Climate Change Refugee' Has Appeal Rejected as New Zealand Rules Ioane Teitiota Must Return to South Pacific Island Nation of Kiribati, The Independent (May 12, 2014).

James Eng, Man Loses Bid in New Zealand to Become First 'Climate Change Refugee', NBC News (May 12, 2014),

Hannah Osborne, Kiribati: World's First 'Climate Change Refugee' Ioane Teitiota Loses New Zealand Asylum Bid, International Business Times (May 13, 2014).

C. 2015 Articles

Kenneth R. Weiss, The Making of a Climate Refugee, Foreign Policy (Jan. 28, 2015),

Emma O'Brien, An Islander's Bid to be the World's First Climate Refugee, Bloomberg (Mar. 30, 2015).

Jonathan Pearlman, Pacific Islander Loses Bid to be World's First 'Climate Change Refugee', The Telegraph (July 21, 2015).

Pierre Longeray& Pierre-Louis Caron, New Zealand Supreme Court Rejects Kiribati Man's Bid to Become a 'Climate Refugee', Vice News (July 21, 2015).

Kiribati Man Faces Deportation After New Zealand Court Rejects His Bid to be First Climate Change Refugee, ABC News (July 21, 2015).

Sean Martin, World's First 'Climate Change Refugee' Loses Appeal to Stay in New Zealand, International Business Times (July 22, 2015).

Kalyan Kumar, New Zealand Rejects Climate Refugee's Appeal: Top Court Says Persecution the Sole Ground to Grant Refugee Status, International Business Times (July 23, 2015).

D. Other Publications

The Teitiota case has also been discussed by academics and analysts in a range of other publications, for example:

Margaretha Wewerinke, A Right to Enjoy Culture in the Face of Climate Change: Implications for "Climate Migrants" (CGHR Working Paper 6/4MCR Working Paper 7, University of Cambridge, Dec. 2013).

Feature: Should International Refugee Law Accommodate Climate Change?, UN News Centre (July 3, 2014).

Xing-Yin Ni, A Nation Going Under: Legal Protection for "Climate Change Refugees", 38(2) B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev 329 (2015).

Jane McAdam, The Emerging New Zealand Jurisprudence on Climate Change, Disasters and Displacement, 3(1) Migrat. Stud. 131 (2015).

Prepared by Kelly Buchanan
Chief, Foreign, Comparative, and International Law Division I
July 2015

[23] Teitiota v Chief Executive of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment [2013] NZHC 3125, at [45].

[26] 0907346 [2009] RRTA 1168, at [54].

[27] Jane McAdam, Climate Change Displacement and International Law, at note 6 (Side Event to the High Commissioner's Dialogue on Protection Challenges, Dec. 8, 2010, Geneva), http://www.refworld. org/pdfid/4d95a1532.pdf

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New Zealand: 'Climate Change Refugee' Case Overview

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Back to Index of Legal Reports Full Report ( PDF, 353KB) A New Zealand case involving an application for refugee status based on the effects of climate change in the Pacific Island nation of Kiribati has received media attention around the world.

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In this position paper, you will be able to see the nuanced struggles that climate change migrants and refugees undergo because of the drastic environmental change which prompts their displacement and the different legalities surrounding them.

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Exploring the link between Climate Change and Migration 

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Exploring the link between Climate Change and Migration 

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ABSTRACT
Previous research has postulated that climate change will lead to mass migration. However, the linkages postulated between the two have not been explicitly demonstrated but have rather been derived from ‘common sense’. In this paper, the connection between climate change and migration via two mechanisms, sea level rise and floods, is investigated and depicted in conceptual models. In both cases, a connection can be traced and the linkages are made explicit. However, the study also clearly shows that the connection is by no means deterministic but depends on numerous factors relating to the vulnerability of the people and the region in question.

