# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a four-acre (1.6 ha) memorial to Franklin D. Roosevelt that celebrates the Four Freedoms he articulated in his 1941 State of the Union address. It is located adjacent to the historic Smallpox Hospital in New York City at the southernmost point of Roosevelt Island, in the East River between Manhattan Island and Queens. It was originally designed by the architect Louis Kahn in 1974, but funds were only secured for groundbreaking in 2010 and completion in 2012.

President Roosevelt made his Four Freedoms speech to the United States Congress in 1941. The Four Freedoms speech has inspired and been incorporated in the Four Freedoms Monument in Florida, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, D.C., and Norman Rockwell's series of paintings called the Four Freedoms.

Roosevelt Island was named in honor of the former president in 1973, and the planners announced their intention to build a memorial to Roosevelt at the island's southern tip. In 2005, William J. vanden Heuvel, a former U.N. ambassador and a founder of the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute, launched the effort to get the four-acre park built to Kahn's specifications, gathering more than $50 million in private and public funds. The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute subsequently kept the project going over time. Two foundations that became major donors, the Reed Foundation and the Alphawood Foundation, initiated a lawsuit against the corporation that managed the development of the memorial in a dispute over how their contributions should be acknowledged. The foundations said they were promised their names would appear close to the bust. Those responsible for the memorial's construction did not dispute that. Rather, vanden Heuvel said: "Yes, we have a contract that we believe is now a mistake. As we came to the spring of 2012, we understood that we had a work of art, and the forces that represent the artistic and cultural integrity of the project are concerned about preserving that work. The purity and integrity of the Kahn memorial is what made it so stunning."

Construction and opening

Louis Kahn was asked to design the monument in 1972. Four Freedoms Park is one of Kahn's last works. He was carrying the finished designs with him when he died in 1974 at New York City's Pennsylvania Station. After Kahn's death, his designs were continued by Mitchell |Giurgola Architects, who kept to Kahn's original intentions.

An exhibition at Cooper Union in 2005 brought additional attention and helped to advance the project. In 2006, ENYA (Emerging New York Architects) made the island's abandoned southern end the subject of one of its annual competitions. Groundbreaking took place in 2010. However, the park was tied up in litigation during its construction.

The park was dedicated in a ceremony on October 17, 2012. Tom Brokaw served as master of ceremonies. Participants included former President Bill Clinton, Governor Andrew Cuomo, former Mayor Michael Bloomberg, and relatives of Roosevelt. Cuomo said that "New York became the laboratory of progressive democracy, and F.D.R. was the scientist creating formulas for a broad range of national problems and social ills." He praised vanden Heuvel as a "juggernaut of determination". Clinton noted the memorial's location: "As we look out on this bright new day, we are close to the U.N., which he, more than any other soul, created." Four Freedoms Park became a New York State Park when it opened to the public on October 24, 2012.

In a 1973 lecture at Pratt Institute, Kahn said:

I had this thought that a memorial should be a room and a garden. That's all I had. Why did I want a room and a garden? I just chose it to be the point of departure. The garden is somehow a personal nature, a personal kind of control of nature. And the room was the beginning of architecture. I had this sense, you see, and the room wasn't just architecture, but was an extension of self.

The four-acre (1.6 ha) park stands at the southernmost point of Roosevelt Island. Looking south, the visitor has a clear view of the headquarters of the United Nations (particularly the United Nations Secretariat Building); to the north of the park is the Queensboro Bridge, which spans the East River. Approaching from the north, the visitor passes between a double row of trees that narrow as they approach the point, framing views of the New York skyline and the harbor. The memorial is a procession of elegant open-air spaces, culminating in a 3,600-square-foot (330 m ²) plaza surrounded by 28 blocks of North Carolina granite, each weighing 36 tons. The courtyard contains a bust of Roosevelt, sculpted in 1933 by Jo Davidson.

At the point, the monument itself is a simplified, roofless version of a Greek temple in granite. Excerpts from Roosevelt's Four Freedoms speech are carved on the walls of this room-like space, which is open to the sky above.

The memorial is constructed entirely in Mount Airy Granite sourced from the North Carolina Granite Corporation. Over 140,000 cubic feet (4,000 m ³) of Mount Airy Granite was used in the memorial's construction. In contrast with the hard granite forms, Kahn placed five copper-beech trees at the memorial's entrance and 120 little-leaf lindens in allées leading up to the monument.

1. ^ "Memorial Park Honoring Franklin D. Roosevelt," William J. vanden Heuvel, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute.

2. ^ Mortice, Zach (August 14, 2009). "Its Quiet Optimism Maintained, Louis Kahn's Roosevelt Island FDR Memorial Moves into Construction". AIArchitect. Archived from the original on July 23, 2011.

3. ^ "Coming to Light: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt for New York City," 2005. Cooper Union.

4. ^ "A Monument to Roosevelt, on the Eve of Dedication, Is Mired in a Dispute With Donors", The New York Times, October 16, 2012

5. ^ "Decades late, FDR memorial park dedicated in NYC", Yahoo! News, October 17, 2012

6. Louis Kahn, "1973: Brooklyn, New York," ^ Perspecta: The Yale Architectural Journal, vol. 19 (1982)

7. ^ "Section O: Environmental Conservation and Recreation, Table O-9" (PDF). 2014 New York State Statistical Yearbook. The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government. 2014. p. 672.

Coming to Light: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt for New York City, an exhibition at Cooper Union. Essays and drawings

"A Roosevelt for Roosevelt Island" (editorial), New York Times, November 5, 2007, New York Times

Rago, Danielle. "FRD Finally Comes Home," in The Architect's Newspaper, June 26, 2009

Ilnytsky, Ula. "Decades late, FDR memorial park dedicated in NYC," October 18, 2009

Sully, Nicole (2019). "Architecture from the Ouija Board: Louis Kahn's Roosevelt Memorials and the Posthumous Monuments of Modernism". Fabrications: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand. 29 (1): 60-85. doi:10.1080/10331867.2018.1540083.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a four-acre (1.6 ha) memorial to Franklin D. Roosevelt that celebrates the Four Freedoms he articulated in his 1941 State of the Union address. It is located adjacent to the historic Smallpox Hospital in New York City at the southernmost point of Roosevelt Island, in the East River between Manhattan Island and Queens.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ellis Island

The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, seen from New York Water Taxi in New York Harbor, 2013

Location | Upper New York Bay, New York Harbor, within the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey
Coordinates | 40°41′58″N 74°02′30″W﻿ / ﻿40.699398°N 74.041723°W Coordinates: 40°41′58″N 74°02′30″W﻿ / ﻿40.699398°N 74.041723°W
Area | 27.5 acres (11.1 ha)
Elevation | 7 ft (2.1 m)[1]

Built

1900 (Main Building)
1911 (Hospital)

Architect

William Alciphron Boring
Edward Lippincott Tilton
James Knox Taylor

Architectural style(s) | Renaissance Revival
Governing body | National Park Service
Website | www.nps.gov/elis/index.htm

U.S. National Monument

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument
Designated | May 11, 1965[2]

U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island
Designated | October 15, 1966[3]
Reference no. | 66000058

New Jersey Register of Historic Places

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island
Designated | May 27, 1971
Reference no. | 1535[4]

New York City Landmark

Type | District/Individual Interior
Designated | November 16, 1993[5]
Reference no. | 1902 (district), 1903 (main building interior)

Location of Ellis Island in Hudson County, New Jersey

Ellis Island (New Jersey)

Ellis Island (New York City)

Ellis Island (New York)

Ellis Island (the United States)

Ellis Island is a federally owned island in New York Harbor, situated within the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey, that was the busiest immigrant inspection and processing station in the United States. From 1892 to 1954, nearly 12 million immigrants arriving at the Port of New York and New Jersey were processed there under federal law.[6] Today, it is part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and is accessible to the public only by ferry. The north side of the island is the site of the main building, now a national museum of immigration. The south side of the island, including the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is open to the public only through guided tours.

In the 19th century, Ellis Island was the site of Fort Gibson and later became a naval magazine. The first inspection station opened in 1892 and was destroyed by fire in 1897. The second station opened in 1900 and housed facilities for medical quarantines and processing immigrants. After 1924, Ellis Island was used primarily as a detention center for migrants. During both World War I and World War II, its facilities were also used by the US military to detain prisoners of war. After the immigration station's closure, the buildings languished for several years until they were partially reopened in 1976. The main building and adjacent structures were completely renovated in 1990.

The 27.5-acre (11.1 ha) island was greatly expanded by land reclamation between the late 1890s and the 1930s. Jurisdictional disputes between New Jersey and New York State persisted until the 1998 US Supreme Court ruling in New Jersey v. New York.

Geography and access[edit]

Ellis Island is in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island. While most of the island is in Jersey City, New Jersey, a small section is an exclave of New York City.[7][8] The island has a land area of 27.5 acres (11.1 ha), much of which is from land reclamation.[9] The natural island and contiguous areas comprise 4.68 acres (1.89 ha) within New York, and are located on the northern portion of the present-day island.[8] The artificial land is part of New Jersey.[10][8] The island has been owned and administered by the federal government of the United States since 1808 and operated by the National Park Service since 1965.[11][12]

Land expansion[edit]

Initially, much of the Upper New York Bay's western shore consisted of large tidal flats with vast oyster beds, which were a major source of food for the Lenape. Ellis Island was one of three "Oyster Islands," the other two being Liberty Island and the now-destroyed Black Tom Island.[13][14][15] In the late 19th century, the federal government began expanding the island by land reclamation to accommodate its immigration station, and the expansions continued until 1934.[16]

The fill was acquired from the ballast of ships, as well as material excavated from the first line of the New York City Subway.[17] It also came from the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey. It eventually obliterated the oyster beds, engulfed one of the Oyster Islands, and brought the shoreline much closer to the others.[18]

The current island is shaped like a "C", with two landmasses of equal size on the northeastern and southwestern sides, separated by what was formerly a ferry pier.[19][20] It was originally three separate islands. The current north side, formerly called island 1, contains the original island and the fill around it. The current south side was composed of island 2, created in 1899, and island 3, created in 1906. Two eastward-facing ferry docks separated the three numbered landmasses.[19][20]

The fill was retained with a system of wood piles and cribbing, and later encased with more than 7,700 linear feet of concrete and granite sea wall. It was placed atop either wood piles, cribbing, or submerged bags of concrete. In the 1920s, the second ferry basin between islands 2 and 3 was infilled to create the great lawn, forming the current south side of Ellis Island. As part of the project, a concrete and granite seawall was built to connect the tip of these landmasses.[21]

State sovereignty dispute[edit]

State border after New Jersey vs. New York, 1998

The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664. A clause in the colonial land grant outlined the territory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson's river."[22][23]

As early as 1804, attempts were made to resolve the status of the state line.[24] The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all waters. This was contested in Gibbons v. Ogden, which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influencing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor.[25] In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard.[26] The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834.[26][27][28] This set the boundary line at the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor; however, New York was guaranteed "exclusive jurisdiction of and over all the waters of Hudson River lying west of Manhattan and to the south of the mouth of Spuytenduyvil Creek; and of and over the lands covered by the said waters, to the low-water mark on the New Jersey shore."[29] This was later confirmed in other cases by the U.S. Supreme Court.[18][24][30][31]

New Jersey contended that the artificial portions of the island were part of New Jersey, since they were outside New York's border. In 1956, after the closure of the U.S. immigration station two years prior, the Mayor of Jersey City Bernard J. Berry commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a contingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island.[32]

Jurisdictional disputes reemerged in the 1980s with the renovation of Ellis Island,[33] and then again in the 1990s with the proposed redevelopment of the south side.[34] New Jersey sued in 1997.[34] The lawsuit was escalated to the Supreme Court, which ruled in New Jersey v. New York. 523 U.S. 767 (1998)[26][35][36] The border was redrawn using geographic information science data:[37] It was decided that 22.80 acres (9.23 ha) of the land fill area are territory of New Jersey and that 4.68 acres (1.89 ha), including the original island, are territory of New York.[8] This caused some initial confusion, as some buildings straddled the interstate border.[26] The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island.[38]

Although the island remained under federal ownership after the lawsuit, New Jersey and New York agreed to share jurisdiction over the land itself. Neither state took any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties, and each state has jurisdiction over its respective land areas. Jersey City and New York City then gave separate tax lot numbers to their respective claims.[35][a]

Public access[edit]

Two ferry slips are located on the northern side of the basin that bisects Ellis Island. No charge is made for entrance to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service.[44] A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953.[45] The ferries travel from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Battery in Lower Manhattan.[46] The NPS also offers guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour".[47][48]

The bridge to Liberty State Park

A bridge to Liberty State Park was built in 1986 for transporting materials and personnel during the island's late-1980s restoration. Originally slated to be torn down in 1992,[49] it remained after construction was complete.[50] It is not open to the public. The city of New York and the island's private ferry operator have opposed proposals to use it or replace it with a pedestrian bridge,[51] and a 1995 proposal for a new pedestrian bridge to New Jersey was voted down in the United States House of Representatives.[50] The bridge is not strong enough to be classified as a permanent bridge, and any action to convert it into a pedestrian passageway would require renovations.[52]

History[edit]

Precolonial and colonial use[edit]

The present-day Ellis Island was created by retreating glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation about 15,000 years ago. The island was described as a "hummock along a plain fronting the west side of the Hudson River estuary,"[53] and when the glaciers melted, the water of the Upper New York Bay surrounded the mass.[53] The native Mohegan name for the island was "Kioshk", meaning "Gull Island",[54][55][56] in reference to Ellis Island's former large population of seagulls.[54] Kioshk was composed mostly of marshy, brackish lowlands that disappeared underwater at high tide.[53] The Native American tribes who lived nearby are presumed to have been hunter-gatherers who used the island to hunt for fish and oysters, as well as to build transient hunting and fishing communities there.[57][58] It is unlikely that the Native Americans established permanent settlements on Kioshk, since the island would have been submerged at high tide.[58]

In 1630, the Dutch bought Kioshk as a gift for Michael Reyniersz Pauw,[b] who had helped found New Netherland.[58][59][60] When the Dutch settled the area as part of New Netherland, the three islands in Upper New York Bay—Liberty, Black Tom, and Ellis Islands—were given the name Oyster Islands, alluding to the large oyster population nearby. The present-day Ellis Island was thus called "Little Oyster Island",[14][15][61] a name that persisted through at least the early 1700s.[62][c] Little Oyster Island was then sold to Captain William Dyre c. 1674,[d] then to Thomas Lloyd on April 23, 1686.[64][58] The island was then sold several more times,[64] including to Enoch and Mary Story.[58] During colonial times, Little Oyster Island became a popular spot for hosting oyster roasts, picnics, and clambakes because of its rich oyster beds. Evidence of recreational uses on the island was visible by the mid-18th century with the addition of commercial buildings to the northeast shore.[58][65]

By the 1760s, Little Oyster Island became a public execution site for pirates, with executions occurring at one tree in particular, the "Gibbet Tree".[56][66][55] However, there is scant evidence that this was common practice.[58] Little Oyster Island was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant possibly from Wales, in 1774.[67] He unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island nine years later.[68][69] Ellis died in 1794,[67][69][70] and as per his will, the ownership of Ellis Island passed to his daughter Catherine Westervelt's unborn son, who was also named Samuel. When the junior Samuel died shortly after birth, ownership passed to the senior Samuel's other two daughters, Elizabeth Ryerson and Rachel Cooder.[69][70]

Military use and Fort Gibson[edit]

Ellis Island was also used by the military for almost 80 years.[71] By the mid-1790s, as a result of the United States' increased military tensions with Britain and France, a U.S. congressional committee drew a map of possible locations for the First System of fortifications to protect major American urban centers such as New York Harbor.[72][73]A small part of Ellis Island from “the soil from high to low waters mark around Ellis’s Island" was owned by the city. On April 21, 1794, the city deeded that land to the state for public defense purposes.[69][74] The following year, the state allotted $100,000 for fortifications on Bedloe's, Ellis, and Governors Islands,[69] as well as the construction of Castle Garden (now Castle Clinton[75]) along the Battery on Manhattan island.[69] Batteries and magazines were built on Ellis Island in preparation for a war.[76] A jetty was added to the northwestern extremity of the island, possibly from soil excavated from an inlet at the northeastern corner; the inlet was infilled by 1813.[69] Though the military threat never materialized, further preparations were spurred by another possibility of war with France in the late 1790s;[69][27] these new preparations were supervised by Ebenezer Stevens.[70][77] The military conflict also failed to occur, and by 1805, the fort had become rundown.[28]

Stevens, who observed that the Ellis family still owned most of the island, suggested selling off the land to the federal government.[70] Samuel Ryerson, one of Samuel Ellis's grandsons, deeded the island to John A. Berry in 1806.[70][78][74] The remaining portion of the island was acquired by condemnation the next year, and it was ceded to the United States on June 30, 1808, for $10,000.[71][70][27][32] Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams, placed in charge of New York Harbor defenses in the early 1800s, proposed several new fortifications around the harbor as part of the Second System of fortifications. The new fortifications included increased firepower and improved weaponry.[79][27] The War Department established a circular stone 14-gun battery, a mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks.[80][81][82] The fort was initially called Crown Fort, but by the end of the War of 1812 the battery was named Fort Gibson, in honor of Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, who was killed in the war during the Siege of Fort Erie.[83][71] The fort was not used in combat during the war, and instead served as a barracks for the 11th Regiment, as well as a jail for British prisoners of war.[28]

Ellis Island buildings circa 1893

Immediately after the end of the War of 1812, Fort Gibson was largely used as a recruiting depot. The fort went into decline due to under-utilization, and it was being jointly administered by the U.S. Army and Navy by the mid-1830s.[28] Around this time, in 1834, the extant portions of Ellis Island was declared to be an exclave of New York within the waters of New Jersey.[26][27][28] The era of joint administration was short-lived: the Army took over the fort's administration in 1841, demoted the fort to an artillery battery, and stopped garrisoning the fort, leaving a small Navy guard outside the magazine. By 1854, Battery Gibson contained an 11-gun battery, three naval magazines, a short railroad line, and several auxiliary structures such as a cookhouse, gun carriage house, and officers' quarters.[84] The Army continued to maintain the fort until 1860, when it abandoned the weapons at Battery Gibson.[27][85] The artillery magazine was expanded in 1861, during the American Civil War, and part of the parapet was removed.[84]

