# data[].attributes.headline
The ART of Learning Part One: Acquisition (revised)

# data[].attributes.subject
The ART of Learning Part One: Acquisition (revised)

# data[].attributes.body
These described PPT presentations walk students through a 3-step model (Acquisition, Retention, Transfer) to help them to understand their own learning practice and to develop a learning philosophy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
THE ART OF LEARNING Part One Acquisition NOTES VERSION

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education: the Wonder Engine | Lisa Dickson | TEDxUNBC

# data[].attributes.headline
Sir Ken Robinson: Do Schools Kill Creativity? TED

# data[].attributes.subject
Sir Ken Robinson: Do Schools Kill Creativity? TED

# data[].attributes.body
Ken Robinson argues that creativity is as important as literacy to education.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Do schools kill creativity? | Sir Ken Robinson | TED

# data[].attributes.headline
Sir Ken Robinson: Changing Education Paradigms

# data[].attributes.subject
Sir Ken Robinson: Changing Education Paradigms

# data[].attributes.body
Ken Robinson explores how our definitions of what education "is" determine how we do it, and how we define who is and who isn't "smart."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
RSA ANIMATE: Changing Education Paradigms

# data[].attributes.headline
Chadwick Boseman on Finding Yourself so that You Can Find Your Way

# data[].attributes.subject
Chadwick Boseman on Finding Yourself so that You Can Find Your Way

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.original_text
First, who are you? https://t.co/BIIgjAtd91

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Don’t miss what’s happening

People on Twitter are the first to know.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.embed_code
First, who are you? pic.twitter.com/BIIgjAtd91
— Ruha Benjamin (@ruha9) August 30, 2020

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.text
First, who are you? https://t.co/BIIgjAtd91

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.original_text
First, who are you? https://t.co/BIIgjAtd91

# data[].attributes.body
This article provides a concise overview of the role of intrinsic motivation in student learning. It will be relevant to your reflections on the Motivation element of your learning philosophy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This guide outlines the history of intrinsic motivation, related theories-including extrinsic motivation-and how professors can instill motivation in the next generation of learners. Currently, some students may feel as if their courses and assessments are irrelevant to their career goals and thus, they may not see the value in learning about, for example, Freud, or deciphering the periodic table of elements, reading up on the nervous system, or anything else.

Motivated students develop as a result of seeing the value in their work. When students are intrinsically motivated, they're likely to become inclined to take part in class discussions and be an active leader in group projects-the number of students who are reward motivated should decline in tandem.

Table of contents

1. What is intrinsic motivation?
2. What is self determination?
3. Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation
4. Rewards and intrinsic motivation
5. How can you harness intrinsic motivation in class?
5.1. Making choices
5.2. Optimal challenge
5.3. Collaboration
5.4. Gamification
6. Conclusion
7. References

Subscribe to Top Hat's weekly blog recap

Get the best posts of the week delivered to your inbox:

1. What is intrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is a person's willingness to engage in an activity for entertainment or a challenge rather than reward. To some, the reward is the behavior itself, as opposed to meeting a tangible goal or reaping benefits.

Intrinsic motivation is found in all aspects of life. An example is learning a new language for the fun of it and to experience new things, not because your job requires you to do so. Another example is painting or sculpting for personal enjoyment, instead of profit.

It's important to foster intrinsic motivation in students as early as possible, so students want to learn for the enjoyment of learning, rather than their desire to get an A+ on their upcoming exam. Supportive learning environments-areas free from discrimination that encourage students to raise their hands to answer questions, even if they are unsure-foster intrinsic motivation among learners. Intrinsic motivation may also stem from encouraging student curiosity and goal-setting. As a result, students who are able to choose their own research topic report higher levels of enthusiasm, which makes their learning more enjoyable.

Finally, professors play a role in intrinsically motivating their students. For example, an energetic tone can lead students to believe that the curriculum has intrinsic value. This belief can motivate learners to want to know more-they're motivated by curiosity instead of the need to ace an upcoming assessment.

Intrinsic motivation has a long history, starting with Harvard Professor Emeritus Robert White. White's effectance motivation theory was developed in 1959. He argued that we want to feel effective and productive and want to work on developing ourselves: his theory measures the relationship between task challenge and degree of pleasure elicited, the role of social agents and the reinforcing environment and internalization of a self-reward system. Optimal incongruity theory was proposed by Joseph McVicker Hunt at the University of Nebraska in 1965. According to Hunt, when there's an inconsistency between a stimulus and a personal standard, an individual will be intrinsically motivated to act until the discrepancy is resolved.

A final set of researchers-Edward Deci and Richard Ryan from the University of Rochester and Richard DeCharms from Washington University-challenged Hunt's optimal incongruity theory. In 1968, DeCharms proposed that what motivates people is personal causation: where people incite their own behaviors out of will rather than being forced to act only to gain rewards. To complement DeCharms' findings, Deci and Ryan advocated for competence and self-determination-which will be discussed in the next section. DeCharms and Deci and Ryan's theories overlap in that people are motivated by the degree of control that they have over others, external objects or themselves.