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References

1. Coplin LS, Galloway D (1999) Houston-Galveston, Texas: managing coastal subsidence. In: Galloway DL, Jones DR, Ingebritsen SE (eds) Land subsidence in the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182, pp 35-48

2. Delaney PL, Shrader E (2000) Gender and post-disaster reconstruction: the case of hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua. Draft Report, World Bank, p 58

3. EM-DAT (2005) The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database

4. IPCC (2007) Summary for policymakers. In: Solomon S, Quin D, Manning M, Marquis M, Averyt K, Tignor MMB, LeRoy Miller H (eds) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, p 996

Google Scholar

5. IPCC Response Strategies Working Group (1990) Strategies for adaptation to sea level rise. Report of the Coastal Management Subgroup of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Ministry of Transport and Public Works, The Hague, p 131

Google Scholar

6. Lonergan S (1998) The role of environmental degradation in population displacement. Environmental Change Security Project Report, pp 5-15

7. Pedersen PJ, Pytlikova M, Smith N (2004) Selection or network effects? Migration flows into 27 OECD countries, 1990-2000, Discussion paper

8. Smith SK, McCarty C (2006) Florida's 2004 hurricane season: demographic response and recovery', Annual Meeting of the Southern Demographic Association Durham, NC, USA

9. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2002) Guidelines for reducing flood losses. In Pilon PJ, Davis DA, Halliday RA, and Paulson R (eds.), p. 79

10. U.S. Census Bureau (2007) online State & County Quickfacts

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Author information

Affiliations

1. Department of Environmental Sciences, Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Sabine L. Perch-Nielsen, Michèle B. Bättig & Dieter Imboden

2. ETH Zurich, CHN E 24, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland

Sabine L. Perch-Nielsen

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sabine L. Perch-Nielsen.

About this article

Cite this article

L. Perch-Nielsen, S., B. Bättig, M. & Imboden, D. Exploring the link between climate change and migration. Climatic Change 91, 375 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9416-y
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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Exploring the link between climate change and migration

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Previous research has postulated that climate change will lead to mass migration. However, the linkages postulated between the two have not been explicitly demonstrated but have rather been derived from 'common sense'. In this paper, the connection between climate change and migration via two mechanisms, sea level rise and floods, is investigated and depicted in conceptual models.

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Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Migration and Conflict 

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Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Migration and Conflict 

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This paper, which is about how the increases in the frequency and severity of chronic environmental hazards and sudden onset disasters are projected to alter the typical migration patterns of communities and entire countries and its social implications, has been commissioned by the World Bank Group for the "Social Dimensions of Climate Change" workshop.

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Protecting Climate Refugees is Crucial for the Future

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Protecting Climate Refugees is Crucial for the Future

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Suong Vong wrote "Protecting Climate Refugees is Crucial for the Future" as part of the 2016 Humanity in Action Diplomacy and Diversity Fellowship.

"For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them - beginning from now..." (1)
-Anote Tong, President of Kiribati (April 2013)

In recent years, human-induced climate change has become an increasingly bigger driver of international migration. The food insecurity, drought, and unemployment wrought by climate change are giving people no choice but to flee their homelands. The situation is even more dire for low-lying island nations. Scientists predict that rising sea levels and increasingly damaging environmental disasters will make small island nations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans such as the Maldives, Tuvalu, and Kiribati uninhabitable, creating climate-change refugees on a scale never before seen in modern history (2).

Climate refugees are not currently protected by Article 1(A)(2) of the 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees, which defines a refugee as "an individual who is outside his/her country of nationality...who is unable or unwilling to return due to a well-founded fear of persecution based on his/her race, religion, nationality, or member of a particular social group or political opinion..." (3) Individual nations may, however, adjust their interpretation to include climate refugees as a special group eligible for protections within their sovereign borders. In the early 1950s, when the policies around refugees were emerging, the international community could not predict that they would have to protect individuals from small island nations affected by climate change. Since then, there has been much support for a definition to recognize climate refugees in international law (4) (5). However, while there has been increasing global resolve to combat the problem of climate change over time, most nations lack the political will or incentive to develop a plan to protect refugees impacted by climate change, particularly if the issue does not appear to have a direct effect on them, and especially given the already high numbers of refugees created by war, conflict, and terrorism (6).