At the end of the Civil War, the fort declined again, this time to an extent that the weaponry was rendered unusable.[84] Through the 1870s, the Navy built additional buildings for its artillery magazine on Ellis Island,[86] eventually constructing 11 buildings in total.[87] Complaints about the island's magazines started to form, and by the 1870s, The New York Sun was publishing "alarming reports" about the magazines.[70] The guns were ordered removed in 1881, and the island passed under the complete control of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.[85]

First immigration station[edit]

Anti-immigrant cartoon expressing opposition to the construction of Ellis Island (Judge, March 22, 1890)

The Army had unsuccessfully attempted to use Ellis Island "for the convalescence for immigrants" as early as 1847.[70] Across New York Harbor, Castle Clinton had been used as an immigration station since 1855, processing more than eight million immigrants during that time.[88][89] The individual states had their own varying immigration laws until 1875, but the federal government regarded Castle Clinton as having "varied charges of mismanagement, abuse of immigrants, and evasion of the laws", and as such, wanted it to be completely replaced.[90] The federal government assumed control of immigration in early 1890 and commissioned a study to determine the best place for the new immigration station in New York Harbor.[90] Among members of the United States Congress, there were disputes about whether to build the station on Ellis, Governors, or Liberty Islands. Initially, Liberty Island was selected as the site for the immigration station,[90] but due to opposition for immigration stations on both Liberty and Governors Islands, the committee eventually decided to build the station on Ellis Island.[e][92] Since Castle Clinton's lease was about to expire, Congress approved a bill to build an immigration station on Ellis Island.[93]

On April 11, 1890, the federal government ordered the magazine at Ellis Island be torn down to make way for the U.S.'s first federal immigration station at the site.[59] The Department of the Treasury, which was in charge of constructing federal buildings in the U.S.,[94] officially took control of the island that May 24.[91] Congress initially allotted $75,000 to construct the station and later doubled that appropriation.[17][91] While the building was under construction, the Barge Office at the Battery was used for immigrant processing.[95] During construction, most of the old Battery Gibson buildings were demolished, and Ellis Island's land size was almost doubled to 6 acres (2.4 ha).[96][94] The main structure was a two-story structure of Georgia Pine,[95][19] which was described in Harper's Weekly as "a latterday watering place hotel" measuring 400 by 150 feet (122 by 46 m).[96] Its outbuildings included a hospital, detention building, laundry building, and utility plant that were all made of wood. Some of the former stone magazine structures were reused for utilities and offices. Additionally, a ferry slip with breakwater was built to the south of Ellis Island.[95][96][19] Following further expansion, the island measured 11 acres (4.5 ha) by the end of 1892.[91]

First Ellis Island Immigrant Station, built in 1892 and destroyed 1897

The station opened on January 1, 1892,[66][19][97][98] and its first immigrant was Annie Moore, a 17-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, who was traveling with her two brothers to meet their parents in the U.S.[56][97][99][100] On the first day, almost 700 immigrants passed over the docks.[91] Over the next year, over 400,000 immigrants were processed at the station.[f][102][101] The processing procedure included a series of medical and mental inspection lines, and through this process, some 1% of potential immigrants were deported.[103] Additional building improvements took place throughout the mid-1890s,[104][105][106] and Ellis Island was expanded to 14 acres (5.7 ha) by 1896. The last improvements, which entailed the installation of underwater telephone and telegraph cables to Governors Island, were completed in early June 1897.[104] On June 15, 1897, the wooden structures on Ellis Island were razed in a fire of unknown origin. While there were no casualties, the wooden buildings had completely burned down after two hours, and all immigration records from 1855 had been destroyed.[70][102][104][107] Over five years of operation, the station had processed 1.5 million immigrants.[102][94]

Second immigration station[edit]

Design and construction[edit]

Following the fire, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office, which was soon unable to handle the large volume of immigrants.[88][108][109] Within three days of the fire, the federal government made plans to build a new, fireproof immigration station.[88][108] Legislation to rebuild the station was approved on June 30, 1897,[110] and appropriations were made in mid-July.[111] By September, the Treasury's Supervising Architect, James Knox Taylor, opened an architecture competition to rebuild the immigration station.[111] The competition was the second to be conducted under the Tarsney Act of 1893, which had permitted private architects to design federal buildings, rather than government architects in the Supervising Architect's office.[102][112][113] The contest rules specified that a "main building with annexes" and a "hospital building", both made of fireproof materials, should be part of each nomination.[112] Furthermore, the buildings had to be able to host a daily average of 1,000 and maximum of 4,000 immigrants.[114]

Second Ellis Island Immigration Station (opened 1900) as seen in 1905

Several prominent architectural firms filed proposals,[111][114][115] and by December, it was announced that Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring had won the competition.[102][116] Tilton and Boring's plan called for four new structures: a main building in the French Renaissance style, as well as the kitchen/laundry building, powerhouse, and the main hospital building.[111][115][117][118] The plan also included the creation of a new island called island 2, upon which the hospital would be built, south of the existing island (now Ellis Island's north side).[111][115] A construction contract was awarded to the R. H. Hood Company in August 1898, with the expectation that construction would be completed within a year,[119][120][121] but the project encountered delays because of various obstacles and disagreements between the federal government and the Hood Company.[119][122] A separate contract to build the 3.33-acre (1.35 ha) island 2 had to be approved by the War Department because it was in New Jersey's waters; that contract was completed in December 1898.[123] The construction costs ultimately totaled $1.5 million.[19]

Early expansions[edit]

The new immigration station opened on December 17, 1900, without ceremony. On that day, 2,251 immigrants were processed.[102][124][125] Almost immediately, additional projects commenced to improve the main structure, including an entrance canopy, baggage conveyor, and railroad ticket office. The kitchen/laundry and powerhouse started construction in May 1900 and were completed by the end of 1901.[125][126] A ferry house was also built between islands 1 and 2 c. 1901.[127] The hospital, originally slated to be opened in 1899, was not completed until November 1901, mainly due to various funding delays and construction disputes.[128] The facilities proved barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived, and as early as 1903, immigrants had to remain in their transatlantic boats for several days due to inspection backlogs.[129][130] Several wooden buildings were erected by 1903, including waiting rooms and a 700-bed barracks,[130] and by 1904, over a million dollars' worth of improvements were proposed.[131] The hospital was expanded from 125 to 250 beds in February 1907, and a new psychopathic ward debuted in November of the same year. Also constructed was an administration building adjacent to the hospital.[127][132]

Immigration commissioner William Williams made substantial changes to Ellis Island's operations, and during his tenure from 1902–1905 and 1909–1913, Ellis Island processed its peak number of immigrants.[129] Williams also made changes to the island's appearance, adding plants and grading paths upon the once-barren landscape of Ellis Island.[133][134] Under Williams's supervision, a 4.75-acre (1.92 ha) third island was built to accommodate a proposed contagious-diseases ward, separated from existing facilities by 200 feet (61 m) of water.[135][19][132] Island 3, as it was called, was located to the south of island 2 and separated from that island by a now-infilled ferry basin.[19] The government bought the underwater area for island 3 from New Jersey in 1904,[135][136] and a contract was awarded in April 1905.[135] The islands were all connected via a cribwalk on their western sides (later covered with wood canopy), giving Ellis Island an overall "E"-shape.[20][137] Upon the completion of island 3 in 1906, Ellis Island covered 20.25 acres (8.19 ha).[138] A baggage and dormitory building was completed c. 1908–1909,[129][132][139] and the main hospital was expanded in 1909.[140] Alterations were made to the registry building and dormitories as well, but even this was insufficient to accommodate the high volume of immigrants.[141] In 1911, Williams alleged that Congress had allocated too little for improvements to Ellis Island,[142] even though the improvement budget that year was $868,000.[143]

The main building's registry room

Additional improvements and routine maintenance work were completed in the early 1910s.[139][141] A greenhouse was built in 1910,[139][144] and the contagious-diseases ward on island 3 opened the following June.[145][141] In addition, the incinerator was replaced in 1911,[140][132] and a recreation center operated by the American Red Cross was also built on island 2 by 1915.[140][144] These facilities generally followed the design set by Tilton and Boring.[132] When the Black Tom explosion occurred on Black Tom Island in 1916, the complex suffered moderate damage; though all immigrants were evacuated safely, the main building's roof collapsed, and windows were broken. The main building's roof was replaced with a Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling by 1918.[146][147][148] The immigration station was temporarily closed during World War I in 1917–1919, during which the facilities were used as a jail for suspected enemy combatants, and later as a treatment center for wounded American soldiers. Immigration inspections were conducted aboard ships or at docks.[19][140][149][148] During the war, immigration processing at Ellis Island declined by 97%, from 878,000 immigrants per year in 1914 to 26,000 per year in 1919.[150]

Ellis Island's immigration station was reopened in 1920, and processing had rebounded to 560,000 immigrants per year by 1921.[19][151] There were still ample complaints about the inadequate condition of Ellis Island's facilities.[152][153] However, despite a request for $5.6 million in appropriations in 1921,[154] aid was slow to materialize, and initial improvement work was restricted to smaller projects such as the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3.[155][151] Other improvements included rearranging features such as staircases to improve pedestrian flow.[155] These projects were supported by president Calvin Coolidge, who in 1924 requested that Congress approve $300,000 in appropriations for the island.[155][156] The allocations were not received until the late 1920s.[155]

Conversion to detention center[edit]

With the passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly, ending the era of mass immigration.[157][19][158] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, strict immigration quotas were enacted, and Ellis Island was downgraded from a primary inspection center to an immigrant-detention center, hosting only those that were to be detained or deported (see § Mass detentions and deportations).[19][158][159] Final inspections were now instead conducted on board ships in New York Harbor. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 further decreased immigration, as people were now discouraged from immigrating to the U.S.[158] Because of the resulting decline in patient counts, the hospital closed in 1930.[160][161][162]

Edward Corsi, who himself was an immigrant, became Ellis Island commissioner in 1931 and commenced an improvement program for the island. The initial improvements were utilitarian, focusing on such aspects as sewage, incineration, and power generation.[163][164] In 1933, a federal committee led by the Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, was established to determine what operations and facilities needed improvement.[165] The committee's report, released in 1934, suggested the construction of a new class-segregated immigration building, recreation center, ferry house, verandas, and doctors/nurses' quarters, as well as the installation of a new seawall around the island.[166][167][168] These works were undertaken using Public Works Administration funding and Works Progress Administration labor, and were completed by the late 1930s. As part of the project, the surgeon's house and recreation center were demolished,[128][144] and Edward Laning commissioned some murals for the island's buildings.[169] Other improvements included the demolition of the greenhouse, the completion of the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3, and various landscaping activities such as the installation of walkways and plants.[170][168] However, because of the steep decline in immigration, the immigration building went underused for several years, and it started to deteriorate.[166][164]

With the start of World War II in 1939, Ellis Island was again utilized by the military, this time being used as a United States Coast Guard base.[171][172][173] As during World War I, the facilities were used to detain enemy soldiers in addition to immigrants, and the hospital was used for treating injured American soldiers.[173] So many combatants were detained at Ellis Island that administrative offices were moved to mainland Manhattan in 1943, and Ellis Island was used solely for detainment.[164][174]

Mug shot of Pettersen, taken June 16, 1944[g]

By 1947, shortly after the end of World War II, there were proposals to close Ellis Island due to the massive expenses needed for the upkeep of a relatively small detention center.[175] The hospital was closed in 1950–1951 by the United States Public Health Service, and by the early 1950s, there were only 30 to 40 detainees left on the island.[19][176][177] The island's closure was announced in mid-1954, when the federal government announced that it would construct a replacement facility on Manhattan.[178][177] Ellis Island closed on November 12, 1954, with the departure of its last detainee, Norwegian merchant seaman Arne Pettersen (1906–1981). In 1954, Pettersen was arrested in Brooklyn for overstaying his shore leave, having been in the United States for 6 months instead of the allowed 29 days. At his trial, he claimed he had never overstayed his shore leave previously and was allowed to leave the country himself, without being deported, by 10 November of that year, if he signed to the crew of a departing ship. He left Ellis Island by ferry on 12 November, and the center closed that day.[179][180] At the time, it was estimated that the government would save $900,000 a year from closing the island.[179] The ferryboat Ellis Island, which had operated since 1904, stopped operating two weeks later.[70][181]

Post-closure[edit]

Initial redevelopment plans[edit]

Seen from east. From left to right: contagious diseases ward; lawn; hospital; ferry basin; main building, kitchen, dormitory, and immigration building

After the immigration station closed, the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned,[182] and the General Services Administration (GSA) took over the island in March 1955.[70] The GSA wanted to sell off the island as "surplus property"[183] and contemplated several options, including selling the island back to the city of New York[184] or auctioning it to a private buyer.[185] In 1959, real estate developer Sol Atlas unsuccessfully bid for the island, with plans to turn it into a $55 million resort with a hotel, marina, music shell, tennis courts, swimming pools, and skating rinks.[186][187] The same year, Frank Lloyd Wright designed the $100 million "Key Project",[h] which included housing, hotels, and large domes along the edges. However, Wright died before presenting the project.[188][189] Other attempts at redeveloping the site, including a college,[190] a retirement home,[182] an alcoholics' rehabilitation center,[191] and a world trade center[192] were all unsuccessful.[182][193] In 1963, the Jersey City Council voted to rezone the island's area within New Jersey for high-rise residential, monument/museum, or recreational use, though the new zoning ordinance banned "Coney Island"-style amusement parks.[194][195]

In June 1964, the National Park Service published making a report that proposed making Ellis Island part of a national monument.[196] This idea was approved by Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall in October 1964.[197] Ellis Island was added to the Statue of Liberty National Monument on May 11, 1965,[2][198][199] and that August, President Lyndon B. Johnson approved the redevelopment of the island as a museum and park.[199][200]

The initial master plan for the redevelopment of Ellis Island, designed by Philip Johnson, called for the construction of the Wall, a large "stadium"-shaped monument to replace the structures on the island's northwest side, while preserving the main building and hospital.[201][202] However, no appropriations were immediately made, other than a $250,000 allocation for emergency repairs in 1967. By the late 1960s, the abandoned buildings were deteriorating severely.[203][204][202] Johnson's plan was never implemented due to public opposition and a lack of funds.[202] Another master plan was proposed in 1968, which called for the rehabilitation of the island's northern side and the demolition of all buildings, including the hospital, on the southern side.[205] The Jersey City Jobs Corpsmen started rehabilitating part of Ellis Island the same year, in accordance with this plan.[206][205] This was soon halted indefinitely because of a lack of funding.[205] In 1970, a squatters' club called the National Economic Growth and Reconstruction Organization (NEGRO) started refurbishing buildings as part of a plan to turn the island into an addiction rehabilitation center,[207] but were evicted after less than two weeks.[208][209] NEGRO's permit to renovate the island were ultimately terminated in 1973.[209]

Restoration and reopening of north side[edit]

Detail of ceiling of registry room

In the 1970s, the NPS started restoring the island by repairing seawalls, eliminating weeds, and building a new ferry dock.[210] Simultaneously, Peter Sammartino launched the Restore Ellis Island Committee to raise awareness and money for repairs.[70][211][212] The north side of the island, comprising the main building and surrounding structures, was rehabilitated and partially reopened for public tours in May 1976.[70][210][213][214] The plant was left unrepaired to show the visitors the extent of the deterioration.[214] The NPS limited visits to 130 visitors per boat, or less than 75,000 visitors a year.[210] Initially, only parts of three buildings were open to visitors. Further repairs were stymied by a lack of funding, and by 1982, the NPS was turning to private sources for funds.[215]

In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca with former President Gerald Ford as honorary chairman, to raise the funds needed to complete the work.[70][216][217] The plan for Ellis Island was to cost $128 million,[218] and by the time work commenced in 1984, about $40 million had been raised.[219] Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group eventually raised more than $350 million in donations for the renovations of both the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.[220] Initial restoration plans included renovating the main building, baggage and dormitory building, and the hospital, as well as possibly adding a bandshell, restaurant, and exhibits.[221] Two firms, Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc and Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the renovation.[222] In advance of the renovation, public tours ceased in 1984, and work started the following year.[70][223] As part of the restoration, the powerhouse was renovated, while the incinerator, greenhouse, and water towers were removed.[224][144] The kitchen/laundry and baggage/dormitory buildings were restored to their original condition while the main building was restored to its 1918–1924 appearance.[223][225]

The main building opened as a museum on September 10, 1990.[226][227][228] Further improvements were made after the north side's renovation was completed. The Wall of Honor, a monument to raise money for the restoration, was completed in 1990 and reconstructed starting in 1993.[229][224] A research facility with online database, the American Family Immigration History Center, was opened in April 2001.[70][230] Subsequently, the ferry building was restored for $6.4 million and reopened in 2007.[231] The north side was temporarily closed after being damaged in Hurricane Sandy in October 2012,[232] though the island and part of the museum reopened exactly a year later, after major renovations.[233][234][235]

Structures[edit]

view

talk

edit

Buildings and structures at Ellis Island

1. Main building

2. Kitchen-laundry

3. Baggage-dormitory

4. Bakery-carpentry shop

5. Powerhouse

6. Ferry building

7. Laundry-hospital outbuilding

8. Psychopathic ward

9. Main hospital building

10. Recreation building and pavilion

11. Office building; morgue

12. Powerhouse and laundry

13. Measles wards (A, C, G, E)

14. Administration building and kitchen

15. Measles wards (B, D, F, H)

16. Isolation wards (I, K, L)

17. Staff House

18. Wall of Honor

The current complex was designed by Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring, who performed the commission under the direction of the Supervising Architect for the U.S. Treasury, James Knox Taylor.[119][236] Their plan, submitted in 1898, called for structures to be located on both the northern and southern portions of Ellis Island. The plan stipulated a large main building, a powerhouse, and a new baggage/dormitory and kitchen building on the north side of Ellis Island; a hospital on the south side; and a ferry dock with covered walkways at the head of the ferry basin, on the west side of the island.[118][237] The plan roughly corresponds to what was ultimately built.[20][238]

North side[edit]

The northern half of Ellis Island is composed of the former island 1. Only the areas associated with the original island, including much of the main building, are in New York; the remaining area is in New Jersey.[19][20]

Main building[edit]

The present three-story main structure was designed in French Renaissance style. It is made of a steel frame, with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond ornamented with limestone trim.[124][239][240] The structure is located 8 feet (2.4 m) above the mean waterline to prevent flooding.[119] The building was initially composed of a three-story center section with two-story east and west wings, though the third stories of each wing were completed in the early 1910s. Atop the corners of the building's central section are four towers capped by cupolas of copper cladding.[241][240] Some 160 rooms were included within the original design to separate the different functions of the building. Namely, the first floor was initially designed to handle baggage, detention, offices, storage and waiting rooms; the second floor, primary inspection; and the third floor, dormitories.[237] However, in practice, these spaces generally served multiple functions throughout the immigration station's operating history. At opening, it was estimated that the main building could inspect 5,000 immigrants per day.[242][243] The main building's design was highly acclaimed; at the 1900 Paris Exposition, it received a gold medal, and other architectural publications such as the Architectural Record lauded the design.[244]