2. What is self determination?

Self determination theory (SDT) was proposed by Deci and Ryan in 1975. SDT suggests that people have three psychological needs: the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness. Competence arises from positive feelings about an activity or from successful experiences or encounters. An example is the way toddlers explore a new toy and then experience joy once they figure out how to operate it. Contrastingly, negative experiences with a new toy may result in less intrinsic motivation within the toddler. Autonomy goes hand-in-hand with competence, whereby individuals must be given choices, acknowledge their feelings or given an opportunity for self-direction. Students' sense of autonomy may increase with peers or professors supporting an individual's choices and being responsive to their opinions. Finally, students must feel connected, or related, to their learning communities-this increases engagement since it can make students feel like they belong. A strong connection to school often indicates academic and personal success. When people feel competent, autonomous and self-determined, they will voluntarily seek out what's interesting to them.

When put into practice, self determination can be beneficial for our mental and physical health. Satisfying the domains of competency, autonomy and relatedness leads to improved mental health-resulting in lower depression, anxiety and a higher quality of life-as well as improved physical health, involving more exercise and a healthier diet.

Intrinsic motivation is a by-product of self determination and the satisfaction of the three innate psychological needs which make up SDT. Intrinsic motivation relies on the interaction between individual perceptions of the environment and perceptions of ourselves. In the classroom, professors may support autonomy and competency, but if the student isn't interested in a learning activity, then they won't be intrinsically motivated. Students can still be self determined if they can "integrate an activity into their sense of self." Once students realize the value of certain tasks or roles, they can then approach scenarios with a sense of will rather than pressure.

3. Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic, sometimes called external motivation, is where people are motivated to act or behave in a certain way in order to receive a desirable outcome. Here, a person is motivated by external factors in order to avoid negative consequences or to achieve positive outcomes, especially money and/or praise. An example of extrinsic motivation is where a physician treats patients in return for money rather than a desire to help the ill. Another example is where a child does their chores, not because they want to, but because they will receive allowance money from their parents.

Per Deci and Ryan, extrinsic motivation can be internalized. A student who is uninterested in their biology assessment can become self determined if they integrate their postsecondary journey-the stepping stone towards their career-into their sense of self. The student must understand the value of their assessments in order to focus on skill building and their personal growth in their higher education journey. By seeking out the value of an assessment-and what knowledge or skills the student can gain from it-learners will then openly approach a task instead of avoiding it.

Reaping rewards and avoiding potential punishment are at the heart of extrinsic motivation, but with intrinsic motivation, people are motivated by personal benefits and the desire to partake in an activity for the fun of it. Athletes may be extrinsically motivated when they focus on winning awards, but are intrinsically motivated when they find the sport enjoyable.

4. Rewards and intrinsic motivation

Rewards can convince people to participate in a task. Rewards are the ultimate goal of someone who is extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic rewards can potentially weaken intrinsic motivation-and can be seen when rewards begin to control behavior. Extrinsic rewards may boost intrinsic motivation because rewards can inform people about their abilities in an encouraging way. Studies on the correlation between rewards and intrinsic motivation vary. A study by Deci finds that intrinsic motivation decreased when rewards were task contingent-where undergraduate students would earn another dollar by completing a puzzle. The outcome of a reward on intrinsic motivation depends on which message is more salient to recipients. Rewards can influence saliency: if someone feels pressured or as if they are completing a task for external rewards, their intrinsic motivation for that task will decrease.

On the other hand, rewards can have a positive effect on intrinsic motivation. A separate study asked undergraduates to work on a task where half the participants in each group were paid, and the other half weren't. The participants receiving the reward had higher levels of intrinsic motivation than their peers who didn't get paid. Positive feedback counts as a reward as well. Receptive feedback on a school assignment can lead to enhanced self-efficacy-which in turn contributes to increased task interest. Positive verbal feedback especially increases intrinsic motivation: after a nervous student delivers a presentation to their class and their teacher congratulates them on a job well done, the student is less likely to fear giving a presentation in a similar scenario again. One positive acknowledgement from a grader can lead to students wanting to complete an assignment out of interest rather than pressure, in turn boosting their intrinsic motivation.

5. How can you harness intrinsic motivation in class?

Intrinsic motivation is a key part of ensuring students' success in the classroom. Academic intrinsic motivation can be measured by each, or a combination, of the following:

The ability of the learner to persist with the task assigned

The amount of time spent by the student on tackling the task

The student's innate curiosity to learn

Their feeling of efficacy related to an activity

Their desire to select an activity

Involving students in the learning process is a good first step towards helping learners see the value of their education. Students' intrinsic motivation can also increase when they monitor and reinforce their own progress in their courses, using tools in some learning management systems such as Moodle, Canvas and Brightspace.

Here are some practical strategies on increasing intrinsic motivation in class.