The Road to the Present

Island nations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans are particularly at risk. With greenhouse emissions contributing significantly to rising sea levels, these countries can be considered low-lying sinking nations.

Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Maldives have been experiencing devastating impacts to their homelands, with experts predicting these countries will be underwater as early as 2050 (7). Despite the science behind these predictions, there has been a distinct lack of leadership and empathy emanating from wealthy, industrialized nations who have the resources and the political capital to properly protect these vulnerable populations. The emerging trend of nationalist and protectionist rhetoric and policies from many of these countries suggests a solution to this global crisis is not on the horizon. And one is needed. While most climate-impacted migrants can conceivably move elsewhere within the country until a problem or disaster subsides-also known as internal displacement-this is not an option for migrants from low-lying sinking nations, whose entire lands are disappearing, making relocation to other parts of the country unfeasible. Therefore, without a solution from the international community, entire cultures and peoples-as well as their irreplaceable skills and knowledge-will be at-risk of displacement and possibly even extinction.

Sinking Nations

Kiribati and Tuvalu are two Pacific island nations most susceptible to sea level rise, for which is:

"expected to exacerbate inundation, storm surges, erosion and other coast hazards, thus threatening vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the livelihood of island communities...there is strong evidence that under most climate change scenarios, water resources in small islands are likely to be seriously compromised...Climate change is likely to heavily impact coral reefs, fisheries and other marine-based resources. It is very likely that subsistence and commercial agriculture on small islands will be adversely affected by climate change." (8)

Both island nations suffer similar problems relating to overpopulation, unemployment, high pollution, poor sanitation, and low-lying lands, with the average height of land in each country being less than two meters above sea level (9). The threat to Kiribati's existence has forced the nation's former President, Anote Tong, to make public pleas to the international community for relief, recognizing that the relocation of his country's roughly 100,000 residents is inevitable (10).

All the while, Tuvalu's government has considered a lawsuit against Australia and the United States for their contribution to climate change (11). As one of the smallest, low-lying atoll nations in the world, Tuvalu is most susceptible to climate effects even though their contribution to greenhouse emissions is insignificant compared to these two wealthy nations (12). Given that most Tuvaluans live on the coastline, sea-level rises and storm surges would have dramatic effects on its population of 10,050 inhabitants (13).

Over the years, the Tuvaluan government has voiced its challenges with climate change through its membership with the United Nations, while negotiating with Australia, Fiji, and New Zealand on migration options for its people. Due to its limited economy, Tuvalu has been heavily reliant on foreign aid from the UK, Australia, and New Zealand with some support in the past from the United States, Japan, South Korea, and others, for its survival (14).

As for the Maldives, located in South Asia and the lowest-lying atoll in the world, a sea level rise of one meter could result in complete submersion. The Maldives President, Mohamed Nasheed, stated that he has considered looking to Australia, among other countries, as a relocation destination to address this impending problem (15).

A Sigh from Powerful Neighbors

While the international community would need to come together to assist the migrants of these sinking island nations, it will likely be the advanced economies of Australia, New Zealand, and the United States-whose geographies are closest to these island nations-who will be relied upon for assistance. The United States and Australia should take the charge in providing protections to people in these sinking nations as they are two of the largest contributors to greenhouse emissions in the world (16). New Zealand would also be a valuable contributor, given its proximity to the suffering islands and its history as a popular destination for Pacific Islanders to settle.

In recent years, Australia and New Zealand have faced legal challenges for not having policies in place to accept refugees impacted by climate change (17) (18). New Zealand's high court famously rejected an asylum seeker from Kiribati, who argued that changes to his environment caused by sea-level-rise prevented him from returning to his home country, on the basis that his claims did not the meet the legal refugee criteria defined by the 1951 Refugee Convention (19).

Currently, New Zealand provides a labor migration scheme to the Pacific island nations of Fiji, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Kiribati through an agreement known as the Pacific Access Category (PAC). The PAC offers resettlement opportunities in New Zealand, although it has an annual cap of just 250 people each from Fiji and Tonga and 75 each from Tuvalu and Kiribati. In addition to the threshold limitations, the PAC requires applicants to have already secured a job offer in New Zealand; to have a good command of English; and to undergo a rigorous and costly medical check-up. Moreover, the PAC is discriminatory in nature in that applicants must be within 18-45 years of age, rendering the young and the elderly ineligible. Since island nations like Tuvalu are not yet 'drowning,' New Zealand AID noted that there is not an immediate need to establish a permanent scheme for special migrants (20).