Entrance to the Main Building, seen from the south

The first floor contained detention rooms, social service offices, and waiting rooms on its west wing, a use that remained relatively unchanged.[245] The central space was initially a baggage room until 1907, but was subsequently subdivided and later re-combined into a single records room.[245] The first floor's east wing also contained a railroad waiting room and medical offices, though much of the wing was later converted to record rooms.[246] A railroad ticket office annex was added to the north side of the first floor in 1905–1906.[240] The south elevation of the first floor contains the current immigration museum's main entrance, approached by a slightly sloped passageway covered by a glass canopy. Though the canopy was added in the 1980s, it evokes the design of an earlier glass canopy on the site that existed from 1902 to 1932.[247][239]

A 200-by-100-foot (61 by 30 m) registry room, with a 56-foot (17 m) ceiling, is located on the central section of the second floor.[242][248] The room was used for primary inspections.[249][246] Initially, there were handrails within the registry room that separated the primary inspection into several queues, but c. 1911 these were replaced with benches. A staircase from the first floor formerly rose into the middle of the registry room, but this was also removed around 1911.[236][141] When the room's roof collapsed during the Black Tom explosion of 1916, the current Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling was installed, and the asphalt floor was replaced with red Ludowici tile.[148][248] There are three large arched openings each on the northern and southern walls, filled-in with grilles of metal-and-glass. The southern elevation retains its original double-height arches, while the lower sections of the arches on the northern elevations were modified to make way for the railroad ticket office.[241][240] On all four sides of the room, above the level of the third floor, is a clerestory of semicircular windows.[248][241][240] The east wing of the second floor was used for administrative offices,[250] while the west wing housed the special inquiry and deportation divisions, as well as dormitories.[246]

On the third floor is a balcony surrounding the entire registry room.[236][237] There were also dormitories for 600 people on the third floor.[242] Between 1914 and 1918, several rooms were added to the third floor. These rooms included offices as well as an assembly room that were later converted to detention.[250]

The remnants of Fort Gibson still exist outside the main building. Two portions are visible to the public, including the remnants of the lower walls around the fort.[247]

Kitchen and laundry[edit]

Undated photo of southern facade of kitchen and laundry

The kitchen and laundry structure is a two-and-a-half-story structure located west of the main building.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a granite base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.[126] Originally designed as two separate structures, it was redesigned in 1899 as a single structure with kitchen-restaurant and laundry-bathhouse components,[251] and was subsequently completed in 1901.[125][126] A one-and-a-half-story ice plant on the northern elevation was built between 1903 and 1908, and was converted into a ticket office in 1935. It has a facade of brick in English and stretcher bond.[126] Today, the kitchen and laundry contains NPS offices[252] as well as the museum's Peopling of America exhibit.[253] The laundry facility is part of save ellis island's hard hat tour.

The building has a central portion with a narrow gable roof, as well as pavilions on the western and eastern sides with hip roofs; the roof tiling was formerly of slate and currently of terracotta. The larger eastern pavilion, which contained the laundry-bathhouse, had hipped dormers. The exterior-facing window and door openings contain limestone features on the facade, while the top of the building has a modillioned copper cornice. Formerly, there was also a two-story porch on the southern elevation. Multiple enclosed passageways connect the kitchen and laundry to adjacent structures.[126]

Bakery and carpentry shop[edit]

The bakery and carpentry shop is a two-story structure located west of the kitchen and laundry building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a flat roof, and a facade of brick in Flemish bond. The building was constructed in 1914–1915 to replace the separate wooden bakery and carpentry shop buildings, as well as two sheds and a frame waiting room. There are no exterior entrances, and the only access is via the kitchen and laundry.[254][255] The first floor generally contained oven rooms, baking areas and storage while the second floor contained the carpentry shop.[255]

Baggage and dormitory[edit]

View from the southeast; the baggage and dormitory (right) is east of the main building (left)

The baggage and dormitory structure is a three-story structure located north of the main building.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a limestone base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.[256] Completed as a two-story structure c. 1908–1909,[129][132][139] the baggage and dormitory building replaced a 700-bed wooden barracks nearby that operated between 1903 and 1911.[256] The baggage and dormitory initially had baggage collection on its first floor, dormitories and detention rooms on its second floor, and a tiled garden on its roof.[256][257] The building received a third story, and a two-story annex to the north side, in 1913–1914.[256][257] Initially, the third floor included additional dormitory space while the annex provided detainees with outdoor porch space.[257] A detainee dining room on the first floor was expanded in 1951.[255]

The building is mostly rectangular except for its northern annex and contains an interior courtyard, skylighted at the second floor. On its facade the first story has rectangular windows in arched window openings while the second and third stories have rectangular windows and window openings. There are cornices below the second and third stories. The annex contains wide window openings with narrow brick piers outside them. The roof's northwest corner contains a one-story extension. Multiple wings connect the baggage and laundry to its adjacent buildings.[256]

Powerhouse[edit]

The powerhouse of Ellis Island is a two-story structure located north of the kitchen and laundry building and west of the baggage and dormitory building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.[20][238] Like the kitchen and laundry, it was completed in 1901.[125][258][259] It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, and decorative bluestone and limestone elements. The hip roof contains dormers and is covered with terracotta tiling. A brick smokestack rises 111 feet (34 m) from ground level.[256]

Formerly, the powerhouse provided almost all power for Ellis Island. A coal trestle at the northwest end was used to transport coal for power generation from 1901 to 1932, when the powerhouse started using fuel oil.[256] The powerhouse also generated steam for the island.[260] After the immigration station closed, the powerhouse deteriorated[214] and was left unrepaired until the 1980s renovation.[224] The powerhouse is no longer operational; instead, the island receives power from 13,200-volt cables that lead from a Public Service Electric & Gas substation in Liberty State Park. The powerhouse contains sewage pumps that can dispose of up to 480 U.S. gallons per minute (1,800 L/min) to the Jersey City Sewage Authority sewage system. A central heating plant was installed during the 1980s renovation.[261]

South side[edit]

The southern side of Ellis Island, located across the ferry basin from the northern side, is composed of island 2 (created in 1899) and island 3 (created in 1906).[138] The entire southern side of the island is in New Jersey, and the majority of the site is occupied by the hospital buildings. A central corridor runs southward from the ferry building on the west side of the island. Two additional corridors split eastward down the centers of islands 2 and 3.[19][20]

Island 2[edit]

Island 2 comprises the northern part of Ellis Island's southern portion. The structures share the same design: a brick facade in Flemish bond, quoins, and limestone ornamentation.[262][263][264] All structures were internally connected via covered passageways.[19][20]

A Smith Drum laundry machine in the outbuilding

The laundry-hospital outbuilding is south of the ferry terminal, and was constructed in 1900–1901 along with the now-demolished surgeon's house.[128][262] The structure is one and a half stories tall with a hip roof and skylights facing to the north and south.[262] Repaired repeatedly throughout its history,[265] the laundry-outbuilding was last restored in 2002.[266] It had linen, laundry, and disinfecting rooms; a boiler room; a morgue with autopsy room; and quarters for the laundry staff on the second floor.[265]

To the east is the psychopathic ward, a two-story building erected 1906–1907.[127][267][268] The building is the only structure in the hospital complex to have a flat roof, and formerly also had a porch to its south.[268][263] It housed 25 to 30 beds and was intended for the temporary treatment of immigrants suspected of being insane or having mental disorders, pending their deportation, hospitalization, or commitment to sanatoria. Male and female patients were segregated, and there were also a dayroom, veranda, nurse's office, and small pantry on each floor. In 1952 the psychopathic ward was converted into a Coast Guard brig.[263][269]

The main building is directly east of the psychopathic ward. It is composed of three similarly designed structures: from west to east, they are Hospital Building No. 1 (built 1900–1901), the Administration Building (1905–1907), and Hospital Building No. 2 (1908–1909).[128][264] The 3.5-story building no. 1 is shaped like an inverted "C" with two 2.5-story rectangular wings facing southward; the wings contain two-story-tall porches. The administration building is smaller but also 3.5 stories. The 3.5-story building no. 2 is similar to building no. 1, but also has a three-story porch at the south elevation of the central pavilion. All three buildings have stone-stoop entrances on their north facades and courtyards on their south.[264]

Recreation hall[edit]

The recreation hall and one of the island's two recreation shelters are located between islands 2 and 3 on the western side of Ellis Island, at the head of the former ferry basin between the two landmasses.[19][20] Built in 1937 in the Colonial Revival style, the structures replaced an earlier recreation building at the northeast corner of island 2.[270][271][272]

The recreation hall is a two-story building with a limestone base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, a gable roof, and terracotta ornamentation. The first floor contained recreational facilities, while the second floor was used mostly for offices. It contains wings on the north, south, and west. The recreation shelter, a one-story brick pavilion, is located directly to the east.[272][273] A second shelter of similar design was located adjacent to the power plant on the island's north side.[271][273]

Island 3[edit]

Isolation ward on island 3

As part of the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, the contagious disease hospital comprised 17 pavilions, connected with a central connecting corridor. Each pavilion contained separate hospital functions that could be sealed off from each other.[19][20] Most of the structures were completed in 1911.[145][141][274] The pavilions included eight measles wards, three isolation wards, a power house/sterilizer/autopsy theater, mortuary, laboratory, administration building, kitchen, and staff house. All structures were designed by James Knox Taylor in the Italian Renaissance style and are distinguished by red-tiled hip roofs, roughcast walls of stucco, and ornamentation of brick and limestone.[274]

The office building and laboratory is a 2.5-story structure located at the west end of island 3.[275] It housed doctors' offices and a dispensary on the first floor, along with a laboratory and pharmacists' quarters on the second floor.[275][276] In 1924, the first floor offices were converted into male nurses' quarters.[277] A one-story morgue is located east of the office building, and was converted to the "Animal House" circa 1919.[278][279]

An "L"-shaped powerhouse and laundry building, built in 1908, is also located on the west side of island 3. It has a square north wing with boiler, coal, and pump rooms, as well as a rectangular south wing with laundry and disinfection rooms, staff kitchen, and staff pantry.[276][280] The powerhouse and laundry also had a distinctive yellow-brick smokestack. Part of the building was converted into a morgue and autopsy room in the 1930s.[280][281]

To the east are the eight measles pavilions (also known as wards A-H), built in phases from 1906 to 1909 and located near the center of island 3. There are four pavilions each to the west and east of island 3's administration building. All of the pavilions are identical, two-story rectangular structures.[276][282][283] Each pavilion floor had a spacious open ward with large windows on three sides and independent ventilation ducts. A hall leading to the connecting corridor was flanked by bathrooms, nurses' duty room, offices, and a serving kitchen.[283]

The administration building is a 3.5-story structure located on the north side of island 3's connecting corridor, in the center of the landmass.[284] It included reception rooms, offices, and a staff kitchen on the first floor; nurses' quarters and operating rooms on the second floor; and additional staff quarters on the third floor.[285] A one-story kitchen with a smokestack is located opposite the administration building to the south.[286][287]

The eastern end of island 3 contained three isolation pavilions (wards I-K) and a staff building.[276] The isolation pavilions were intended for patients for more serious diseases, including scarlet fever, diphtheria, and a combination of either of these diseases with measles and whooping cough. Each pavilion is a 1.5-story rectangular structure. Wards I and K are located to the south of the connecting corridor while ward J is located to the north; originally, all three pavilions were freestanding structures, but covered ways were built between wards I and K and the center corridor in 1914. There were also nurses' quarters in each attic.[276][288][289] The staff building. located at the extreme east end of island 3's connecting corridor, is a 2.5-story building for high-ranking hospital staff. Living and dining rooms, a kitchen, and a library were located on the first floor while bedrooms were located on the second floor.[276][290]

Ferry building[edit]

Ellis Island Ferry Building

The ferry building is at the western end of the ferry basin, within New Jersey.[20][291] The current structure was built in 1936[292] and is the third ferry landing to occupy the site.[291] It is made of a steel-and-concrete frame with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond, and limestone and terracotta ornamentation, in the Moderne architectural style. The building's central pavilion is mostly one story tall, except for a two-story central section that is covered by a hip roof with cupola. Two rectangular wings are located to the north and south and are oriented east–west.[291][292][293] The south wing was originally reserved for U.S. Customs while the north wing contained a lunchroom and restrooms. A wooden dock extends east from the ferry building.[293] The ferry building is connected to the kitchen and laundry to the north, and the hospital to the south, via covered walkways.[291][293] The structure was completely restored in 2007.[231]

Immigration procedures[edit]

By the time Ellis Island's immigration station closed, almost 12 million immigrants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration.[88] It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal nearby.[294][295] Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River/Hudson River at that time.[296] At the time of closure, it was estimated that closer to 20 million immigrants had been processed or detained at Ellis Island.[297][179] According to an estimate by The History Channel, about 40% of the population of the United States can trace their ancestry to immigrants who arrived in America at Ellis Island.[298]

Initial immigration policy provided for the admission of most immigrants to the United States, other than those with mental or physical disabilities, or a moral, racial, religious, or economic reason for exclusion.[299] At first, the majority of immigrants arriving were Northern and Western Europeans, with the largest numbers coming from the German Empire, the Russian Empire and Finland, the United Kingdom, and Italy.[300] Eventually, these groups of peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Jews. These people immigrated for a variety of reasons including escaping political and economic oppression, as well as persecution, destitution, and violence. Other groups of peoples being processed through the station were Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and Armenians.[157]

Immigration through Ellis Island peaked in the first decade of the 20th century.[129][301] Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million immigrants per year arrived in the United States.[301] Immigration officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day during peak times at Ellis Island.[302] Two-thirds of those individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and central Europe.[303] The peak year for immigration at Ellis Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed,[66] and the all-time daily high occurred on April 17 of that year, when 11,747 immigrants arrived.[304][305] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, which both greatly reduced immigration and allowed processing overseas, Ellis Island was only used by those who had problems with their immigration paperwork, as well as displaced persons and war refugees.[158][159][306] This affected both nationwide and regional immigration processing: only 2.34 million immigrants passed through the Port of New York from 1925 to 1954, compared to the 12 million immigrants processed from 1900 to 1924.[i][301] Average annual immigration through the Port of New York from 1892 to 1924 typically numbered in the hundreds of thousands, though after 1924, annual immigration through the port was usually in the tens of thousands.[301]

Inspections[edit]

Medical inspection[edit]

Beginning in the 1890s, initial medical inspections were conducted by steamship companies at the European ports of embarkation; further examinations and vaccinations occurred on board ship during the voyage to New York.[307][308] On arrival at the port of New York, ships halted at the New York state quarantine station near the Narrows. Those with serious contagious diseases (such as cholera and typhus) were quarantined at Hoffman Island or Swinburne Island, two artificial islands off the shore of Staten Island to the south.[309][310][311] The islands ceased to be used for quarantine by the 1920s due to the decline in inspections at Ellis Island.[308] For the vast majority of passengers, since most transatlantic ships could not dock at Ellis Island due to shallow water, the ships unloaded at Manhattan first, and steerage passengers were then taken to Ellis Island for processing. First- and second-class passengers typically bypassed the Ellis Island processing altogether.[312]

To support the activities of the United States Bureau of Immigration, the United States Public Health Service operated an extensive medical service. The medical force at Ellis Island started operating when the first immigration station opened in 1892, and was suspended when the station burned down in 1897.[313] Between 1897 and 1902, medical inspections took place both at other facilities in New York City and on ships in the New York Harbor.[314] A second hospital called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43 or the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital was built in 1902 and operated through 1930.[160][161][162] Uniformed military surgeons staffed the medical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the Battery's Barge Office, and Ellis Island's Main Building.[315][316] Immigrants were brought to the island via barge from their transatlantic ships.[317][318]

A "line inspection" was conducted in the main building. In the line inspection, the immigrants were split into several single-file lines, and inspectors first checked for any visible physical disabilities.[316][318][319] Each immigrant was inspected by two inspectors: one to catch any initial physical disabilities, and another to check for any other ailments that the first inspector did not notice.[319] The doctors then observed immigrants as they walked, to determine any irregularities in their gait. Immigrants were asked to drop their baggage and walk up the stairs to the second floor.[320][318][319]

The line inspection at Ellis Island was unique because of the volume of people it processed, and as such, used several unconventional methods of medical examination.[316][321] For example, after an initial check for physical disabilities, inspectors used special forceps or the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs of eye diseases such as trachoma.[322] Following each examination, inspectors used chalk to draw symbols on immigrants who were suspected to be sick.[323][317][321] Some immigrants supposedly wiped the chalk marks off surreptitiously or inverted their clothes to avoid medical detention.[320] Chalk-marked immigrants and those with suspected mental disabilities were then sent to rooms for further inspection, according to a 1917 account.[317]

The symbols used for chalk markings were:[323][317]

B – Back

C – Conjunctivitis

TC – Trachoma

E – Eyes

F – Face

FT – Feet

G – Goiter

H – Heart

K – Hernia

L – Lameness

N – Neck

P – Physical and Lungs

PG – Pregnancy

S – Senility

SC – Scalp (favus)

X – Suspected mental defect

ⓧ – Definite signs of mental defect

Primary inspection[edit]

Once immigrants had completed and passed the medical examination, they were sent to the Registry Room to undergo what was called primary inspection. This consisted of interrogations conducted by U.S. Immigrant Inspectors to determine if each newcomer was eligible for admission. In addition, any medical certificates issued by physicians were taken into account. Aside from the U.S. immigrant inspectors, the Bureau of Immigration work force included interpreters, watchmen, matrons, clerks and stenographers.[324] According to a reconstruction of immigration processes in 1907, immigrants who passed the initial inspections spent two to five hours at Ellis Island to do these interviews. Arrivals were asked a couple dozen questions, including name, occupation, and the amount of money they carried. The government wanted to determine whether new arrivals would be self-sufficient upon arrival, and on average, wanted the immigrants to have between $18 and $25 (worth between $523 and $727 as of 2021[j]).[307][325] Some immigrants were also given literacy tests in their native languages, though children under 16 were exempt. The determination of admissibility was relatively arbitrary and determined by the individual inspector.[324]

U.S. Immigrant Inspectors used some other symbols or marks as they interrogated immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain them, including:[323]