5.1. Making choices

The ability to choose and have agency over one's coursework can increase intrinsic motivation among students. According to a study by the University of Southern California, students are more likely to engage in an activity if they believed they had chosen it, providing them with a perception of increased autonomy. After attending a series of lectures and being placed into groups, students' social perception on food consumption was tested-certain words from the lecturer, such as "delicious," as well as group decisions led to participants serving a specific dish.

Choice should result in positive motivational and performance outcomes according to self determination theory. Providing students with choices may lead to an increased sense of personal control, enhanced motivation, liking and interest for a task. For instance, letting students choose their own groups as opposed to professors assigning groups can lead to higher task motivation and the willingness to complete a project. Control from others diminishes intrinsic motivation, says the research, adding that it has a detrimental effect on students' motivation and learning.

5.2. Optimal challenge

Students don't get intrinsic motivation from tasks that are beyond or below their comprehension levels. Research finds that the optimal challenge for students in the classroom comes from professors who match their expectations with their students' learning abilities. If the material taught is too easy, then students will likely achieve the highest level of mastery-but their full potential of growth may be hindered. Becoming accustomed to easy-to-grasp material doesn't prepare students for higher education or the workplace. Contrastingly, content that is too difficult won't allow students to achieve the highest level of mastery in a given time frame.

Studies test how students are affected by optimal challenges in the classroom. Students' optimal level of learning is tested through 10-13 assessment points in a weekly course. A study conducted by Minnesota State University finds that frequent assessments and feedback facilitate learning by introducing self-regulated learning, mastery learning, improved communications between students and the instructor, learning motivation and increased retention of the material. Frequent assessments also permit ongoing improvement in the course-from both teaching and learning perspectives-and match the instructors' expectations with their students' aptitudes. These findings are highly applicable in active learning classrooms, where the learning process is more engaging and can encompass assignment-setting and evaluation.

5.3. Collaboration

Collaboration in higher education can also increase students' intrinsic motivation. Collaboration allows students to learn from one another and can make fuzzy material clear-potentially enabling students to see the value in an assessment or course they previously would have dismissed as irrelevant. Educators should ensure opportunities for collaboration are distributed across the semester and not in a one-off instance on the first day. Some suggestions on how you can implement collaboration in your classroom can be found here.

Working together boosts students' motivation, according to psychological research by Stanford professor Gregory Walton and graduate student Priyanka Carr. Walton and Carr split participants into two small groups: the "psychologically together" group and the "psychologically separate" group, which gave participants the impression that they were either working on a puzzle as a team or individually, respectively. The first group thought they could complete the puzzle together while each of the second group's members felt they needed to complete the puzzle by themselves. Walton finds that those in the "psychologically together" group:

Persisted 48-64 percent longer on a challenging task

Reported more interest in the task

Became less tired by having to work on the task

Became more engrossed in the task and performed better on it

The results found that students' intrinsic motivation increased just from the impression of working in groups-even though those groups had no effect on competition or pressure to join others in an activity.

5.4. Gamification

Gamification is the use of game design to boost participation, engagement, loyalty and competition in the classroom. Points, leaderboards, competitions among peers and badges are good ways to make learning more engaging for students. One surprising example of gamification in the classroom is replacing traditional grades and instead implementing "experience points." Experience points help students feel rewarded once completing a task and can validate their time spent working. These points act as a visual measurement of students' progress towards their goals and can motivate students to continue working in order to receive another token of recognition.

"Good" grades are achieved by the quantity of the work completed, not the quality. Students can feel rewarded for their effort in completing a task instead of feeling disheartened about an assignment they may have performed poorly in.

Does incorporating games into your curriculum boost your students' intrinsic motivation? One study aimed to answer whether gamification in 200- and 300-level engineering courses increases students' intrinsic motivation. In exercises taught using gamification, 26 percent found the work engaging and 58 percent could tie the exercise to previous knowledge-and a total of 92 percent of students exposed to gamification showed signs of some kinds of intrinsic motivation themes, such as experiencing pleasure in taking part in an activity or perseverance.

The researchers concluded that gamification can greatly increase students' intrinsic motivation. They found that gamification helps students tie course concepts together and presents fun alternatives to otherwise mundane assessments. Increased intrinsic motivation will encourage students to engage in exploration, effort and participation due to curiosity and not explicit rewards-as seen through the engineering students in this study.

6. Conclusion

Intrinsic motivation varies from student to student-making it almost impossible for all students to be motivated in any course at the same time. Every classroom will have students with varying motivational orientations. Realistically, professors should aim for intrinsic motivation combined with more self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation, instead of pure intrinsic motivation. Giving students options in class, focusing on their optimal challenge and fostering collaboration and gamification can increase intrinsic motivation-and rewards can have just as much influence on students. The goal, however, is that once students can see the value in their courses and assessments, they will no longer be motivated purely by rewards but by the excitement or challenge that comes along with a given task. After all, the reward is the behavior itself.

7. References

1. deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: the internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic Press.

2. Valerio, K. (2012). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Journal of Student Engagement: Education Matters, 2(1), pp. 30-35. Retrieved from https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=jseem.