Australia offers short-term working visas, through the Pacific Seasonal Workers Program, to workers from ten island nations to fill labor shortages (21). There is no permanent resettlement opportunity through the program though. Beyond that, Australia does not offer any migration schemes to accept refugees affected by climate change, despite urgings from Philip Glendenning, the President of the Refugee Council of Australia.

When referring to Kiribati's imminent future, Mr. Glendenning stated, "...the worst-case scenario is that [Kiribati] may well be displaced by the impact of climate change. If that occurs, then the international community, including Australia, will need to respond to provide assistance with re-location. This would effectively represent a new form of international migration." (22)

Like its neighbor across the Tasman Sea, Australia's government has indicated the present needs of climate refugees are not pressing enough, saying that its humanitarian obligations are only to people who require "assistance urgently." (23)

Unlike New Zealand and Australia, the United States offers people who have been displaced by environmental factors or natural disasters to be considered for Temporary Protective Status (TPS), whereby conditions in a foreign country temporarily prevent its "nationals from returning safely, or in certain circumstances, where the country is unable to handle the return of its nationals adequately." (24) TPS allows beneficiaries to receive temporary protection in the United States and the ability to work, but it does not address migrants whose homelands are sinking and for whom repatriation will be impossible. It also does not allow for a path to citizenship (25).

None of the migration schemes currently being offered by the three countries provide long-term sustainable solutions to addressing the problem of entire island nations disappearing and what to do with their remaining populations. Fiji is one of the few countries who are currently welcoming climate refugees on a permanent basis; however as an island nation itself, it too has areas that may face a similar fate (26).

What are the Solutions?

Despite the recent anti-refugee and anti-climate change rhetoric which has provided an alibi for wealthy nations to close the door on refugees fleeing from war and/or to refuse action on global warming, we must not forget the moral and ethical responsibilities that wealthy nations have toward humankind and to the planet. Wealthy nations have benefitted significantly from emitting greenhouse pollutants, which have become a virtual death sentence for low-lying sinking nations. Because of their inevitable destiny, a safe passage needs to be established for migrants of sinking island nations in need of refuge due to their home countries disappearing. Otherwise, in the next 20 to 50 years, there will be emergency mass migrations of people from their homelands or worse, mass extinctions of those who were unable to find refuge. This can be prevented by (1) recognizing climate change refugees as an independent group of displaced individuals; (2) establishing an effective, long-term migration scheme for disappearing nations; and then (3) redirecting funds towards resettlement.

First, the international community needs to recognize "climate refugees" as a unique group of displaced individuals in need of special protections. António Guterres from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has written that "UNHCR is actually of the opinion that the use of such terminology could potentially undermine the international legal regime for the protection of refugees whose rights and obligations are quite clearly defined and understood." (27) However, to suggest that there are two different levels of importance between climate-impacted migrants and traditional refugees and that those impacted by climate change should be regarded in a lesser light than traditional refugees is a false dilemma since so much of the ethnic and social strife occurring in war-torn countries have been about access to scarce resources.

Dutch scholars Frank Biermann and Ingrid Boas say that it is important that those displaced-either within their borders or beyond them-are classified as refugees. The authors once wrote,

We support the use of the term "climate refugee" for two main reasons. First, the distinction between transboundary and internal flight that is a core element of the "traditional refugee" concept does not help much since climate change will cause both transnational and internal flight. Some island nations will effectively cease to exist, and some countries, especially those affected by drought, will be overburdened by the scope of the national predicament. These people will have to find refuge outside of their home country. Some climate refugees might thus cross borders while most will stay within their country. It seems difficult to argue that a global governance mechanism for their protection should bestow a different status, and a different term, depending on whether they have crossed a border. Second, we see no convincing reason to reserve the stronger term 'refugee' for a category of people that stood at the center of attention after 1945, and to invent less appropriate terms-such as 'climate-related environmentally displaced persons'-for new categories of people who are forced to leave their homes now, with similar grim consequences. The term refugee has strong moral connotations of societal protection in most world cultures and religions. By using this term, the protection of climate refugees will receive the legitimacy and urgency it deserves (28).