SI – Special Inquiry

IV – Immigrant Visa

LPC – Likely or Liable to become a Public Charge

Med. Cert. – Medical certificate issued

Those who were cleared were given a medical certificate or an affidavit.[318] According to a 1912 account by physician Alfred C. Reed, immigrants were medically cleared only after three on-duty physicians signed an affidavit.[321] Those with visible illnesses were deported or held in the island's hospital.[307][325] Those who were admitted often met with relatives and friends at the Kissing Post, a wooden column outside the registry room.[326]

Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrants, of which 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry. Approximately 4.4% of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased, and one percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes. The proportion of "diseased" increased to 8.0% during the Spanish flu of 1918–1919.[327] More than 3,000 attempted immigrants died in the island's hospital.[307][325] Some unskilled workers were deemed "likely to become a public charge" and so were rejected; about 2% of immigrants were deported.[307][325] Immigrants could also be excluded if they were disabled and previously rejected; if they were Chinese, regardless of their citizenship status; or if they were contract laborers, stowaways, and workaways.[324] However, immigrants were exempt from deportation if they had close family ties to a U.S. permanent resident or citizen, or if they were seamen.[328] Ellis Island was sometimes known as the "Island of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island" for these deportees.[329] If immigrants were rejected, appeals could be made to a three-member board of inquiry.[330]

Mass detentions and deportations[edit]

Immigrants being inspected, 1904

Ellis Island's use as a detention center dates from World War I, when it was used to house those who were suspected of being enemy soldiers.[140][149][148][331] During the war, six classes of "enemy aliens" were established, including officers and crewmen from interned ships; three classes of Germans; and suspected spies.[332] After the American entry into World War I, about 1,100 German and Austrian naval officers and crewmen in the Ports of New York and New London were seized and held in Ellis Island's baggage and dormitory building.[331] A commodious stockade was built for the seized officers.[333] A 1917 New York Times article depicted the conditions of the detention center as being relatively hospitable.[334]

Anti-immigrant sentiments developed in the U.S. during and after World War I, especially toward Southern and Eastern Europeans who were entering the country in large numbers.[335][336] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, primary inspection was moved to New York Harbor, and Ellis Island only hosted immigrants that were to be detained or deported.[158][159] After the passage of the 1924 act, the Immigration Service established multiple classes of people who were said to be "deportable". This included immigrants who entered in violation of previous exclusion acts; Chinese immigrants in violation of the 1924 act; those convicted of felonies or other "crimes of moral turpitude"; and those involved in prostitution.[337]

During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island was used to hold German merchant mariners and "enemy aliens"—Axis nationals detained for fear of spying, sabotage, and other fifth column activity.[338] When the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast.[339] Unlike other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island was designated as a permanent holding facility and was used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war.[340] A total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese were ultimately detained at Ellis Island.[66]

The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to the United States. Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration laws and policies, only 30 to 40 detainees remained.[19][66] One of the last detainees was the Indonesian Aceh separatist Hasan di Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared himself the "foreign minister" of the rebellious Darul Islam movement and was subsequently stripped of his Indonesian citizenship and held as an "illegal alien".[341]

Eugenic influence[edit]

Dormitory room for detained immigrants

When immigration through Ellis Island peaked, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way of exclusion of disabled and "morally defective" people. Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century believed human reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision.[342] For many eugenicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race. Henry Fairfield Osborn's opening words to the New York Evening Journal in 1911 were, "As a biologist as well as a patriot...," on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States.[343]

Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels:

State/Local levels which handles institutionalization and sterilization of those considered defective as well as the education of the public; marriage laws; and social pressures such as fitter-family and better-baby contests.[344]

Immigration control, the screening of immigrants for defects, was notably supported by Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office from 1910 to 1939, who stated that this was where the "federal government must cooperate."[345]

At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigration policies had ought to be based on eugenics principles in order to help create a "superior race" in America. To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by immigration officials and denied entry on the basis of their disability.[318]

During the line inspection process, ailments were marked using chalk.[323][317] There were three types of illness that were screened-for:

Physical – people who had hereditary or acquired physical disability. These included sickness and disease, deformity, lack of limbs, being abnormally tall or short, feminization, and so forth.[318][343] This was covered by most of the chalk indications.[323][317]

Mental – people who showed signs or history of mental illness and intellectual disability. These included "feeble-mindedness", "imbecility", depression, and other illnesses that stemmed from the brain such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy.[318][346]

Moral – people who had "moral defects" at the time were (but not limited to) homosexuals and those of illicit sexuality, criminals, impoverished, and other groups associated with "degeneracy" that deviated from the considered norm or American society at the time.[347]

The people with moral or mental disability, who were of higher concern to officials and under the law, were required to be excluded from entry to the United States. Persons with physical disability were under higher inspection and could be turned away on the basis of their disability. Much of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects are hereditary, especially those of the moral and mental nature those these are often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well.[342] As Chicago surgeon Eugene S. Talbot wrote in 1898, "crime is hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily defects."[348] Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and criminal anthropology professor, wrote in 1906 that people with "defective physique" were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor "in the causation of crime."[349]

Leadership[edit]

Within the U.S. Bureau of Immigration, there were fifteen commissioners assigned to oversee immigration procedures at the Port of New York, and thus, operations at Ellis Island. The twelve commissioners through 1940 were political appointees selected by the U.S. president; the political parties listed are those of the president who appointed each commissioner. One man, William Williams, served twice as commissioner.[70][350]

1. 1890–1893 John B. Weber (Republican)[70][350][351]

2. 1893–1897 Joseph H. Senner (Democrat)[70][350]

3. 1898–1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican)[70][350]

4. 1902–1905 William Williams (Republican)[70][350][352]

5. 1905–1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican)[70][350]

6. 1909–1913 William Williams (Republican)[70][350]

7. 1914–1919 Frederic C. Howe (Democrat)[70][350]

8. 1920–1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat)[70][350]

9. 1921–1923 Robert E. Todd (Republican)[70][350]

10. 1923–1926 Henry H. Curran (Republican)[70][350]

11. 1926–1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican)[350][353]

12. 1931–1934 Edward Corsi (Republican)[70][350]

13. 1934–1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat)[70][350]

The final three commissioners held a non-partisan position of "district director". The district directors were:[354]

1. 1933–1942 Byron H. Uhl[355][354]

2. 1942–1949 W. Frank Watkins[356][357][354]

3. 1949–1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy[70][354][357]

Name-change myth[edit]

Scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island, 1906

According to a myth, immigrants were unwillingly forced to take new names, though there are no historical records of this.[358][359] Rather, immigration officials simply used the names from the manifests of steamship companies, which served as the only immigration records for those entering the United States. Records show that immigration officials often actually corrected mistakes in immigrants' names, since inspectors knew three languages on average and each worker was usually assigned to process immigrants who spoke the same languages.[358][359][360]

Many immigrant families Americanized their surnames afterward, either immediately following the immigration process or gradually after assimilating into American culture.[359] Because the average family changed their surname five years after immigration, the Naturalization Act of 1906 required documentation of name changes.[359][360] The myth of name changes at Ellis Island still persists, likely because of the perception of the immigration center as a formidable port of arrival.[359]

Current use[edit]

The island is administered by the National Park Service,[361] though fire protection and medical services are also provided by the Jersey City Fire Department.[252] In extreme medical emergencies, there is also a helicopter for medical evacuations.[362]

Museum and Wall of Honor[edit]

Excerpt from a museum exhibit

The Ellis Island Immigration Museum opened on September 10, 1990,[226] replacing the American Museum of Immigration on Liberty Island, which closed in 1991.[363] The museum contains several exhibits across three floors of the main building, with a first-floor expansion into the kitchen-laundry building.[364] The first floor houses the main lobby within the baggage room, the Family Immigration History Center, Peopling of America, and New Eras of Immigration.[365] The second floor includes the registry room, the hearing room, Through America's Gate, and Peak Immigration Years.[366] The third floor contains a dormitory room, Restoring a Landmark, Silent Voices, Treasures from Home, and Ellis Island Chronicles, as well as rotating exhibits.[367] There are also three theaters used for film and live performances.[364] The third floor contains a library, reading room, and "oral history center", while the theaters are located on the first and second floors. There are auditoriums on all floors.[227][368] On the ground floor is a gift shop and bookstore, as well as a booth for audio tours.[227][365][368]

In 2008, by act of Congress and despite opposition from the NPS, the museum's library was officially renamed the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one of the station's most famous immigrants, comedian Bob Hope.[369] On May 20, 2015, the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries in the first floor of the kitchen-laundry building.[370] The expansion tells the entire story of American immigration, including before and after the periods that Ellis Island processed immigrants.[370][371][253]

The Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a list of 775,000 names inscribed on 770 panels, including slaves, Native Americans, and immigrants that were not processed on the island.[372][229] The Wall of Honor originated in the late 1980s as a means to pay for Ellis Island's renovation, and initially included 75,000 names.[372][373] The wall originally opened in 1990 and consisted of copper panels.[229][224] Shortly afterward it was reconstructed in two phases: a circular portion that started in 1993, and a linear portion that was built between 1998 and 2001.[224] The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation requires potential honorees to pay a fee for inscription.[374] By 2019, the wall was mostly full and only five panels remained to be inscribed.[229]

NPS offers several educational opportunities, including self-guided tours and immersive, role-playing activities.[375][376] These educational programs and resources cater to over 650,000 students per year and aim to promote discussion while fostering a climate of tolerance and understanding.[376]

South side[edit]

Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital

The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is abandoned and remains unrenovated.[377][378] Disagreements over its proposed use have precluded any development on the south side for several decades.[223] The NPS held a competition for proposals to redevelop the south side in 1981 and ultimately selected a plan for a conference center and a 250-to-300-room Sheraton hotel on the site of the hospital.[218][379] In 1985, while restoration of the north side of Ellis Island was underway, Interior Secretary Donald P. Hodel convened a long-inactive federal commission to determine how the south side of Ellis Island should be used.[380] Though the hotel proposal was dropped in 1986 for lack of funds,[381] the NPS allowed developer William Hubbard to redevelop the south side as a convention center, though Hubbard was not able to find investors.[382] The south side was proposed for possible future development even through the late 1990s.[34][383]

Save Ellis Island led preservation efforts of the south side of the island. The ferry building remains only partially accessible to the general public.[384] As part of the National Park Service's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island was to be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated.[385]

In 2014, the NPS started offering guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour", which charges an additional fee that is used to support Save Ellis Island's preservation efforts.[47] The south side also includes "Unframed – Ellis Island", an art installation by the French street artist JR, which includes murals of figures who would have occupied each of the respective hospital buildings.[386][387]

Cultural impact[edit]

Commemorations[edit]

Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902

The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually to American citizens, both native-born and naturalized. According to the award's sponsors, the medal is given to those who "have distinguished themselves within their own ethnic groups while exemplifying the values of the American way of life."[388] Past medalists include seven U.S. presidents, several world leaders,[389] several Nobel Prize winners, and other leaders and pioneers.[388][390][391][392][393]

The USPS issued an Ellis Island commemorative stamp on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.[394]

Historical designations[edit]

Ellis Island has been part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which also includes the Statue of Liberty and Liberty Island, since 1965.[70][198][2] It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966.[3] Ellis Island has also been on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places since 1971,[4] and the main building was made a New York City designated landmark in 1993.[5] In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017.[395]

See also[edit]

Geography of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary

List of Ellis Island immigrants – (Notable persons)

List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on Islands

National Register of Historic Places listings in Hudson County, New Jersey

National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ The boundaries remain the same as today.[39] The New York side of the island is assessed as Manhattan Block 1, Lot 201,[40][41] while the portion of the island in New Jersey is assessed as Jersey City Block 21603, Lot 1.[42][43]

2. ^ Also Paaw or Paauw[58][59]

3. ^ The name "Little Oyster Island" persisted even though Ellis Island was larger than the former Black Tom Island.[14][15][61] By comparison, the comparatively large Liberty Island was called "Great Oyster Island".[14][53][63]

4. ^ The sale may have happened as late as 1680.[58]

5. ^ The opposition to an immigration station on Liberty Island stemmed from the fact that the Statue of Liberty would be built there, while Governors Island was still an active military fort.[91]

6. ^ The cited figures may run as high as 480,000.[101]

7. ^ In this photograph, Pettersen's middle name is misspelled as having the initial "O", when it is actually “P”.

8. ^ The name "Key Project" is a reference to how "the island represented the key to freedom and opportunity for so many."[188][189]

9. ^ From 1892 to 1924, about 14.28 million people passed through the Port of New York. This includes about 2.28 million processed between 1892 and 1900 at the first Ellis Island immigration station and the Battery Park Barge Office.

These numbers also include immigrants who did not pass through Ellis Island.[301]

10. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved April 16, 2022.

Citations[edit]

1. ^ "Ellis Island – Hudson County, New Jersey". USGS. Retrieved January 1, 2011.

2. ^ a b c "Proclamation 3656 – Adding Ellis Island to the Statue of Liberty National Monument". April 5, 2010.

3. ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.

4. ^ a b "New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Retrieved August 2, 2014.

5. ^ a b Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993.

6. ^ "Overview + History | Ellis Island". Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island. March 4, 2020. Retrieved September 10, 2021.

7. ^ Hudson County New Jersey Street Map. Hagstrom Map Company, Inc. 2010. ISBN 978-0-88097-763-0.

8. ^ a b c d Castagna, Richard G.; Thornton, Lawrence L.; Tyrawski, John M. "GIS and Coastal Boundary Disputes: Where is Ellis Island?". ESRI. Archived from the original on October 18, 2014. Retrieved November 17, 2013. The New York portion of Ellis Island is landlocked, enclaved within New Jersey's territory.

9. ^ "Ellis Island History". The Statue of Liberty – Ellis Island. Archived from the original on June 6, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2020.

10. ^ Biskupic, Joan (May 27, 1998). "N.J. Wins Claim to Most of Ellis Island". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 12, 2014.

11. ^ "Frequently asked questions". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. National Park Service. Retrieved November 18, 2013.

12. ^ "Ellis Island – A Brief History of Events". The Statue of Liberty – Ellis Island. Archived from the original on June 6, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2020.

13. ^ New Jersey. Legislature. Senate (1860). Journal of the ... Senate of the State of New Jersey: Being the ... Session of the Legislature. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

14. ^ a b c d Kurlansky, Mark (2007). The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. Random House Publishing Group. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-58836-591-0. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

15. ^ a b c Grimes, William (February 1, 2006). "Before There Were Bagels, New York Had the Oyster". The New York Times. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

16. ^ "Ellis Island, New Jersey, in Upper New York Bay, was the gateway for over 12 million immigrants to the United States as the nation's busiest immigrant inspection station for over sixty years from 1892 until 1954". Home | Library of Congress. August 24, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2019.

17. ^ a b "Fact Sheet: Statue of Liberty NM – Ellis Island". National Parks of New York Harbor. U.S. National Park Service. May 11, 1965. Retrieved May 1, 2019.

18. ^ a b Central R. Co. of New Jersey v. Jersey City, 209 U.S. 473 (1908).

19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 5.

20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Structural Development of Ellis Island, 1890–1935" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

21. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 73.

22. ^ See:

"The Federal and State constitutions, colonial charters, and other organic laws of the state[s], territories, and colonies now or heretofore forming the United States of America /compiled and edited under the Act of Congress of June 30, 1906". December 18, 1998.

American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States. Issue 20. Gales and Seaton. 1832. p. 479. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

Historical Magazine: And Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiquities, History, and Biography of America. H. B. Dawson. 1867. p. 136. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

23. ^ Gannett 1900, p. 82.

24. ^ a b "Ellis Island: Its Legal Status" (PDF). General Services Administration Office of General Counsel. February 11, 1963. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 31, 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2010.

25. ^ Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)

26. ^ a b c d e Greenhouse, Linda (May 27, 1998). "The Ellis Island Verdict: The Ruling; High Court Gives New Jersey Most of Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

27. ^ a b c d e f Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 11.

28. ^ a b c d e Stakely 2003, p. 18.

29. ^ Gannett 1900, pp. 78–79.

30. ^ Application of Devoe Manufacturing Company for a Writ of Prohibition/Opinion of the Court, 108 U.S. 401 (1882).

31. ^ Greenhouse, Linda (January 13, 1998). "Skeptical High Court Hears Case Over Pride and Acreage on Ellis I." The New York Times. Retrieved February 11, 2020.

32. ^ a b Logan, Andy; McCarten, John (January 14, 1956). "Invasion from Jersey". The New Yorker. p. 19. Retrieved February 14, 2011.

33. ^ Moritz, Owen (June 20, 1982). "A tale of two cities: Both claim Ellis Island". Daily News. New York. p. 75. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

34. ^ a b c Seitz, Sharon (April 2, 1997). "Ellis Island mostly in N.J." Central New Jersey Home News. pp. 1, 6 – via newspapers.com .

35. ^ a b New Jersey v. New York, 523 U.S. 767 (1998) ("New Jersey has sovereign authority over the filled land added to the original Island.").

36. ^ Brogan, Pamela (May 27, 1998). "Court rules Ellis Island is mostly in New Jersey". Courier-Post. Camden, NJ. Gannett News Service. pp. 1, 4 – via newspapers.com .

37. ^ Cho, G. (2005). Geographic Information Science: Mastering the Legal Issues. Mastering GIS: Technol, Applications & Mgmnt. Wiley. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-470-01355-7. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

38. ^ "Historic Fill Of The Jersey City Quadrangle Historic Fill Map HFM-53" (PDF). New State Department of Environmental Protection. 2004. Retrieved August 31, 2014.

39. ^ "Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument". Maps. U.S. National Park Service. March 9, 2016. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

40. ^ "An inaugural choice: Will N.J. governor's gala really be in New York?". silive.com. December 21, 2013. Retrieved June 3, 2019. After the 1998 court event, both states agreed to share jurisdiction, even though the islands remain a wholly federal property. To cement those claims, New York assigned Ellis Island the tax designation of Block 1, Lot 201. The state of New Jersey gave the place its own tax number.

41. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 6.

42. ^ "Is Liberty a Jersey Girl". New Jersey Society of Professional Land Surveyors. February 4, 2014. Retrieved February 10, 2020.

43. ^ "Tax Map Viewer – Jersey City". hostedfiles.civilsolutions.biz. Sheet 216. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

44. ^ "Fees & Passes". Statue Of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. May 20, 2019. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

45. ^ Ramirez, Anthony (June 29, 2007). "Circle Line Loses Pact for Ferries to Liberty Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

46. ^ "NPS: Liberty and Ellis Island ferry map". Ferry Map. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011.