3. Harter, S. (1978). Effectance Motivation Reconsidered. Toward a Developmental Model. Human Development, 21(1), pp. 34-64. Retrieved from https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/271574.

4. Oudeyer, P-Y., & Kaplan, F. (2009). What is intrinsic motivation? A typology of computational approaches. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 1, pp. 1-6. Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/neuro.12.006.2007/full.

5. Riley, G. (2016). The role of self-determination theory and cognitive evaluation theory in home education. Cogent Education, 3, pp. 1-7. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1163651?needAccess=true.

6. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), pp. 68-78. Retrieved from https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf.

7. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, pp. 54-67. Retrieved from http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_IntExtDefs.pdf.

8. Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.

9. Eisenberger, R., et al. (1999). Does Pay for Performance Increase or Decrease Perceived Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, pp. 1026-1040. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232562288_Does_Pay_for_Performance_Increase_or_Decrease_Perceived_Self-Determination_and_Intrinsic_Motivation

10. Pierce, W. D., et al. (2003). Positive Effects of Rewards and Performance Standards on Intrinsic Motivation. The Psychological Record, 53, pp. 561-579. Retrieved from http://homepages.se.edu/cvonbergen/files/2013/01/Positive-Effects-of-Rewards-and-Performance-Standards-on-Intrinsic-Motivation.pdf.

11. Dev, P. C. (1997). Intrinsic Motivation and Academic Achievement: What does their relationship imply for the classroom teacher? Remedial and Special Education, 18(1), pp. 12-19. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f364/a526307f73cbf8bbc44622d22449dcd5a406.pdf.

12. Patall, E., Cooper, H., & Civey Robinson, J. (2008). The Effects of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation and Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings. Psychological Bulletin. 134. 270-300. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270.

13. Ahmed, S. (2017). Theory of Sustained Optimal Challenge in Teaching and Learning. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 61(1), 407. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1541931213601584.

14. Himmelsbach, V. (2019, February 21). 10 Team Building Activities for Students [Blog post]. Retrieved June 19, 2019, from https://tophat.com/blog/team-building-activities-for-students/.

15. Parker, C. B. (2014, September 15). Stanford research shows that working together boosts motivation. Retrieved June 19, 2019, from https://news.stanford.edu/news/2014/september/motivation-walton-carr-091514.html.

16. Holloway, S. (2018, May 2). Gamification in Education: 4 Ways to Bring Games to your Classroom [Blog post]. Retrieved June 19, 2019, from https://tophat.com/blog/gamification-education-class/.

17. Tito, G. (2010, March 18). Professor Abandons Grades for Experience Points. Retrieved June 19, 2019, from http://www.escapistmagazine.com/news/view/99224-Professor-Abandons-Grades-for-Experience-Points.

18. Banfield, J., Wilkerson, B. (2014). Increasing Student Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Efficacy through Gamification Pedagogy. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 7(4), pp. 291-298. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1073237.pdf.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom: The Ultimate Guide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This guide outlines the history of intrinsic motivation, related theories-including extrinsic motivation-and how professors can instill motivation in the next generation of learners. Currently, some students may feel as if their courses and assessments are irrelevant to their career goals and thus, they may not see the value in learning about, for example, Freud, or deciphering the periodic table of elements, reading up on the nervous system, or anything else.

# data[].attributes.body
This helpful page explores the difference between internal and external motivation and their relative helpfulness in learning. It also discusses the difference between surface, strategic and deep learning. A concise read.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/.

Introduction

Fostering student motivation is a difficult but necessary aspect of teaching that instructors must consider. Many may have led classes where students are engaged, motivated, and excited to learn, but have also led classes where students are distracted, disinterested, and reluctant to engage-and, probably, have led classes that are a mix. What factors influence students' motivation? How can instructors promote students' engagement and motivation to learn? While there are nuances that change from student to student, there are also models of motivation that serve as tools for thinking through and enhancing motivation in our classrooms. This guide will look at three frameworks: the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation, the ARCS model of instructional design, and self-determination theory. These three models highlight some of the major factors that influence student motivation, often drawing from and demonstrating overlap among their frameworks. The aim of this guide is to explore some of the literature on motivation and offer practical solutions for understanding and enhancing student motivation.

Expectancy - Value - Cost Model

The purpose of the original expectancy-value model was to predict students' achievement behaviors within an educational context. The model has since been refined to include cost as one of the three major factors that influence student motivation. Below is a description of the three factors, according to the model, that influence motivation.

Expectancy refers to a student's expectation that they can actually succeed in the assigned task. It energizes students because they feel empowered to meet the learning objectives of the course.

Value involves a student's ability to perceive the importance of engaging in a particular task. This gives meaning to the assignment or activity because students are clear on why the task or behavior is valuable.

Cost points to the barriers that impede a student's ability to be successful on an assignment, activity and/or the course at large. Therefore, students might have success expectancies and perceive high task value, however, they might also be aware of obstacles to their engagement or a potential negative affect resulting in performance of the task, which could decrease their motivation.