Without a clear definition of the term, it is difficult to recognize and provide proper assistance to the needs of these vulnerable populations. However, given the contentious nature of defining a new international term for "climate refugees," and the dire need to protect inhabitants of low-lying sinking nations who do not have the time to wait on an international solution, it may be wise to create a different designation for this special group of migrants so as not to confuse the current definition for "refugee" and the protections for which the term grants. Whatever term is agreed upon, those affected by rising oceans need strong protections as they settle into new lands and communities.

Second, the slow progression of climate change means that participating countries have time to create a well laid-out plan to assist those in need, which allows for a more effective solution. All affected countries-both island nations and those accepting refugees-should take advantage of this timeline to collaborate on a master plan.

Based on the responses from New Zealand and Australia regarding a permanent scheme to address climate refugees, it appears that the international community is largely waiting for the problem to become more urgent before taking action. One of the distinctions-even advantages-between climate refugees and traditional refugees is that the flight of climate refugees can be predicted and planned out in advance, unlike traditional refugees, whose fates are typically chaotic and unpredictable. Whereas the persecution and/or protection of traditional refugees must be individually assessed, the protection needs of climate change refugees may be similar for entire nation-groups (29). Given this knowledge, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand have the time to collaborate with affected countries on a migration scheme over time. Proper planning and engagement with impacted countries would be most effective in creating long-term, sustainable solutions.

That said, with their very countries facing extinction perhaps within a generation, policymakers in Tuvalu and Kiribati do not want an immediate mass exodus from their borders. Such a program would destabilize, and perhaps even annihilate, entire communities, ecosystems, and economies at a significant human cost (30) (31).

"We want our people to have the option to migrate with dignity should the time come that migration is unavoidable," said Kiribati President, Anote Tong, when he addressed the 67th Session of the UN General Assembly in 2012 (32).

Therefore, effective collaborations with these governments could potentially mitigate the impact that climate change has on these countries, prolonging the island nations' existence while providing a safe passage for migrants to relocate when the timing is right. This would allow for migrants to establish the necessary skillsets to successfully assimilate in their new countries, when ready, while reducing the burden that many refugees-as well as residents of the host countries-may feel that migrants bring to their new countries. This could also ensure that families stay together, instead of being separated or split up in cases of rapid displacement.

Third, wealthy nations should identify potential funding streams that could be used to relocate affected refugees. There is a common argument that host countries do not have the resources to protect refugees, despite the fact that Western, industrialized countries have been funneling resources to developing countries in the form of foreign aid for years. Since foreign aid to sinking island nations cannot be sustainable, it would be more fruitful-perhaps even more cost effective-for wealthy nations to reallocate funding toward resettling migrants from these disappearing countries, which could be more helpful toward their success in the long run.

A Call for Action

Climate change has the power to literally wipe entire countries off the face of the earth. And this threat will only accelerate as long as the international community continues to dillydally in the face of its greenhouse gas emissions. While this predicts significant upheaval around the globe, it is the world's low-lying island nations who are at the highest risk of suffering the ultimate price. Wealthy, industrialized countries are the ones most responsible, and therefore, the ones who carry the moral and ethical obligation to protect the victims of climate change. Without the necessary action, the international community will have failed their fellow man and the very planet itself.

* * *

Acknowledgments

The author and editor thank Artur Wieczorek for his dedicated efforts in reviewing earlier versions of this article.

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D&D 16 - Protecting Climate Refugees is Crucial for the Future - Humanity in Action

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Suong Vong wrote " Protecting Climate Refugees is Crucial for the Future" as part of the 2016 Humanity in Action Diplomacy and Diversity Fellowship . "For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them - beginning from now..."