47. ^ a b "Unrestored Ellis Island Buildings Opening for the First Time in 60 Years – Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument". nps.gov. U.S. National Park Service. September 15, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

48. ^ "Hard Hat Tours". saveellisisland.org. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

49. ^ Norman, Michael (April 29, 1986). "Linking Jersey City to Ellis I., Bridge with a Brief Life Span". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

50. ^ a b MacFarquhar, Neil (May 12, 1995). "House Action Dooms Plan For a Bridge to Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

51. ^ Low, Setha; Taplin, Dana; Scheld, Suzanne (2009). Rethinking Urban Parks: Public Space and Cultural Diversity. University of Texas Press. chapter 4. ISBN 978-0-292-77821-4. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

52. ^ Stemer, Rosalie (August 27, 1995). "On the Waterfront; A Bridge to Ellis Island? What About One That's There?". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

53. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, p. 13.

54. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 21.

55. ^ a b "The Curious History of Ellis Island". JSTOR Daily. December 1, 2016. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

56. ^ a b c "Fascinating facts about Ellis Island". am New York. December 20, 2016. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

57. ^ Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 67.

58. ^ a b c d e f g h i Stakely 2003, p. 14.

59. ^ a b c Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 3.

60. ^ Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 10.

61. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 10.

62. ^ Stainsby, W. (1902). The Oyster Industry of New Jersey. Monographs on New Jersey's industries. Somerville, NJ: Unionist-Gazette Association, State Printers. p. 5. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

63. ^ Levine, Alexandra S. (May 10, 2016). "New York Today: The Big Oyster". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

64. ^ a b Moreno 2004, p. xii.

65. ^ Bial, Raymond (2009). Ellis Island Coming to the Land of Liberty. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 12. ISBN 978-0-618-99943-9.

66. ^ a b c d e "Ellis Island Timeline". The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island Foundation. May 20, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2019.

67. ^ a b Moreno 2004, p. 72.

68. ^ De Voe, T.F. (1862). The Market Book. Containing a Historical Account of the Public Markets in the Cities of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn. With a Brief Description of Every Article of Human Food Sold Therein. Author. p. 315. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

69. ^ a b c d e f g h Stakely 2003, p. 16.

70. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae "Ellis Island Chronology". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

71. ^ a b c "Colonial and Early American New York". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. February 26, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

72. ^ Novak, Liza (July 21, 2010). Cultural Landscape Report for Governors Island National Monument. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. p. 30 – via Internet Archive.

73. ^ Smith 1913, p. 54.

74. ^ a b United States Congress (1963). United States Congressional serial set. U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

75. ^ "History & Culture". Castle Clinton National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. March 24, 2010. Retrieved January 6, 2020.

76. ^ American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States. Volume 1, Military Affairs. Gales and Seaton. 1832. p. 193. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

77. ^ Smith 1913, pp. 153–154.

78. ^ Moreno 2004, p. xxii.

79. ^ Smith 1913, pp. 55–56.

80. ^ Wade, Arthur P. (2011). Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794–1815. CDSG Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-9748167-2-2.

81. ^ "Fort Gibson". New York Division of Military and Naval Affairs. October 1, 2002. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

82. ^ "New York Forts: page 6". North American Forts. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

83. ^ Roberts, Robert B. (1988). Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States. New York: Macmillan. pp. 554–555. ISBN 978-0-02-926880-3.

84. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 19.

85. ^ a b "The Story of Ellis Island.; Interesting Incidents of Life in a Government Powder Magazine". The New York Times. May 9, 1886. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

86. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 20.

87. ^ "An Island of Explosives; Where the Navy Stores Its Gunpowder. Big Magazines on Ellis Island in New-York Bay—Precautions Against Accidental Explosions". The New York Times. October 20, 1889. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

88. ^ a b c d "Immigration". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. December 17, 1900. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

89. ^ "The Battery Highlights : NYC Parks". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. June 26, 1939. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

90. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 27.

91. ^ a b c d e Stakely 2003, p. 28.

92. ^ "In Favor of Ellis Island; Uncle Sam and the Immigration Problem". The New York Times. March 25, 1890. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

93. ^ "Ellis Island for the Immigrants". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. April 6, 1890. p. 1. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

94. ^ a b c Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 14.

95. ^ a b c Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 12.

96. ^ a b c Ralph, Julian (1891). "Landing the Immigrant". Harper's Weekly. Library of American civilization. Vol. 35. p. 821. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

97. ^ a b "Landed on Ellis Island; New Immigration Buildings Opened Yesterday". The New York Times. January 2, 1892. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

98. ^ "The First to Land". Democrat and Chronicle. Rochester, NY. January 2, 1892. p. 1. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

99. ^ "Passenger Record: Annie Moore". The Statue of Liberty – Ellis Island Foundation. Retrieved April 24, 2013.

100. ^ "First Foot on Ellis Island". New York Sun. January 2, 1892. p. 2. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

101. ^ a b "Immigrants of a Year.; Some Statistics from Landing Agent Moore of Ellis Island". The New York Times. January 1, 1893. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

102. ^ a b c d e f Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 13.

103. ^ "Gateway of the Continent". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. January 5, 1896. p. 9. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

104. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 29.

105. ^ "Ellis Island's Crowds". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. April 17, 1896. p. 7. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

106. ^ "Improvements at Ellis Island". The New York Times. August 20, 1896. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

107. ^ "Fire on Ellis Island; It Broke Out Shortly After Midnight in the Furnace of the Main Building". The New York Times. June 15, 1897. Retrieved March 22, 2018.

108. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 32.

109. ^ Unrau 1984b, pp. 215–216.

110. ^ "To Restore Ellis Island; Action Taken by The Treasury Department and Congress". The New York Times. June 30, 1897. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

111. ^ a b c d e Stakely 2003, p. 37.

112. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 15.

113. ^ Lee, Antoinette J. (2000). Architects to the Nation: The Rise and Decline of the Supervising Architect's Office. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-535186-6. Retrieved December 11, 2019.

114. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 16.

115. ^ a b c "New Landing Station". New York World. March 6, 1898. p. 11. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

116. ^ "Ellis Island Plans Accepted". The New York Times. December 8, 1897. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

117. ^ Mausolf, Lisa B.; Hengen, Elizabeth Durfee (2007). "Edward Lippincott Tilton: A Monograph on His Architectural Practice" (PDF). Retrieved September 28, 2011.

118. ^ a b "A Palace for Immigrants; New York Design for the New Buildings of the Ellis Island Station Accepted". The New York Times. January 28, 1898. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

119. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, pp. 38–39.

120. ^ United States. Department of Labor (1899). Bulletin of the Department of Labor. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 787–IA1. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

121. ^ "Contract Let To R.H. Hood". Brooklyn Standard-Union. August 13, 1898. p. 1. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

122. ^ "Queer Management". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. June 5, 1899. p. 16. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

123. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 42.

124. ^ a b "Again at Ellis Island". New-York Tribune. December 17, 1900. p. 3. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

125. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, p. 40.

126. ^ a b c d e Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 37.

127. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 44.

128. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, p. 43.

129. ^ a b c d e Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 15.

130. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 41.

131. ^ "Million for Ellis Island; Secretary of Commerce Asks That Sum for Extensive Improvements". The New York Times. January 16, 1904. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

132. ^ a b c d e f Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 25.

133. ^ Stakely 2003, pp. 45–46.

134. ^ "Ellis Island Improved; Commissioner Williams's Pleasing Landscape Gardening". The New York Times. July 12, 1903. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

135. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, pp. 48–49.

136. ^ "New Island in the Bay; Government Buys Plot Under Water Adjoining Ellis Island". The New York Times. December 18, 1904. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

137. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 24.

138. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 51.

139. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, p. 57.

140. ^ a b c d e Stakely 2003, pp. 62–63.

141. ^ a b c d e Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 16.

142. ^ "Needs of Ellis Island; Commissioner Williams Says Congress Gives Too Little Money for Improvements". The New York Times. July 11, 1911. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

143. ^ "14,500 Aliens Sent From Ellis Island". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. November 13, 1911. p. 7. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

144. ^ a b c d Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 70.

145. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 65.

146. ^ "Domestic Sabotage: The Explosion at Black Tom Island". NPS.gov Homepage. U.S. National Park Service. July 30, 1916. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

147. ^ "$45,000,000 Loss From Explosion In Wide Radius". New-York Tribune. July 31, 1916. p. 3. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

148. ^ a b c d Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 17.

149. ^ a b "Ellis Island War Hospital". The New York Times. February 24, 1918. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

150. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 734–735.

151. ^ a b Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 18.

152. ^ "Plea To Cure Evils At Ellis Island; Enlarged Buildings and Larger Staff Asked to Handle Immigrants". The New York Times. December 6, 1920. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

153. ^ Pitney, Fred B. (August 15, 1920). "Getting the Right Start on the Road to Citizenship; Americanization's First Opportunity Is At Ellis Island". New-York Tribune. pp. 51, 52 – via newspapers.com .

154. ^ "Asks $5,600,000 for Ellis Island". The New York Times. January 15, 1921. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

155. ^ a b c d Stakely 2003, p. 75.

156. ^ "$300,000 Asked for Ellis Island; President Transmits to Congress the Budget Director's Items to Remedy Conditions". The New York Times. January 23, 1924. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

157. ^ a b "Ellis Island – Facts & Summary". History.com. Retrieved November 17, 2016.

158. ^ a b c d e Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 19.

159. ^ a b c Jaynes, Gregory (July 8, 1985). "American Scene: From Ellis Island to Lax". Time. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

160. ^ a b Chan, Sewell (October 26, 2011). "Ellis Island's Forgotten Hospital". The New York Times. Retrieved December 27, 2011.

161. ^ a b Haberman, Clyde (March 22, 1998). "The Other Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

162. ^ a b Johnson, Caitlin (June 1, 2007). "Remembering The Dark Side Of Ellis Island". CBS News. Retrieved June 5, 2019.

163. ^ Stakely 2003, pp. 78–79.

164. ^ a b c Belle & Finegold 1988, pp. 20–21.

165. ^ "Committee Named on Ellis Island; Miss Perkins Appoints 42 to Investigate Conditions Facing Immigrants". The New York Times. June 23, 1933. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

166. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 80.

167. ^ "3 New Buildings To Be Erected For Ellis Island Aliens". Daily News. New York. April 1, 1934. p. 36. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

168. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, pp. 26–27.

169. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 952–953.

170. ^ Stakely 2003, pp. 87–88.

171. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 822–824.

172. ^ "Ellis Island to Get Coast Guard". The New York Times. October 31, 1939. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

173. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 83.

174. ^ "Immigration Work Is Consolidated Here; Ellis Island Solely for Custody of Aliens". The New York Times. April 11, 1943. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

175. ^ "Economy Plan May Close Ellis Island". Ithaca Journal. June 16, 1947. p. 9. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

176. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 92.

177. ^ a b "U.S. Will Move All Ellis Island Immigration Facilities to Manhattan". Press and Sun-Bulletin. Binghamton, NY. July 29, 1954. p. 4. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

178. ^ "Ellis Island to Go as Alien Station; Service Now Needs Smaller Quarters". The New York Times. June 3, 1954. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

179. ^ a b c "Ellis Island Ends Alien Processing; Last Detained Person Leaves". The New York Times. November 13, 1954. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

180. ^ Smolenyak, Megan (March 18, 2021). "We Finally Know What Happened to Arne Pettersen, the Last to Leave Ellis Island". Medium. Retrieved March 9, 2022.

181. ^ "Ellis Island Boat Makes Last Trip After Million Miles on Harbor Run". The New York Times. November 30, 1954. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

182. ^ a b c "Once Teeming Ellis Island, Bleak and Crumbling, Is Now the Home of a Lone Black Dog". The New York Times. July 16, 1964. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

183. ^ "Shrine for Sale". Daily News. New York. December 2, 1962. p. 204. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

184. ^ "Gift of Ellis Island To City Now Hinted". The New York Times. November 17, 1957. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

185. ^ Lawn, Victor H. (September 14, 1956). "Ellis Island Will Be Sold at Auction; U. S. Selling Haven of Migration Days for Private Use". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

186. ^ Novak, Matt (June 18, 2012). "The 1958 Plan to Turn Ellis Island Into a Vacation Resort". Smithsonian. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

187. ^ "Sol Atlas Dies; Builder Was 66". The New York Times. July 31, 1973. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

188. ^ a b "How Frank Lloyd Wright Would Have Transformed Ellis Island". Metropolis. July 11, 2017. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

189. ^ a b McNearney, Allison (August 19, 2017). "Lady Liberty Meets The Jetsons: Frank Lloyd Wright's Futurist Dream For Ellis Island". The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

190. ^ Hechinger, Fred M. (August 29, 1960). "College Visioned for Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

191. ^ "Ellis Island Bill Offered". The New York Times. March 6, 1956. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

192. ^ "Ellis Island Trade Fair Urged; $1,000,000 Yearly to U.S. Seen". The New York Times. March 16, 1955. Retrieved June 7, 2019.

193. ^ "Ellis Island to Become National Historical Site". The News. Paterson, NJ. November 11, 1965. p. 10. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

194. ^ "Jersey City Votes Ellis Island Zoning". The New York Times. August 7, 1963. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

195. ^ "Bill Restricts Ellis Island". The Record. Hackensack, NJ. Associated Press. August 17, 1963. p. 36. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

196. ^ "Ellis Island Plan Due". The New York Times. June 13, 1964. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

197. ^ "Udall Approves U.S. Park on Ellis Island". The New York Times. October 22, 1964. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

198. ^ a b Healy, Paul (May 12, 1965). "Ellis Island Finds Shelter With Miss Liberty". Daily News. New York. p. 3. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

199. ^ a b Unrau 1984c, pp. 1165–1169.

200. ^ "Johnson Signs Measure To Develop Ellis Island". The New York Times. August 19, 1965. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

201. ^ Friendly, Alfred, Jr. (February 25, 1966). "Design Unveiled for National Shrine on Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

202. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 103.

203. ^ Stevens, William K. (March 5, 1968). "Ellis Island at Low Point in Its History". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

204. ^ Fleysher, Ellen (July 27, 1969). "Ellis Island, Once Hope for Millions, Is Now Waiting for a Handout". Daily News. New York. p. 128. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

205. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, pp. 105, 107.

206. ^ "Ellis Island National Park May Become Reality in 1969". The News. Paterson, NJ. February 6, 1968. p. 17. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

207. ^ Carmody, Deirdre (July 25, 1970). "Squatters Put Life Into Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

208. ^ Fraser, C. Gerald (August 2, 1970). "Black Squatters Quit Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

209. ^ a b Unrau 1984c, pp. 1185–1186.

210. ^ a b c Stakely 2003, p. 109.

211. ^ "200 People Gather on Ellis Island to Open a Drive for Funds to Restore and Refurbish". The New York Times. November 6, 1975. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

212. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 1188–1189.

213. ^ Schumach, Murray (May 29, 1976). "Ellis Island Reopened, Evoking Memories". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

214. ^ a b c Pollak, Michael C. (May 28, 1976). "Ellis Island set for visitors". The Record. Hackensack, NJ. pp. 7, 12 – via newspapers.com .

215. ^ Morehouse, Ward, III (February 6, 1968). "Ellis Island attracting prospective developers". Central New Jersey Home News. p. 5. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

216. ^ "Repairs due for Miss Liberty". Asbury Park Press. Associated Press. June 20, 1982. p. 3. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

217. ^ Krebs, Albin; Jr, Robert Mcg Thomas (May 19, 1982). "NOTES ON PEOPLE; Iacocca to Head Drive to Restore Landmarks". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

218. ^ a b Gottlieb, Martin (February 23, 1986). "Restoring Ellis Island: Bitter Dispute Over the Future of a National Shrine". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

219. ^ Rangel, Jesus (May 24, 1984). "Renovation for Ellis I. Is Outlined". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

220. ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 216–218.

221. ^ Bernstein, Richard (December 9, 1982). "For Ellis Island, a Reborn Role as a Monument". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

222. ^ "Once-neglected Ellis Island shines again". The Journal-News. White Plains, NY. Associated Press. July 29, 1990. p. 94. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

223. ^ a b c Waga, Phil (May 25, 1986). "Ellis Island: An immigrant past, a tattered present". The Journal News. White Plains, NY. pp. 95, 99 – via newspapers.com .

224. ^ a b c d e Stakely 2003, p. 111.

225. ^ Stuart, Mark (June 29, 1986). "A monument to all who passed through". The Record. Hackensack, NJ. p. 266. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

226. ^ a b Golden, Tim (September 10, 1990). "Ellis Island Doors Reopening, This Time as Haven to Tourists". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

227. ^ a b c Hosmer, Philip (September 9, 1990). "Ellis Island, 1892–1900". The Courier-News. Bridgewater, NJ. pp. 21, 25 – via newspapers.com .

228. ^ Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 6.

229. ^ a b c d Paybarah, Azi (January 16, 2019). "N.Y. Today: A Wall That Honors Immigrants". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

230. ^ Sachs, Susan (April 17, 2001). "Ellis Island Opens Its Web Door; Passenger Lists Let Families Trace Immigrant Roots". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

231. ^ a b McGeehan, Patrick (April 2, 2007). "Immigrants' Final Stop on Ellis Island to Reopen". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

232. ^ "Statue of Liberty National Monument". National Park Service. Retrieved April 25, 2013.

233. ^ O'Brien, Kathleen (October 28, 2013). "Storm-damaged Ellis Island reopens a day shy of Sandy anniversary". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved November 1, 2013.

234. ^ Chinese, Vera (October 28, 2013). "Ellis Island reopens one year after Sandy". Daily News. New York. Retrieved November 14, 2013.

235. ^ "Ellis Island: Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument NJ, NY – Plan Your Visit". National Park Service. Retrieved September 25, 2014.

236. ^ a b c Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993, p. 1.

237. ^ a b c Unrau 1984c, pp. 1219–1220.

238. ^ a b c d e Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 2.

239. ^ a b Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 108.

240. ^ a b c d e Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 35.

241. ^ a b c Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 111.

242. ^ a b c Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 14.

243. ^ "New Immigrant Station; Will Be Ready for Use by December 15". The New York Times. December 3, 1900. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

244. ^ Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993, p. 6.

245. ^ a b Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 31.

246. ^ a b c Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 34.

247. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 36.

248. ^ a b c Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993, p. 7.

249. ^ Goldberger, Paul (August 14, 1990). "Review/Architecture; Gateway to America Is Once Again Ready To Greet the Masses". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

250. ^ a b Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 35.

251. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 1221–1222.