Three important questions to consider from the student perspective:
1. Expectancy - Can I do the task?

2. Value - Do I want to do the task?

* Intrinsic or interest value: the inherent enjoyment that an individual experiences from engaging in the task for its own sake.

* Utility value: the usefulness of the task in helping achieve other short term or long-term goals.

* Attainment value: the task affirms a valued aspect of an individual's identity and meets a need that is important to the individual.

3. Cost - Am I free of barriers that prevent me from investing my time, energy, and resources into the activity?

It's important to note that expectancy, value and cost are not shaped only when a student enters your classroom. These have been shaped over time by both individual and contextual factors. Each of your students comes in with an initial response, however there are strategies for encouraging student success, clarifying subject meaning and finding ways to mitigate costs that will increase your students' motivation. Everyone may not end up at the same level of motivation, but if you can increase each student's motivation, it will help the overall atmosphere and productivity of the course that you are teaching.

Strategies to Enhance Expectancy, Value, and Cost

Hulleman et. al (2016) summarize research-based sources that positively impact students' expectancy beliefs, perceptions of task value, and perceptions of cost, which might point to useful strategies that instructors can employ.

Research-based sources of expectancy-related beliefs

Expectancy source

Definition

Research-based sources of value

Research-based sources of cost

Sources:

Barron K. E., & Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 503-509.

Hulleman, C. S., Barron, K. E., Kosovich, J. J., & Lazowski, R. A. (2016). Student motivation: Current theories, constructs, and interventions within an expectancy-value framework. In A. A. Lipnevich et al. (Eds.), Psychosocial Skills and School Systems in the 21st Century. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

ARCS Model of Instructional Design

The ARCS model of instructional design was created to improve the motivational appeal of instructional materials. The ARCS model is grounded in an expectancy-value framework, which assumes that people are motivated to engage in an activity if it's perceived to be linked to the satisfaction of personal needs and if there is a positive expectancy for success. The purpose of this model was to fill a gap in the motivation literature by providing a model that could more clearly allow instructors to identify strategies to help improve motivation levels within their students.

ARCS is an acronym that stands for four factors, according to the model, that influence student motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention refers to getting and sustaining student attention and directing attention to the appropriate stimuli.

Relevance involves making instruction applicable to present and future career opportunities, showing that learning in it of itself is enjoyable, and/or focusing on process over product by satisfying students' psychological needs (e.g., need for achievement, need for affiliation).

Confidence includes helping students believe that some level of success is possible if effort is exerted.

Satisfaction is attained by helping students feel good about their accomplishments and allowing them to exert some degree of control over the learning experience.

To use the ARCS instructional design model, these steps can be followed:

Define

Classify the problem

Analyze audience motivation

Prepare motivational objectives (i.e., identify which factor in the ARCS model to target based on the defined problem and audience analysis).

Design

Generate potential motivational strategies for each objective

Select strategies that a) don't take up too much instructional time; b) don't detract from instructional objectives; c) fall within time and money constraints; d) are acceptable to the audience; and e) are compatible with the instructor's personal style, preferences, and mode of instruction.

Develop

Prepare motivational elements

Integrate materials with instruction

Evaluate

Conduct a developmental try-out

Assess motivational outcomes

Strategies to Enhance Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction

Keller (1987) provides several suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' attention, perceived relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention Strategies
Incongruity, Conflict

Introduce a fact that seems to contradict the learner's past experience.

Present an example that does not seem to exemplify a given concept.

Introduce two equally plausible facts or principles, only one of which can be true.

Play devil's advocate.

Concreteness Variability

In stand up delivery, vary the tone of your voice, and use body movement, pauses, and props.

Vary the format of instruction (information presentation, practice, testing, etc.) according to the attention span of the audience.

Vary the medium of instruction (platform delivery, film, video, print, etc.).

Break up print materials by use of white space, visuals, tables, different typefaces, etc.

Change the style of presentation (humorous-serious, fast-slow, loud-soft, active-passive, etc.).

Shift between student-instructor interaction and student-student interaction.

Humor Inquiry Participation
Use games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation.

Relevance Strategies
Experience Present Worth
State explicitly the present intrinsic value of learning the content, as distinct from its value as a link to future goals.
Future Usefulness

State explicitly how the instruction relates to future activities of the learner.

Ask learners to relate the instruction to their own future goals (future wheel).

Need Matching Modeling Choice

Provide meaningful alternative methods for accomplishing a goal.

Provide personal choices for organizing one's work.

Confidence Strategies
Learning Requirements Difficulty
Organize materials on an increasing level of difficulty; that is, structure the learning material to provide a "conquerable" challenge.
Expectations Attributions

Attribute student success to effort rather than luck or ease of task when appropriate (i.e., when you know it's true!).

Encourage student efforts to verbalize appropriate attributions for both successes and failures.

Self-Confidence
Satisfaction Strategies
Natural Consequences Unexpected Rewards

Reward intrinsically interesting task performance with unexpected, non-contingent rewards.

Reward boring tasks with extrinsic, anticipated rewards.

Positive Outcomes

Give verbal praise for successful progress or accomplishment.

Give personal attention to students.

Provide informative, helpful feedback when it is immediately useful.

Provide motivating feedback (praise) immediately following task performance.

Negative Influences Scheduling
Source: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 2-10.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation, emotion, and development that is concerned with the social conditions that facilitate or hinder human flourishing. While applicable to many domains, the theory has been commonly used to understand what moves students to act and persist in educational settings. SDT focuses on the factors that influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which primarily involves the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.

Basic Psychological Needs

SDT posits that human motivation is guided by the need to fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy refers to having a choice in one's own individual behaviors and feeling that those behaviors stem from individual volition rather than from external pressure or control. In educational contexts, students feel autonomous when they are given options, within a structure, about how to perform or present their work.

Competence refers to perceiving one's own behaviors or actions as effective and efficient. Students feel competent when they are able to track their progress in developing skills or an understanding of course material. This is often fostered when students receive clear feedback regarding their progression in the class.

Relatedness refers to feeling a sense of belonging, closeness, and support from others. In educational settings, relatedness is fostered when students feel connected, both intellectually and emotionally, to their peers and instructors in the class. This can often be accomplished through interactions that allow members of the class to get to know each other on a deeper, more personal level.

Continuum of Self-Determination

SDT also posits that motivation exists on a continuum. When an environment provides enough support for the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, an individual may experience self-determined forms of motivation: intrinsic motivation, integration, and identification. Self-determined motivation occurs when there is an internal perceived locus of causality (i.e., internal factors are the main driving force for the behavior). Integration and identification are also grouped as autonomous extrinsic motivation as the behavior is driven by internal and volitional choice.

Intrinsic motivation, which is the most self-determined type of motivation, occurs when individuals naturally and spontaneously perform behaviors as a result of genuine interest and enjoyment.

Integrated regulation is when individuals identify the importance of a behavior, integrate this behavior into their self-concept, and pursue activities that align with this self-concept.

Identified regulation is where people identify and recognize the value of a behavior, which then drives their action.

When an environment does not provide enough support for the satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, an individual may experience non-self-determined forms of motivation: introjection and external regulation. Introjection and external regulation are grouped as controlled extrinsic motivation because people enact these behaviors due to external or internal pressures.

Introjected regulation occurs when individuals are controlled by internalized consequences administered by the individual themselves, such as pride, shame, or guilt.

External regulation is when people's behaviors are controlled exclusively by external factors, such as rewards or punishments.

Finally, at the bottom of the continuum is amotivation, which is lowest form of motivation.

Amotivation exists when there is a complete lack of intention to behave and there is no sense of achievement or purpose when the behavior is performed.

Below is a figure depicting the continuum of self-determination taken from Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose (2009).

Although having intrinsically motivated students would be the ultimate goal, it may not be a practical one within educational settings. That's because there are several tasks that are required of students to meet particular learning objectives that may not be inherently interesting or enjoyable. Instead, instructors can employ various strategies to satisfy students' basic psychological needs, which should move their level of motivation along the continuum, and hopefully lead to more self-determined forms of motivation, thus yielding the greatest rewards in terms of student academic outcomes.

Below are suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Strategies to Enhance Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness

Autonomy Strategies

Have students choose paper topics

Have students choose the medium with which they will present their work

Co-create rubrics with students (e.g., participation rubrics, assignment rubrics)

Have students choose the topics you will cover in a particular unit

Drop the lowest assessment or two (e.g., quizzes, exams, homework)

Have students identify preferred assignment deadlines

Gather mid-semester feedback and make changes based on student suggestions

Provide meaningful rationales for learning activities

Acknowledge students' feelings about the learning process or learning activities throughout the course

Competence Strategies

Set high but achievable learning objectives

Communicate to students that you believe they can meet your high expectations

Communicate clear expectations for each assignment (e.g., use rubrics)

Include multiple low-stakes assessments

Give students practice with feedback before assessments

Provide lots of early feedback to students

Have students provide peer feedback

Scaffold assignments

Praise student effort and hard work

Provide a safe environment for students to fail and then learn from their mistakes

Relatedness Strategies

Share personal anecdotes

Get to know students via small talk before/after class and during breaks

Require students to come to office hours (individually or in small groups)

Have students complete a survey where they share information about themselves

Use students' names (perhaps with the help of name tents)

Have students incorporate personal interests into their assignments

Share a meal with students or bring food to class

Incorporate group activities during class, and allow students to work with a variety of peers

Arrange formal study groups

Convey warmth, caring, and respect to students

Sources:

Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. (2009). Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 785-795.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford.

Additional Strategies for Motivating Students

Below are some additional research-based strategies for motivating students to learn.

Become a role model for student interest. Deliver your presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a display of your motivation, your passion motivates your students. Make the course personal, showing why you are interested in the material.