252. ^ a b Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 80.

253. ^ a b "For New Immigrants To The U.S., Ellis Island Still Means A Lot". NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved June 12, 2019.

254. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 40.

255. ^ a b c Unrau 1984c, p. 1247.

256. ^ a b c d e f g Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 38.

257. ^ a b c Unrau 1984c, pp. 1244–1245.

258. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 39.

259. ^ Unrau 1984c, p. 1223.

260. ^ Belle & Finegold 1988, p. 232.

261. ^ Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 87.

262. ^ a b c Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 50.

263. ^ a b c Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 51.

264. ^ a b c Robins & Urbanelli 1993, pp. 52–54.

265. ^ a b "4. Second Floor Plan – Ellis Island, Hospital Outbuilding, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Retrieved June 13, 2019.

266. ^ Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 16.

267. ^ Unrau 1984c, p. 1249.

268. ^ a b "Ellis Island, Psychopathic Ward, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Historic American Buildings Survey. Retrieved June 13, 2019 – via loc.gov.

269. ^ Conway, Lorie. "Forgotten Ellis Island". PBS Films. Retrieved October 2, 2014.

270. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 84.

271. ^ a b "Ellis Island, Recreation Building, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Library of Congress. Retrieved June 14, 2019.

272. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 55.

273. ^ a b Unrau 1984c, p. 1259.

274. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 58.

275. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 59.

276. ^ a b c d e f Unrau 1984c, p. 1254.

277. ^ "7. Window Details – Ellis Island, Contagious Disease Hospital Office Building, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Library of Congress. Retrieved June 14, 2019.

278. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 60.

279. ^ "Ellis Island, Contagious Disease Hospital Mortuary, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Historic American Buildings Survey. Retrieved June 14, 2019 – via loc.gov.

280. ^ a b Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 61.

281. ^ "5. Interior view of Powerhouse – Ellis Island, Island 3 Powerhouse, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Library of Congress. Retrieved June 14, 2019.

282. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 62.

283. ^ a b "Ellis Island, Contagious Disease Hospital Measles Ward A, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Historic American Buildings Survey. Retrieved June 14, 2019 – via loc.gov.

284. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 63.

285. ^ Unrau 1984c, p. 1253.

286. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 64.

287. ^ "Ellis Island, Contagious Disease Hospital Kitchen, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Historic American Buildings Survey. Retrieved June 14, 2019 – via loc.gov.

288. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 65.

289. ^ "Ellis Island, Contagious Disease Hospital Isolation Ward I, New York Harbor, New York County, NY". Historic American Buildings Survey. Retrieved June 14, 2019 – via loc.gov.

290. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 66.

291. ^ a b c d Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 49.

292. ^ a b Stakely 2003, p. 81.

293. ^ a b c Unrau 1984c, p. 1258.

294. ^ "Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal". njcu.edu. January 1, 2010. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved December 11, 2019.

295. ^ "Department of Environmental Protection".

296. ^ Cunningham, John T. (2003). Ellis Island: Immigration's Shining Center. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-2428-3.

297. ^ "Ellis Island Becomes Lonely Way Station for the Seagulls". The Herald-News. Passaic, NJ. November 12, 1954. p. 7. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

298. ^ "Ellis Island". History.com. October 27, 2009. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

299. ^ Unrau 1984a, pp. 106–107.

300. ^ Unrau 1984a, p. 192.

301. ^ a b c d e Unrau 1984a, pp. 185–186.

302. ^ Unrau 1984a, p. 6.

303. ^ Lerner, K. (2006). Immigration and multiculturalism: essential primary sources. Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale. Introduction. ISBN 978-1-4144-1265-8. OCLC 77517876.

304. ^ "Ellis Island Still Holds the Single-Day Record for Immigration — Here's Why". WNYC. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

305. ^ "Ellis Island, a gateway to America, marks 125 years". The Washington Post. January 3, 2017. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

306. ^ "Ellis Island/Immigration Issue" (PDF). The Brown Quarterly. 4 (1). Fall 2000.

307. ^ a b c d e Kennedy, Lesley (May 31, 2019). "Most Immigrants Arriving at Ellis Island in 1907 Were Processed in a Few Hours". History.com. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

308. ^ a b "Photos: The Strange History of NYC's Swinburne and Hoffman Islands". Gothamist. November 28, 2018. Archived from the original on November 28, 2018. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

309. ^ N, Virginia (March 3, 2011). "Man-made Hoffman Island, just off South Beach, had many uses, among them a quarantine station for immigrants". silive.com. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

310. ^ "New State Hospital On Hoffman Island; The Island Has Been Enlarged to Care for Contagious Disease Patients Entering the Port". The New York Times. July 4, 1910. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

311. ^ Span, Paula (May 21, 2003). "Quarantine Island". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

312. ^ Andrews, Evan. "9 Things You May Not Know About Ellis Island". History.com. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

313. ^ Unrau 1984b, pp. 576–579.

314. ^ Unrau 1984b, pp. 580–583.

315. ^ Reed, Alfred C. (1913). "Going Through Ellis Island". Popular Science Monthly and World's Advance. McClure, Phillips and Company (v. 82): 11. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

316. ^ a b c Moreno 2004, pp. 142–144.

317. ^ a b c d e f Mullan, E. H. (1917). "Mental Examination of Immigrants: Administration and Line Inspection at Ellis Island". Public Health Reports. 32 (20): 733–746. doi:10.2307/4574515. ISSN 0094-6214. JSTOR 4574515.

318. ^ a b c d e f g Bateman-House, A.; Fairchild, A. (April 2008). "Medical Examination of Immigrants at Ellis Island". Virtual Mentor. American Medical Association (AMA). 10 (4): 235–241. doi:10.1001/virtualmentor.2008.10.4.mhst1-0804. ISSN 1937-7010. PMID 23206915.

319. ^ a b c Unrau 1984b, pp. 715–719.

320. ^ a b Houghton, Gillian (2003). Ellis Island: A Primary Source History of an Immigrant's Arrival in America. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 9780823940035.

321. ^ a b c Reed, Alfred C. (1912). "The Medical Side of Immigration". The Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 80. McClure, Phillips and Company. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

322. ^ Moreno 2004, p. 79.

323. ^ a b c d e Moreno 2004, pp. 33–34.

324. ^ a b c Unrau 1984a, pp. 84–85.

325. ^ a b c d "Immigration and Deportation at Ellis Island – American Experience". PBS. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

326. ^ Moreno 2004, p. 133.

327. ^ Wilson, D. J. (June 1, 2009). "'No Defectives Need Apply': Disability and Immigration". OAH Magazine of History. Oxford University Press (OUP). 23 (3): 35–40. doi:10.1093/maghis/23.3.35. ISSN 0882-228X.

328. ^ Unrau 1984a, pp. 79–80.

329. ^ Kraut, A.M. (1982). The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American Society, 1880–1921. American history series. Harlan Davidson. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-88295-811-8. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

330. ^ Unrau 1984a, pp. 88–90.

331. ^ a b Unrau 1984c, p. 773.

332. ^ Unrau 1984c, p. 776.

333. ^ "Stockade at Ellis Island; To Be Built That Interned Germans May Have Exercise". The New York Times. April 12, 1917. Retrieved June 10, 2019.

334. ^ "Ellis Island Life Easy For Germans; Idleness and Lack of Beer Chief Drawbacks to Happiness of Interned Seamen". The New York Times. April 15, 1917. Retrieved June 10, 2019.

335. ^ "Closing the Door on Immigration". nps.gov. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved June 10, 2019.

336. ^ Unrau 1984a, pp. 110–113.

337. ^ Unrau 1984a, pp. 90–92.

338. ^ Unrau 1984c, pp. 833–834.

339. ^ Burton, J.; Farrell, M.; Lord, F.; Lord, R. (November 6, 2014). "National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Chapter 17)". cr.nps.gov. Archived from the original on November 6, 2014. Retrieved December 11, 2019.

340. ^ "Ellis Island (detention facility)". Densho Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

341. ^ Conboy, Kenneth (2003). Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces (November 16, 2002 ed.). Equinox Publishing. p. 352. ISBN 978-979-95898-8-0.

342. ^ a b Baynton, Douglas C. (August 12, 2016). Defectives in the Land : Disability and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-36433-9.

343. ^ a b Goddard, Henry Herbert (1911). "Heredity of Feeble-mindedness". The Eugenics Review. Eugenics Record Office. 3 (1): 46–60. PMC 2986754. PMID 21259511.

344. ^ Krisch, Joshua A. (October 13, 2014). "When Racism Was a Science". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

345. ^ Alexander, Denis R.; Numbers, Ronald L. (May 15, 2010). Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226608426.

346. ^ "Before Ebola, Ellis Island's terrifying medical inspections". PBS NewsHour. October 15, 2014. Retrieved January 19, 2019.

347. ^ "Ellis Island | States of Incarceration". statesofincarceration.org. Retrieved January 19, 2019.

348. ^ Talbot, Eugene S. (1898). Degeneracy: Its Causes, Signs, and Results. London: Scott.

349. ^ Lydston, G. Frank (1906). The Diseases of Society: The Vice and Crime Problem. Philadelphia, London, J.B. Lippincott Company.

350. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Moreno 2004, pp. 39–40.

351. ^ United States Congress. "WEBER, John Baptiste (id: W000236)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.

352. ^ Unrau 1984b, pp. 218, 233.

353. ^ "New Chief of Ellis Island Finds Higher Type of Aliens". The New York Times. May 16, 1926. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

354. ^ a b c d Moreno 2004, p. 40.

355. ^ Unrau 1984b, p. 274.

356. ^ Information Digest. August 6, 1942. p. 10. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

357. ^ a b Stern, R.L.; Gressman, E. (1950). Supreme Court Practice: Jurisdiction, Procedure, Arguing and Briefing Techniques, Forms, Statutes, Rules for Practice in the Supreme Court of the United States. A BNA book. Bureau of National Affairs. p. 341. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

358. ^ a b "Why Your Family Name Was Not Changed at Ellis Island (and One That Was)". The New York Public Library. July 2, 2013. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

359. ^ a b c d e Ault, Alicia. "Did Ellis Island Officials Really Change the Names of Immigrants?". Smithsonian. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

360. ^ a b "Immigrant Name Changes". USCIS. February 11, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2019.

361. ^ "Management". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. March 30, 2019. Retrieved June 4, 2019.

362. ^ Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island EIS 2005, p. 81.

363. ^ Moreno 2000, p. 19.

364. ^ a b Shepard, Richard F. (September 7, 1990). "Inside, Reliving the Immigrant's Experience". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2019.

365. ^ a b "Ground Floor". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. January 1, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2019.

366. ^ "Second Floor". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. November 14, 2013. Retrieved July 6, 2019.

367. ^ "Exploring the Ellis Island Museum". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. September 5, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2019.

368. ^ a b Villamor, Erlinda (June 29, 1986). "Ellis Island to be 'monument to common man'". Asbury Park Press. p. 210. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

369. ^ Chan, Sewell (November 24, 2008). "Thanks for the Ellis Island Memories ... Bob Hope?". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

370. ^ a b Dunlap, David W. (April 26, 2015). "Ellis Island Museum to Update the Story of Immigration in America". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved June 12, 2019.

371. ^ "Peopling Of America Center – The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island". April 24, 2020.

372. ^ a b Taylor, Ramon (April 12, 2019). "On Ellis Island, a Wall Honors Immigrants Old and New". VOA. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

373. ^ Dubin, Murray (November 20, 1988). "BUILDING A WALL OF HONOR". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

374. ^ "About the Wall of Honor". The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

375. ^ "Field Trips". Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved August 5, 2019.

376. ^ a b "Ellis Island". Seen In NY. Episode 209. February 22, 2017. New Learning Times. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019.

377. ^ O'Neill, Erin (September 26, 2014). "Public gets first look in decades of long-neglected Ellis Island hospital". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved June 3, 2019.

378. ^ Janiskee, Bob (September 26, 2008). "At Statue of Liberty National Monument, Save Ellis Island, Inc., Works to Restore Ellis Island's Time-Ravaged Buildings". National Parks Traveller.

379. ^ Moritz, Owen (February 26, 1984). "Ellis Island rebirth". Daily News. New York. p. 96. Retrieved June 5, 2019 – via newspapers.com .

380. ^ Gottlieb, Martin (November 23, 1985). "Advisory Panel Asked to Help Settle Ellis I. Plans". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

381. ^ Gottlieb, Martin (May 11, 1986). "Ellis I. Proposal Is Seen as Faulty". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

382. ^ Stanley, Alessandra (September 2, 1990). "Redone Ellis Island: Burnished but Not Brash". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

383. ^ Halbfinger, David M. (October 29, 1997). "Rescue Plan for Neglected South Side of Ellis Island". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

384. ^ Coughlin, Bill (November 2011). "New Ferry Building Ellis Island". Historical Marker Database. Retrieved February 25, 2012.

385. ^ Bomar, Mary A. (August 2007). "Summary of Park Centennial Strategies" (PDF). National Park Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2008.

386. ^ Ryzik, Melena (September 24, 2014). "Shadows Return to Ellis Island". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

387. ^ "Artist's hidden message on Ellis Island". CBS News. Retrieved June 16, 2019.

388. ^ a b "About Us". Ellis Island Honors Society. Retrieved July 21, 2018.

389. ^ "Prince Albert of Monaco Honored at Ellis Island, With Rita Moreno and Larry Gagosian". Observer. May 14, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2019.

390. ^ "Sandra Day O'Connor presented Ellis Island Medal of Honor". PIX 11 TV News. Retrieved April 21, 2015.

391. ^ "7 Armenians to Receive Ellis Island Medal of Honor". Asbarez Post. Retrieved April 21, 2015.

392. ^ "Ellis Island Medals of Honor". Ellis Island Honors Society. Retrieved July 21, 2018.

393. ^ United States of America Congressional Record Proceedings and Debates. US Government Printing Office. June 22, 1999. p. 13907. Retrieved April 21, 2015.

394. ^ Carr, Richard (January 11, 1998). "Postal Service Plans At Least 150 Releases For 1998: Part 1". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

395. ^ "Ellis Island". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. October 11, 2017. Retrieved June 8, 2019.

Sources[edit]

1. Belle, Beyer Blinder; Finegold, Anderson Notter (1988). Historic Structure Report: The Main Building, Ellis Island, Statue of Liberty National Monument.

2. "Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. November 16, 1993. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2016.

3. Gannett, H. (1900). Boundaries of the United States and of the Several States and Territories: With an Outline of the History of All Important Changes of Territory. Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780665168857. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

4. Moreno, Barry (2000). The Statue of Liberty Encyclopedia. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7385-3689-7.

5. Moreno, Barry (2004). Encyclopedia of Ellis Island. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32682-0. OCLC 55671941.

6. Robins, Anthony; Urbanelli, Elisa (November 16, 1993). "Ellis Island Historic District" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.

7. Smith, Edmund Banks (1913). Governors Island, its military history under three flags, 1637–1913. Valentine's Manual New York.

8. Stakely, Tracy (May 2003). Cultural Landscape Report for Ellis Island (PDF). Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation.

9. Statue of Liberty National Monument (N.M.) and Ellis Island, Ellis Island Development Concept Plan: Environmental Impact Statement. 2005.

10. Unrau, Harlan D. (September 1984). Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island – Historic Resource Study. National Park Serviceb.

1. Unrau, Harlan D. (September 1984a). Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island – Historic Resource Study (PDF). Vol. 1. pp. 1–206.

2. Unrau, Harlan D. (September 1984b). Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island – Historic Resource Study (PDF). Vol. 2. pp. 207–732.

3. Unrau, Harlan D. (September 1984c). Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island – Historic Resource Study (PDF). Vol. 3. pp. 733–1354.

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress.

Further reading[edit]

Baur, J. "Commemorating Immigration in the Immigrant Society. Narratives of Transformation at Ellis Island and the Lower East Side Tenement Museum", in M. König, and R. Ohliger, eds., Enlarging European Memory. Migration Movements in Historical Perspective (2006) pp. 137–146.

Baur, J. "Ellis Island, Inc.: The Making of an American Site of Memory", in: H. J. Grabbe and S. Schindler, (eds.), The Merits of Memory. Concepts, Contexts, Debates (2008), pp. 185–196.

Bayor, Ronald (2014). Encountering Ellis Island : how European immigrants entered America. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1368-6. OCLC 863043790.

Bolino, August (1990). The Ellis Island source book. Washington, DC: Kensington Historical Press. ISBN 978-0-939133-03-1. OCLC 23941104.

Cannato, V.J. (2009). American Passage: The History of Ellis Island. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-194039-2.

Coan, Peter M. (1997). Ellis Island Interviews: In Their Own Words. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-5309-5.

Corsi, Edward (1969). In the Shadow of Liberty: The Chronicle of Ellis Island. American Immigration Collection. Ayer Company Pub. ISBN 978-0-405-00517-6.

Fairchild, Amy L. (2003). Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7080-4.

Kashima, T. (1997). Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97558-0.

Lerner, K. (2006). Immigration and multiculturalism : essential primary sources. Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4144-1265-8. OCLC 77517876.

Moreno, Barry (2003). Ellis Islandv. Charleston, SC: Arcadia. ISBN 978-0-7385-1304-1. OCLC 53224584.

Moreno, Barry (2003). Ellis Island: Children of Ellis Island. Charleston, SC: Arcadia. ISBN 978-0-7385-1304-1. OCLC 53224584.

Moreno, Barry (2008). Ellis Island's famous immigrants. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. ISBN 978-0-7385-5533-1. OCLC 177000362.

"National Register of Historic Inventory Nomination Form For Federal Properties: Ellis Island–Statue of Liberty National Monument" (PDF). United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. August 9, 1980.

Pitkin, T. M. Keepers of the Gate, 1975.

Stump, H. (1892). Immigration Investigation. 52d Congress, 1st Session, House. Report. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Yew, E., M.D., "MEDICAL INSPECTION OF IMMIGRANTS AT ELLIS ISLAND, 1891–1924", Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 56, No. 5, June 1980, New York Academy of Medicine.

Ellis Island: Blocks 9019 thru 9023, Block Group 9, Census Tract 47, Hudson County, NJ; and Block 1000, Block Group 1, Census Tract 1, New York County, New York; United States Census Bureau.

"Ellis Island: Its Legal Status" (PDF). General Services Administration Offices of General Council. February 11, 1963. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2012.

Videos[edit]

Encyclopædia Britannica Films, Inc (1946). Immigration (Documentary). Internet Archive. Event occurs at 10:22. Retrieved January 20, 2009. Archive film contains scenes of Ellis Island and New York City in the early 20th century.

Guggenheim, Charles (director) (1989). Island of Hope – Island of Tears (Documentary). National Park Service. Event occurs at 28:24. Retrieved January 20, 2009. From 1892–1954, Ellis Island was the port of entry for millions of European immigrants. Fascinating archival footage tells the moving story of families with dreams of opportunity, leaving their homes with what they could carry.

Emigrants Landing at Ellis Island, a film from 1903 by Alfred C. Abadie from the World Digital Library

Ellis Island: Faces of America on YouTube, video celebrating immigrants at Ellis Island, c. 1900–1926

The short film Island of Hope – Island of Tears (1989) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

Other archives[edit]

The Ellis Island Experience – Articles, Documents and Images – Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives

Newspaper articles and clippings about Ellis Island at Newspapers.com

Children's books[edit]

Bial, Raymond (2009). Ellis Island : coming to the Land of Liberty. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Books for Children. ISBN 978-0-618-99943-9. OCLC 244481684.

Demuth, Patricia (2014). What was Ellis Island. New York: Grosset & Dunlap an imprint of Penguin Group (USA) LLC. ISBN 978-0-448-47915-6. OCLC 852221914.

External links[edit]

Official website

Ellis Island Visitor information

Liberty Ellis Foundation

Images[edit]

Eerie Ellis Island, Then and Now – slideshow by NPR

History and Photos of Ellis Island Baggage & Dormitory Building

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, seen from New York Water Taxi in New York Harbor, 2013

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
One World Trade Center, also known as One World Trade, One WTC, and formerly called the Freedom Tower during initial planning stages, is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, One World Trade Center is the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the seventh-tallest in the world. The supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which was destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The new skyscraper stands on the northwest corner of the 16-acre (6.5 ha) World Trade Center site, on the site of the original 6 World Trade Center. It is bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street to the north, Fulton Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east.

The construction of below-ground utility relocations, footings, and foundations for the new building began on April 27, 2006. One World Trade Center became the tallest structure in New York City on April 30, 2012, when it surpassed the height of the Empire State Building. The tower's steel structure was topped out on August 30, 2012. On May 10, 2013, the final component of the skyscraper's spire was installed, making the building, including its spire, reach a total height of 1,776 feet (541 m). Its height in feet is a deliberate reference to the year when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. The building opened on November 3, 2014; the One World Observatory opened on May 29, 2015.

On March 26, 2009, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) confirmed that the building would be officially known by its legal name of "One World Trade Center", rather than its colloquial name of "Freedom Tower". The building has 94 stories, with the top floor numbered 104.

The new World Trade Center complex will eventually include five high-rise office buildings built along Greenwich Street, as well as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, located just south of One World Trade Center where the original Twin Towers stood. The construction of the new building is part of an effort to memorialize and rebuild following the destruction of the original World Trade Center complex.

Original building (1971-2001)

The first One World Trade Center under construction in May 1970

The construction of the original World Trade Center was conceived as an urban renewal project and spearheaded by David Rockefeller. The project was intended to help revitalize Lower Manhattan. The project was planned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki. The twin towers at 1 and 2 World Trade Center were designed as framed tube structures, giving tenants open floor plans, unobstructed by columns or walls. One World Trade Center was the North Tower, and Two World Trade Center was the South Tower. Each tower was over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (0.40 ha) of the total 16 acres (6.5 ha) of the site's land. Of the 110 stories in each tower, 8 were set aside as mechanical floors. All the remaining floors were open for tenants. Each floor of the tower had 40,000 square feet (3,700 m ²) of available space. The North and South tower had 3,800,000 square feet (350,000 m ²) of total office space.

Construction of the North Tower began in August 1966; extensive use of prefabricated components sped up the construction process. The first tenants moved into the North Tower in October 1971. At the time, the original One World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world, at 1,368 feet (417 m) tall. After a 360-foot (110 m)-tall antenna was installed in 1978, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,728 ft (527 m). In the 1970s, four other low-level buildings were built as part of the World Trade Center complex. A seventh building was built in the mid-1980s. The entire complex of seven buildings had a combined total of 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m ²) of office space.

Destruction

At 8:46 a.m. ( EDT) on September 11, 2001, five hijackers affiliated with al-Qaeda crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03 a.m. ( EDT), a second group of five terrorists crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking between the 77th and 85th floors.

By 9:59 a.m. ( EDT), the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. After burning for 102 minutes, the North Tower collapsed due to structural failure at 10:28 a.m. ( EDT). When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center, damaging it and starting fires. The fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity. Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21 p.m. ( EDT).

Together with a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a failed plane hijacking that resulted in a plane crash in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, the attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people (2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 hijackers). More than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped, and died of smoke inhalation, fell, jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed when the building eventually collapsed. One stairwell in the South Tower, Stairwell A, somehow avoided complete destruction, unlike the rest of the building. When Flight 11 hit, all three staircases in the North Tower above the impact zone were destroyed, making it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape. 107 people below the point of impact also died.

Current building (2013-present)

Following the destruction of the original World Trade Center, there was debate regarding the future of the World Trade Center site. There were proposals for its reconstruction almost immediately, and by 2002, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation had organized a competition to determine how to use the site. The proposals were part of a larger plan to memorialize the September 11 attacks and rebuild the complex. Already the site was becoming a tourist attraction; in the year following the attacks the Ground Zero site became the most visited place in the United States. On September 10, 2002, the Viewing Wall, a temporary display containing information about the attacks and listing the names of the dead, opened to the public.

When the public rejected the first round of designs, a second, more open competition took place in December 2002, in which a design by Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner in February 2003. Other designs were submitted by Richard Meier, Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey, and Steven Holl; William Pedersen; and Foster and Partners. This design underwent many revisions, mainly because of disagreements with developer Larry Silverstein, who held the lease to the World Trade Center site at that time. Peter Walker and Michael Arad's "Reflecting Absence" proposal was selected as the site's 9/11 Memorial in January 2004.

There was criticism concerning the limited number of floors that were designated for office space and other amenities in an early plan. Only 82 floors would have been habitable, and the total office space of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex would have been reduced by more than 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m ²) in comparison with the original complex. The floor limit was imposed by Silverstein, who expressed concern that higher floors would be a liability in the event of a future terrorist attack or other incident. Much of the building's height would have consisted of a large, open-air steel lattice structure on the roof of the tower, containing wind turbines and "sky gardens".

In a subsequent design, the highest occupiable floor became comparable to the original World Trade Center, and the open-air lattice was removed from the plans. In 2002, former New York Governor George Pataki faced accusations of cronyism for supposedly using his influence to get the winning architect's design picked as a personal favor for his friend and campaign contributor, Ronald Lauder.

A final design for the "Freedom Tower" was formally unveiled on June 28, 2005. To address security issues raised by the New York City Police Department, a 187-foot (57 m) concrete base was added to the design in April of that year. The design originally included plans to clad the base in glass prisms in order to address criticism that the building might have looked uninviting and resembled a "concrete bunker". However, the prisms were later found to be unworkable, as preliminary testing revealed that the prismatic glass easily shattered into large and dangerous shards. As a result, it was replaced by a simpler facade consisting of stainless steel panels and blast-resistant glass.

Contrasting with Libeskind's original plan, the tower's final design tapers octagonally as it rises. Its designers stated that the tower would be a "monolithic glass structure reflecting the sky and topped by a sculpted antenna." In 2006, Larry Silverstein commented on a planned completion date: "By 2012 we should have a completely rebuilt World Trade Center, more magnificent, more spectacular than it ever was." On April 26, 2006, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey approved a conceptual framework that allowed foundation construction to begin. A formal agreement was drafted the following day, the 75th anniversary of the 1931 opening of the Empire State Building. Construction began in May; a formal groundbreaking ceremony took place when the first construction team arrived.

Construction

The symbolic cornerstone of One World Trade Center was laid in a ceremony on July 4, 2004. The stone had an inscription supposedly written by Arthur J. Finkelstein. Construction was delayed until 2006 due to disputes over money, security, and design. The last major issues were resolved on April 26, 2006, when a deal was made between developer Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, so the cornerstone was temporarily removed from the site on June 23, 2006. Soon after, explosives were detonated at the construction site for two months to clear bedrock for the building's foundation, onto which 400 cubic yards (310 cubic meters) of concrete was poured by November 2007. In a December 18, 2006, ceremony held in nearby Battery Park City, members of the public were invited to sign the first 30-foot (9.1 m) steel beam installed onto the building's base. It was welded onto the building's base on December 19, 2006. Foundation and steel installation began shortly afterward, so the tower's footings and foundation were nearly complete within a year. An estimate in February 2007 placed the initial construction cost of One World Trade Center at about $3 billion, or $1,150 per square foot ($12,400/m ²).

In January 2008, two cranes were moved onto the site. Construction of the tower's concrete core, which began after the cranes arrived, reached street level by May 17. The base was not finished until two years later, after which construction of the office floors began and the first glass windows were installed; during 2010, floors were constructed at a rate of about one per week. An advanced "cocoon" scaffolding system was installed to protect workers from falling, and was the first such safety system installed on a steel structure in the city. The tower reached 52 floors and was over 600 feet (180 m) tall by December 2010. The tower's steel frame was halfway complete by then, but grew to 80 floors by the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, at which time its concrete flooring had reached 68 floors and the glass cladding had reached 54 floors.

In 2009, the Port Authority changed the official name of the building from "Freedom Tower" to "One World Trade Center", stating that this name was the "easiest for people to identify with." The "Freedom Tower" name had also been subject to ridicule on programs like Saturday Night Live. The name change also served a practical purpose: real estate agents believed that it would be easier to lease space in a building with a traditional street address. The change came after board members of the Port Authority voted to sign a 21-year lease deal with Vantone Industrial Co., a Chinese real estate company, which would become the building's first commercial tenant to sign a lease. Vantone planned to create the China Center, a trade and cultural facility, covering 191,000 square feet (17,700 m ²) on floors 64 through 69.

Mass media company Condé Nast became One WTC's anchor tenant in May 2011, leasing 1 million square feet (93,000 m ²) and relocating from 4 Times Square. While under construction, the tower was specially illuminated on several occasions. For example, it was lit in red, white, and blue for Independence Day and the anniversary of the September 11 attacks, and it was illuminated in pink for Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The tower's loading dock could not be finished in time to move equipment into the completed building, so five temporary loading bays were added at a cost of millions of dollars. The temporary PATH station was not to be removed until its official replacement, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub, was completed, blocking access to the planned loading area. Chadbourne & Parke, a Midtown Manhattan-based law firm, was supposed to lease 300,000 square feet (30,000 m ²) in January 2012, but the deal was abruptly canceled that March.

Topping-out and completion

By March 2012, One WTC's steel structure had reached 93 stories, growing to the 94th story (labeled as floor 100) and 1,240 feet (380 m) by the end of the month. The tower's estimated cost had risen to $3.9 billion by April 2012, making it the most expensive building in the world at the time. The tower's construction was partly funded by approximately $1 billion of insurance money that Silverstein received for his losses in the September 11 attacks. The State of New York provided an additional $250 million, and the Port Authority agreed to give $1 billion, which would be obtained through the sale of bonds. The Port Authority raised prices for bridge and tunnel tolls to raise funds, with a 56 percent toll increase scheduled between 2011 and 2015; however, the proceeds of these increases were not used to pay for the tower's construction.

The still-incomplete tower became New York City's tallest building by roof height in April 2012, passing the 1,250-foot (380 m) roof height of the Empire State Building. President Barack Obama visited the construction site two months later and wrote, on a steel beam that would be hoisted to the top of the tower, the sentence "We remember, we rebuild, we come back stronger!" That same month, with the tower's structure nearing completion, the owners of the building began a public marketing campaign for the building, seeking to attract visitors and tenants. One World Trade Center's steel structure topped out at the 94th physical story (numbered as floor 104), with a total height of the roof top at 1,368 feet (417 m), in August 2012. The tower's spire was then shipped from Quebec to New York in November 2012, following a series of delays. The first section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the tower on December 12, 2012, and was installed on January 15, 2013. By March 2013, two sections of the spire had been installed. Bad weather delayed the delivery of the final pieces.

On May 10, 2013, the final piece of the spire was lifted to the top of One WTC, bringing the tower to its full height of 1,776 feet (541 m), and making it the fourth-tallest building in the world at the time. In subsequent months, the exterior elevator shaft was removed; the podium glass, interior decorations, and other finishes were being installed; and installation of concrete flooring and steel fittings was completed. On November 12, 2013, the Height Committee of the Chicago-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) made the controversial announcement that One World Trade Center was the tallest building in the United States, declaring that the mast on top of the building is a spire since it is a permanent part of the building's architecture. By the same reasoning, the building was also the tallest in the Western Hemisphere.

A report in September 2013 revealed that, at the time of the report, the World Trade Center Association (WTCA) was negotiating with regard to the "World Trade Center" name, as the WTCA had purchased the rights to the name in 1986. The WTCA sought $500,000 worth of free office space in the tower in exchange for the use of "World Trade Center" in the tower's name and associated souvenirs.

Opening and early years

On November 1, 2014, moving trucks started moving items for Condé Nast. The New York Times noted that the area around the World Trade Center had transitioned from a financial area to one with technology firms, residences, and luxury shops, coincident with the building of the new tower. The building opened on November 3, 2014, and Condé Nast employees moved into 24 floors. Condé Nast occupied floors 20 to 44, having completed its move in early 2015. It was expected that the company would attract new tenants to occupy the remaining 40% of unleased space in the tower, as Condé Nast had revitalized Times Square after moving there in 1999. Only about 170 of 3,400 total employees moved into One WTC on the first day. At the time, future tenants included Kids Creative, Legends Hospitality, the BMB Group, Servcorp, and . On November 12, 2014, shortly after the building opened supporting wire rope cables of a suspended working platform slacked, trapping a two-man window washing team. During the late 2010s, the Durst Organization leased most of the remaining vacant space. The tower reached 92 percent occupancy just before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020.

By August 2020, Condé Nast indicated it wanted to leave One World Trade Center. This led Advance Publications, parent company of Conde Nast, to start withholding rent payments in January 2021. By March 2021, Condé Nast had filed plans to reduce the amount of office space that it leased. After a prolonged impasse, Condé Nast agreed in late 2021 to pay almost $10 million in back rent. In December 2021, the New York Liberty Development Corporation announced that it would refinance 1 WTC with a $700 million bond issue. The money from this bond issue would be used to retire the debt from the building's last refinancing in 2012. By March 2022, the building was 95 percent leased, a higher percentage than before the COVID-19 pandemic. One WTC's vacancy rate was half that of the city as a whole; its high occupancy rate contrasted with that of the original Twin Towers, which had never reached full occupancy until just before the September 11 attacks.

Architecture

Many of Daniel Libeskind's original concepts from the 2002 competition were discarded from the tower's final design. One World Trade Center's final design consisted of simple symmetries and a more traditional profile, intended to compare with selected elements of the contemporary New York skyline. The tower's central spire draws from previous buildings, such as the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building. It also visually resembles the original Twin Towers, rather than being an off-center spire similar to the Statue of Liberty. One World Trade Center is considered the first major building whose construction is based upon a three-dimensional Building Information Model.

Just south of the new One World Trade Center is the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, which is located where the original Twin Towers stood. Immediately to the east is World Trade Center Transportation Hub and the new Two World Trade Center site. To the north is 7 World Trade Center, and to the west is Brookfield Place.

Form and facade

The building occupies a 200-foot (61 m) square, with an area of 40,000 square feet (3,700 m ²), nearly identical to the footprints of the original Twin Towers. The tower is built upon a 185-foot (56 m) tall windowless concrete base, designed to protect it from truck bombs and other ground-level attacks. From the 20th floor upwards, the square edges of the tower's cubic base are chamfered back, shaping the building into eight tall isosceles triangles, or an elongated square antiprism. Near its middle, the tower forms a perfect octagon, and then culminates in a glass parapet, whose shape is a square oriented 45 degrees from the base. A 407.9-foot (124.3 m) sculpted mast containing the broadcasting antenna - designed in a collaboration between Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), artist Kenneth Snelson (who invented the tensegrity structure), lighting designers, and engineers - is secured by a system of cables, and rises from a circular support ring, which contains additional broadcasting and maintenance equipment. At night, an intense beam of light is projected vertically from the spire and shines over 1,000 feet (300 m) above the tower.

David Childs of SOM, the architect of One World Trade Center, said the following regarding the tower's design:

We really wanted our design to be grounded in something that was very real, not just in sculptural sketches. We explored the infrastructural challenges because the proper solution would have to be compelling, not just beautiful. The design does have great sculptural implications, and we fully understand the iconic importance of the tower, but it also has to be a highly efficient building. The discourse about Freedom Tower has often been limited to the symbolic, formal and aesthetic aspects but we recognize that if this building doesn't function well, if people don't want to work and visit there, then we will have failed as architects.

Originally, the base was to be covered in decorative prismatic glass, but a simpler glass-and-steel façade was adopted when the prisms proved unworkable. The current base cladding consists of angled glass fins protruding from stainless steel panels, similar to those on 7 World Trade Center. LED lights behind the panels illuminate the base at night. There are cable-net glass facade panels on all elevations of the building, designed by Schlaich Bergermann, will be consistent with the other buildings in the complex. The facade panels are 60 feet (18 m) high, and range in width from 30 feet (9.1 m) on the east and west sides, 50 feet (15 m) on the north side, and 70 feet (21 m) on the south side. The curtain wall was manufactured and assembled by Benson Industries in Portland, Oregon, using glass made in Minnesota by Viracon.

WSP Group was the lead structural engineer; Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JBB) provided MEP engineering; and Tishman Construction was the main contractor.

One World Trade Center's top floor is officially designated as floor 104, despite the fact that the tower only contains 94 actual stories. The building has 86 usable above-ground floors, of which 78 are intended for office purposes (approximately 2,600,000 square feet (240,000 m ²)). The base consists of floors 1-19, including a 65-foot-high (20 m) public lobby, featuring the 90-foot (27 m) mural ONE: Union of the Senses by American artist José Parlá. The lobby also contains two paintings by Donald Martiny, called Lenape and Unami; two paintings by Fritz Bultman, Gravity of Nightfall and Blue Triptych-Intrusion Into the Blue; and two paintings by Doug Argue, Randomly Placed Exact Percentages and Isotropic.