Get to know your students. You will be able to better tailor your instruction to the students' concerns and backgrounds, and your personal interest in them will inspire their personal loyalty to you. Display a strong interest in students' learning and a faith in their abilities.

Use examples freely. Many students want to be shown why a concept or technique is useful before they want to study it further. Inform students about how your course prepares students for future opportunities.

Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. These activities directly engage students in the material and give them opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.

Teach by discovery. Students find it satisfying to reason through a problem and discover the underlying principle on their own.

Cooperative learning activities are particularly effective as they also provide positive social pressure.

Set realistic performance goals and help students achieve them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable goals. Design assignments that are appropriately challenging in view of the experience and aptitude of the class.

Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests should be a means of showing what students have mastered, not what they have not. Avoid grading on the curve and give everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard and grades.

Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Negative comments should pertain to particular performances, not the performer. Offer nonjudgmental feedback on students' work, stress opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.

Give students as much control over their own education as possible. Let students choose paper and project topics that interest them. Assess them in a variety of ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations, etc.) to give students more control over how they show their understanding to you. Give students options for how these assignments are weighted.

Sources:

Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

DeLong, M., & Winter, D. (2002). Learning to teach and teaching to learn mathematics: Resources for professional development. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.

Nilson, L. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Chelsea Yarborough and Heather Fedesco Print Version Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/. Introduction Expectancy - Value - Cost Model ARCS Model of Instructional Design Self-Determination Theory Additional Strategies for Motivating Students Introduction Fostering student...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In this post, PhD student Tanya Lubicz-Nawrocka explains what the term 'co-creation of the curriculum' means, and how it can be an effective student partnership approach...
Co-creation of the curriculum is one form of engagement in undergraduate learning and teaching in which students and staff work in partnership so that each has a voice and a stake in curriculum development. Although co-creation can occur in various contexts with different participants - such as academic and professional services staff co-creating learning and teaching together or with external partners from the community or local businesses - the growing literature surrounding co-creation of the curriculum often emphasises the importance of student partners who contribute to learning and teaching.

Cook-Sather, Bovill and Felten (2014, pp. 6-7) provide a valuable definition of student/staff partnerships in co-creating the curriculum as "a collaborative, reciprocal process through which all participants have the opportunity to contribute equally, although not necessarily in the same ways, to curricular or pedagogical conceptualisation, decision making, implementation, investigation, or analysis". This definition helps show the many different ways that students can work in partnership with staff to improve learning and teaching, but Cook-Sather, Bovill and Felten also emphasise that all partnerships must be built on strong working relationships that foster respect, reciprocity, and shared responsibility.

A helpful way to think about different forms of student and staff engagement - including co-creation of the curriculum - is by seeing them in a spectrum of engagement. For example, Bovill and Bulley (2011, p. 180) have created a "ladder of student participation in curriculum design" that shows how student engagement in the curriculum can range from no engagement within a dictated, staff-controlled curriculum to significant levels of student engagement with student control of the curriculum (see below).

Co-creation of the curriculum is often conceptualised in the middle, such as in the rungs of 'student control of some areas of choice' and especially 'partnership - a negotiated curriculum' with significant student engagement in curriculum design through staff and students negotiating and sharing control over some areas of the curriculum. This aspect of negotiation is an important one, showing that staff still take ownership over quality assurance and other aspects of the curriculum, but they can create windows of opportunity for students to share responsibility over decisions that affect how or what they are learning. These opportunities not only benefit students but also staff since there is reciprocity and respect for innovative ideas that benefit both as they learn from each other.

There are many different projects with students and staff co-creating the curriculum at universities around the world, although these initiatives are still relatively rare. Indeed, often it can be difficult to delineate exactly what is co-creation of the curriculum and where these projects are taking place. However, I would consider several good examples from the Teaching Matters blog to be co-created, such as the Conservation Science course, Understanding Gender in the Contemporary World course, many examples of experiential education and place-based education, and creative learning and teaching with Lego.

While these examples do come with the challenges and risks of embracing spontaneity and sharing ownership (Bovill, Cook-Sather, Felten, Millard, & Moore-Cherry, 2016; Mercer-Mapstone et al., 2017), there are also many benefits! For example, students' and staff members' increased enjoyment of learning and teaching alongside their professional development are particularly notable (Bovill & Bulley, 2011; Lubicz-Nawrocka, 2018; Lubicz-Nawrocka & Simoni, 2018; Matthews, 2016; Mercer-Mapstone et al., 2017). Many aspects of co-creation of the curriculum can also advance characteristics that students perceive as excellence in teaching and student support, as we found in previous research drawing on the Edinburgh University Students' Association's Teaching Awards data (Lubicz-Nawrocka & Bunting, 2018).

I don't think it is a coincidence that many examples of co-creation of the curriculum that reflect on students' and staff members' shared respect, reciprocity, and responsibility are in the list of top 10 blog posts on Teaching Matters in 2018, or are nominated for Teaching Awards, since they are inspiring examples that demonstrate the many benefits of working in partnership with students. As we move into 2019, it is valuable to reflect on how, within our varied work, we can embrace partnerships such as co-creation of the curriculum to create opportunities for students to share their expertise, experience, and insights with us to improve learning and teaching.

For further reading about co-creation of the curriculum and students as partners in learning and teaching, I would recommend the following journals:
References
Bovill, C., & Bulley, C. J. (2011). A model of active student participation in curriculum design: Exploring desirability and possibility. In C. E. Rust (Ed.), Improving Student Learning (ISL) 18: Global theories and local practices: Institutional, disciplinary and cultural variations (pp. 176 - 188). Oxford, UK: Oxford Brookes University: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development.

Bovill, C., Cook-Sather, A., Felten, P., Millard, L., & Moore-Cherry, N. (2016). Addressing potential challenges in co-creating learning and teaching: Overcoming resistance, navigating institutional norms and ensuring inclusivity in student-staff partnerships. Higher Education, 71(2), 195-208. doi:10.1007/s10734-015-9896-4

Cook-Sather, A., Bovill, C., & Felten, P. (2014). Engaging students as partners in learning and teaching: A guide for faculty. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Lubicz-Nawrocka, T. (2018). Students as partners in learning and teaching: The benefits of co-creation of the curriculum. International Journal for Students as Partners, 2(1). doi:10.15173/ijsap.v2i1.3207

Lubicz-Nawrocka, T., & Bunting, K. (2018). Student perceptions of teaching excellence: An analysis of student-led teaching award nomination data. Teaching in Higher Education, 1-18. doi:10.1080/13562517.2018.1461620

Lubicz-Nawrocka, T., & Simoni, H. (2018). Co-researching co-creation of the curriculum: Reflections on arts-based methods in education and connections to healthcare co-production. International Journal for Students as Partners, 2(2). doi:10.15173/ijsap.v2i2.3427

Matthews, K. (2016). Students as partners as the future of student engagement. Student Engagement in Higher Education Journal, 1(1).

Mercer-Mapstone, L., Dvorakova, S. L., Matthews, K. E., Abbot, S., Cheng, B., Felten, P., . . . Swaim, K. (2017). A systematic literature review of students as partners in higher education. International Journal for Students as Partners, 1(1).

Tanya Lubicz-Nawrocka

Tanya Lubicz-Nawrocka is a PhD Candidate at the Moray House School of Education. Her research focuses on the ways in which student engagement and co-creation of the curriculum advance students' and staff members' aims in higher education. Tanya also works at Moray House as the Partnerships and Professional Learning Coordinator.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
An introduction to student and staff co-creation of the curriculum

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this post, PhD student Tanya Lubicz-Nawrocka explains what the term 'co-creation of the curriculum' means, and how it can be an effective student partnership approach... Co-creation of the curriculum is one form of engagement in undergraduate learning and teaching in which students and staff work in partnership so that each has a voice and a stake in curriculum development.

# data[].attributes.headline
Co-Creation of Research on Co-Creation of the Curriculum

# data[].attributes.subject
Co-Creation of Research on Co-Creation of the Curriculum

# data[].attributes.body
This document captures the student perspective on co-creation, including discussions of the benefits and challenges of the process. A pretty compact read.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reflection and Design Path for the COMPASSION Pillar

# data[].attributes.body
These described PPT presentations walk students through a 3-step model (Acquisition, Retention, Transfer) to help them to understand their own learning practice and to develop a learning philosophy.

# data[].attributes.headline
The ART of Learning Part Three: Transfer

# data[].attributes.subject
The ART of Learning Part Three: Transfer

# data[].attributes.body
These described PPT presentations walk students through a 3-step model (Acquisition, Retention, Transfer) to help them to understand their own learning practice and to develop a learning philosophy.

# data[].attributes.headline
Name, Claim and Aim Our Learning Discomforts

# data[].attributes.subject
Name, Claim and Aim Our Learning Discomforts

# data[].attributes.body
In this student-oriented version of the Naming, Claiming and Aiming our Teaching Discomforts webinar, we walk students through this reflective tool and explore how we can use it to create better, more empathetic learning environments for ourselves and others.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sketchnotes and Graphic Syllabus as Pedagogical Practice

# data[].attributes.subject
Sketchnotes and Graphic Syllabus as Pedagogical Practice

# data[].attributes.body
In my classes, I often follow up on a good class discussion by translating some of the main insights into sketchnotes that I can then use for review and, later, as prompts and illustrations for subsequent classes. I find that this practice helps students to see themselves as originators and creators of knowledge, while using the sketchnotes in future classes helps students to see other students as legitimate creators of knowledge. Like the sketchnotes, the graphic syllabus is a means of shifting the tone of teacher-learner interactions and introducing creative non-linearity to the learning space. This shift to spatiality helps learners to step out of strictly a descriptive mode (that tends to manifest as species of “plot summary”) and into an analytical mode that emphasizes relationships.