The office floors begin at floor 20 and go up to floor 63. There is a sky lobby on floor 64; designed by Gensler, the sky lobby covers 25,000 square feet (2,300 m ²). The space has seating areas, a game room, a meeting room with capacity for 180 people, a cafe, and yoga and fitness classes. Seven oil on canvas paintings by artist Greg Goldberg are displayed in the 64th floor sky lobby, and Bryan Hunt created a sculpture named Prana, which means "life force" in Sanskrit, on the east side of the 64th floor sky lobby. Office floors resume on floor 65 and stop at floor 90. Floors 91-99 and 103-104 are mechanical floors.

The tenants have access to below-ground parking, storage, and shopping; access to PATH, New York City Subway trains, and the World Financial Center is also provided at the World Trade Center Transportation Hub; Fulton Street/ Fulton Center; and Chambers Street-World Trade Center/Park Place/Cortlandt Street stations. The building allows direct access to West Street, Vesey Street, and Fulton Street at ground level. The building has an approximate underground footprint of 42,000 square feet (3,900 m ²).

One World Observatory

The tower has a three-story observation deck, located on floors 100-102, in addition to existing broadcast and antenna facilities. Its height is 1,268 feet (386 m), making it the highest vantage point in New York City. Similar to the Empire State Building, visitors to the observation deck and tenants have their own separate entrances; one entrance is on the West Street side of the building, and the other is from within the shopping mall, descending down to a below-ground security screening area. On the observation deck, the actual viewing space is on the 100th floor, but there is a food court on the 101st floor and a space for events for the 102nd floor.

To show visitors the city, and give them information and stories about New York, an interactive tool called City Pulse is used by Tour Ambassadors. The admission fee is $32 per person, but admission discounts are available for children and seniors, and the deck is free for 9/11 responders and families of 9/11 victims. When it opened, the deck was expected to have about 3.5 million visitors per year. Tickets went on sale starting on April 8, 2015. The Manhattan District Attorney investigated whether Legends Hospitality had received the contract for the observation deck's operation based on inappropriate political dealings. It officially opened on May 28, 2015, one day ahead of schedule.

A plan to build a restaurant near the top of the tower, similar to the original One World Trade Center's Windows on the World, was abandoned as logistically impractical. The tower's window-washing tracks are located on a 16-square-foot area, which is designated as floor 110 as a symbolic reference to the 110 floors of the original tower. There are three eating venues at the top of the building: a café (called One Café); a bar and "small plates" grill (One Mix); and a fine dining restaurant (One Dining). Some commentators, including those for the New York Post and , have criticized the food prices; the need of a full observatory ticket purchase to enter; and their reputations compared to Windows on the World, the top-floor restaurant in the original One World Trade Center.

Sustainability

Like other buildings in the new World Trade Center complex, One World Trade Center includes sustainable architecture features. Much of the building's structure and interior is built from recycled materials, including gypsum boards and ceiling tiles; around 80 percent of the tower's waste products are recycled. Although the roof area of any tower is limited, the building implements a rainwater collection and recycling scheme for its cooling systems. The building's PureCell phosphoric acid fuel cells generate 4.8 megawatts (MW) of power, and its waste steam generates electricity. The New York Power Authority selected UTC Power to provide the tower's fuel cell system, which was one of the largest fuel cell installations in the world once completed. The tower also makes use of off-site hydroelectric and wind power. The windows are made of an ultra-clear glass, which allows maximum sunlight to pass through; the interior lighting is equipped with dimmers that automatically dim the lights on sunny days, reducing energy costs. Like all of the new facilities at the World Trade Center site, One World Trade Center is heated by steam, with limited oil or natural gas utilities on-site. One World Trade Center received a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold Certification, making it one of the most environmentally sustainable skyscrapers in the world.

Security features

Along with the protection provided by the reinforced concrete base, a number of other safety features were included in the building's design, so that it would be prepared for a major accident or terrorist attack. Like 7 World Trade Center, the building has 3-foot (91 cm) thick reinforced concrete walls in all stairwells, elevator shafts, risers, and sprinkler systems. There are also extra-wide, pressurized stairwells, along with a dedicated set of stairwells exclusively for the use of firefighters, and biological and chemical filters throughout the ventilation system. In comparison, the original Twin Towers used a purely steel central core to house utility functions, protected only by lightweight drywall panels.

The building is no longer 25 feet (8 m) away from West Street, as the Twin Towers were; at its closest point, West Street is 65 feet (20 m) away. The Port Authority has stated: "Its structure is designed around a strong, redundant steel moment frame consisting of beams and columns connected by a combination of welding and bolting. Paired with a concrete-core shear wall, the moment frame lends substantial rigidity and redundancy to the overall building structure while providing column-free interior spans for maximum flexibility."

In addition to safety design, new security measures were implemented. All vehicles will be screened for radioactive materials and other potentially dangerous objects before they enter the site through the underground road. Four hundred closed-circuit surveillance cameras will be placed in and around the site, with live camera feeds being continuously monitored by the NYPD. A computer system will use video-analytic computer software, designed to detect potential threats, such as unattended bags, and retrieve images based on descriptions of terrorists or other criminal suspects. New York City and Port Authority police will patrol the site.

Before the World Trade Center site was fully completed, the plaza was not completely opened to the public, as the original World Trade Center plaza was. The initial stage of the opening process began on Thursday, May 15, 2014, when the "Interim Operating Period" of the National September 11 Memorial ended. During this period, all visitors were required to undergo airport style security screening as part of the "Interim Operating Period", which was expected to end on December 31, 2013. Screening did not fully end until the official dedication and opening of the museum on May 21, 2014, after which visitors were allowed to use the plaza without needing passes.

Design evolution

The original design went through significant changes after the Durst Organization joined the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey as the project's co-developer in 2010.

The 185-foot (56 m) tall base corners were originally designed to gently slope upward and have prismatic glass. The corners were later squared. In addition, the base's walls are now covered in "hundreds of pairs of 13-foot [4.0 m] vertical glass fins set against horizontal bands of eight-inch-wide [20 cm] stainless-steel slats."

The spire was originally to be enclosed with a protective radome, described as a "sculptural sheath of interlocking fiberglass panels". The radome-enclosed spire was then changed to a plain antenna. Douglas Durst, the chairman of the Durst Organization, stated that the design change would save $20 million. SOM strongly criticized the change, and Childs said: "Eliminating this integral part of the building's design and leaving an exposed antenna and equipment is unfortunate ... We stand ready to work with the Port on an alternate design." After joining the project in 2010, the Durst Organization had suggested eliminating the radome to reduce costs, but the proposal was rejected by the Port Authority's then-executive director, Christopher O. Ward. Ward was replaced by Patrick Foye in September 2011. Foye changed the Port Authority's position, and the radome was removed from the plans. In 2012, Douglas Durst gave a statement regarding the final decision: "(the antenna) is going to be mounted on the building over the summer. There's no way to do anything at this point."

The large triangular plaza on the west side of One World Trade Center was originally planned to have stainless steel steps descending to West Street, but the steps were changed to a terrace in the final design. The terrace can be accessed through a staircase on Vesey Street. The terrace is paved in granite, and has 12 sweetgum trees, in addition to a block-long planter/bench.

Durst also removed a skylight from the plaza's plans; the skylight was designed to allow natural light to enter the below-ground observation deck lobby. The plaza is 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) higher than the adjacent sidewalk.

The Port Authority formally approved all these revisions, and the revisions were first reported by the New York Post. Patrick Foye, the executive director of the Port Authority, said that he thought that the changes were "few and minor" in a telephone interview.

A contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization states that the Durst Organization will receive a $15 million fee and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project." The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75% of the savings (up to $24 million) with further returns going down to 50%; 25%; and 15% as the savings increase.

The top floor of One World Trade Center is 1,368 feet (417 m) above ground level, along with a 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m) parapet; this is identical to the roof height of the original One World Trade Center. The tower's spire brings it to a pinnacle height of 1,776 feet (541 m), a figure intended to symbolize the year 1776, when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. When the spire is included in the building's height, as stated by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), One World Trade Center surpasses the height of Taipei 101 (1,671-foot (509 m)), is the world's tallest all-office building, and the seventh-tallest skyscraper in the world as of May 2023, behind the Burj Khalifa, Merdeka 118, Shanghai Tower, Abraj Al Bait, Ping An Finance Centre and Lotte World Tower.

One World Trade Center is the second-tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere, as the CN Tower in Toronto exceeds One World Trade Center's pinnacle height by approximately 40 ft (12.2 m). The Chicago Spire, with a planned height of 2,000 feet (610 m), was expected to exceed the height of One World Trade Center, but its construction was canceled due to financial difficulties in 2009.

After design changes for One World Trade Center's spire were revealed in May 2012, there were questions as to whether the 407.9-foot (124.3 m)-tall structure would still qualify as a spire, and thus be included in the building's height. Since the tower's spire is not enclosed in a radome as originally planned, it could be classified as a simple antenna, which is not included in a building's height, according to the CTBUH. Without the spire, One World Trade Center would be 1,368 feet (417 m) tall, making it the seventh-tallest building in the United States, behind the Trump International Hotel & Tower in Chicago.

Upon completion, the building became the tallest in New York City with the antenna, but its roof was surpassed in 2015 by 432 Park Avenue, which topped out at 1,396 feet (426 m) high. One World Trade Center's developers had disputed the claim that the spire should be reclassified as an antenna following the redesign, with Port Authority spokesman Steve Coleman reiterating that "One World Trade Center will be the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere."

In 2012, the CTBUH announced that it would wait to make its final decision as to whether or not the redesigned spire would count towards the building's height. On November 12, 2013, the CTBUH announced that One World Trade Center's spire would count as part of the building's recognized height, giving it a final height of 1,776 feet (541 m), and making it the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.

In September 2013, three BASE jumpers parachuted off the then-under-construction tower. The three men and one accomplice on the ground surrendered to authorities in March 2014. They were convicted of several misdemeanors in June 2015 and sentenced to community service and a fine.

In March 2014, tower security was breached by 16-year-old Weehawken, New Jersey resident Justin Casquejo, who entered the site through a hole in a fence. He was arrested on trespassing charges. He allegedly dressed like a construction worker, sneaked in, and convinced an elevator operator to lift him to the tower's 88th floor, according to news sources. He then used stairways to get to the 104th floor, walked past a sleeping security guard, and climbed up a ladder to get to the antenna, where he took pictures for two hours. The elevator operator was reassigned, and the guard was fired. It was then revealed that officials had failed to install security cameras in the tower, which facilitated Casquejo's entry to the site. Casquejo was sentenced to 23 days of community service as a result.

The social center of the previous One World Trade Center included a restaurant on the 107th floor, called Windows on the World, and The Greatest Bar on Earth; these were tourist attractions in their own right, and a gathering spot for people who worked in the towers. This restaurant also housed one of the most prestigious wine schools in the United States, called "Windows on the World Wine School", run by wine personality Kevin Zraly. Despite numerous assurances that these attractions would be rebuilt, the Port Authority scrapped plans to rebuild them, which has outraged some observers.

The fortified base of the tower has also been a source of controversy. Some critics, including Deroy Murdock of the National Review, have said that it is alienating and dull, and reflects a sense of fear rather than freedom, leading them to dub the building "the Fear Tower". Nicolai Ouroussoff, the architecture critic for The New York Times, calls the tower base a "grotesque attempt to disguise its underlying paranoia".

Owners and tenants

Seen at sunset; the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge is in the background

One World Trade Center is principally owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Around 5 percent equity of the building was sold to the Durst Organization, a private real estate company, in exchange for an investment of at least $100 million. The Durst Organization assisted in supervising the building's construction, and manages the building for the Port Authority, having responsibility for leasing, property management, and tenant installations. By September 2012, around 55 percent of the building's floor space had been leased, but no new leases were signed for three years until May 2014; the amount of space leased had gone up to 62.8 percent by November 2014.

In 2006, the State of New York agreed to a 15-year 415,000 square feet (38,600 m ²) lease, with an option to extend the lease's term and occupy up to 1,000,000 square feet (90,000 m ²). The General Services Administration (GSA) initially agreed to a lease of around 645,000 square feet (59,900 m ²), and New York State's Office of General Services (OGS) planned to occupy around 412,000 square feet (38,300 m ²). However, the GSA ceded most of its floor space to the Port Authority in July 2011, and the OGS withdrew from the lease contract. In April 2008, the Port Authority announced that it was seeking a bidder to operate the 18,000 sq ft (1,700 m ²) observation deck on the tower's 102nd floor; in 2013, Legends Hospitality Management agreed to operate the observatory in a 15-year, $875 million contract.

The building's first lease, a joint project between the Port Authority and Beijing-based Vantone Industrial, was announced on March 28, 2009. A 190,810 sq ft (17,727 m ²) "China Center", combining business and cultural facilities, that would be planned between floors 64 and 69; it is intended to represent Chinese business and cultural links to the United States, and to serve American companies that wish to conduct business in China. Vantone Industrial's lease is for 20 years and 9 months. In April 2011, a new interior design for the China Center was unveiled, featuring a vertical "Folding Garden", based on a proposal by the Chinese artist Zhou Wei. In September 2015, China Center agreed to reduce the leased space to a single floor.

On August 3, 2010, Condé Nast Publications signed a tentative agreement to move the headquarters and offices for its magazines into One World Trade Center, occupying up to 1,000,000 square feet (90,000 m ²) of floor space. On May 17, 2011, Condé Nast reached a final agreement with the Port Authority, securing a 25-year lease with an estimated value of $2 billion. On May 25, 2011, Condé Nast finalized the lease contract, obtaining 1,008,012 square feet (93,647.4 m ²) of office space between floors 20-41 and 30,000 square feet (2,800 m ²) of usable space in the podium and below grade floors. Condé Nast leased 133,000 square feet (10,000 m ²) of space on floors 42 to 44 in January 2012. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, Condé Nast subleased some of its space to other companies. This included Ambac Financial Group in March 2019; Ennead Architects in April 2019; and Constellation Agency and Reddit in 2021.

In August 2014, it was announced Servcorp signed a 15-year lease for 34,775 square feet (3,230.7 m ²), taking the entire 85th floor. Servcorp subsequently subleased all of its space on the 85th floor as private offices, boardrooms and co-working space to numerous medium-sized businesses such as ThinkCode, D100 Radio, and Chérie L'Atelier des Fleurs.

Key figures

Larry Silverstein of Silverstein Properties, the leaseholder and developer of the complex, retains control of the surrounding buildings, while the Port Authority has full control of the tower itself. Silverstein signed a 99-year lease for the World Trade Center site in July 2001, and remains actively involved in most aspects of the site's redevelopment process.

Before construction of the new tower began, Silverstein was involved in an insurance dispute regarding the tower. The terms of the lease agreement signed in 2001, for which Silverstein paid $14 million, gave Silverstein, as leaseholder, the right and obligation to rebuild the structures if they were destroyed. After the September 11 attacks, there were a series of disputes between Silverstein and insurance companies concerning the insurance policies that covered the original towers; this resulted in the construction of One World Trade Center being delayed. After a trial, a verdict was rendered on April 29, 2004. The verdict was that ten of the insurers involved in the dispute were subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation, so their liability was limited to the face value of those policies. Three insurers were added to the second trial group. At that time, the jury was unable to reach a verdict on one insurer, Swiss Reinsurance, but it did so several days later on May 3, 2004, finding that this company was also subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation. Silverstein appealed the Swiss Reinsurance decision, but the appeal failed on October 19, 2006. The second trial resulted in a verdict on December 6, 2004. The jury determined that nine insurers were subject to the "two occurrences" interpretation, referring to the fact that two different planes had destroyed the towers during the September 11 attacks. They were therefore liable for a maximum of double the face value of those particular policies ($2.2 billion). The highest potential payout was $4.577 billion, for buildings 1, 2, 4, and 5.

In March 2007, Silverstein appeared at a rally of construction workers and public officials outside an insurance industry conference. He highlighted what he described as the failures of insurers Allianz and Royal & Sun Alliance to pay $800 million in claims related to the attacks. Insurers state that an agreement to split payments between Silverstein and the Port Authority is a cause for concern.

Key project coordinators

David Childs, one of Silverstein's favorite architects, joined the project after being urged by him. Childs developed a design for One World Trade Center, initially collaborating with Daniel Libeskind. In May 2005, Childs revised the design to address security concerns. He is the architect of the tower, and is responsible for overseeing its day-to-day design and development.

Daniel Libeskind won the 2002 competition to develop a master plan for the World Trade Center's redevelopment.

Architect Daniel Libeskind won the invitational competition to develop a plan for the new tower in 2002. He gave a proposal, which he called " Memory Foundations", for the design of One World Trade Center. His design included aerial gardens, windmills, and off-center spire. Libeskind later denied a request to place the tower in a more rentable location next to the PATH station. He instead placed it another block west, as it would then line up with, and resemble, the Statue of Liberty. Most of Libeskind's original designs were later scrapped, and other architects were chosen to design the other WTC buildings. However, one element of Libeskind's initial plan was included in the final design - the tower's symbolic height of 1,776 feet (541 m).

Daniel R. Tishman - along with his father John Tishman, builder of the original World Trade Center - led the construction team from Tishman Realty & Construction, the selected builder for One World Trade Center.

Douglas and Jody Durst, the co-presidents of the Durst Organization, a real estate development company, won the right to invest at least $100 million in the project on July 7, 2010.

In August 2010, Condé Nast, a long-time Durst tenant, confirmed a tentative deal to move into One World Trade Center, and finalized the deal on May 26, 2011. The contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization specifies that the Durst Organization will receive a $15 million fee, and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project". The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75 percent of savings up to $24 million, stepping down to 50, 25, and 15 percent as savings increase. Since Durst joined the project, significant changes have been made to the building, including the 185-foot (56 m) base of the tower, the spire, and the plaza to the west of the building, facing the Hudson River. The Port Authority has approved all the revisions.

Port Authority construction workers

A WoodSearch Films short-subject documentary entitled How does it feel to work on One World Trade Center? was uploaded to YouTube on August 31, 2010. It depicted construction workers who were satisfied with the working conditions at the construction site. However, further analysis of the work site showed that dozens of construction-related injuries had occurred at the site during the construction of One World Trade Center, including 34 not reported to the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Workers left post-9/11-related graffiti at the site, which are meant to symbolize rebirth and resilience.

References

Cited sources

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
One World Trade Center, also known as One World Trade, One WTC, and formerly called the Freedom Tower during initial planning stages, is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in the Turtle Bay neighborhood on the East Side of Manhattan, New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue near Midtown Manhattan. At 1,046 feet (319 m), it is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework, and was the world's tallest building for 11 months after its completion in 1930. As of 2019, the Chrysler is the 11th-tallest building in the city, tied with The New York Times Building.

Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation. The construction of the Chrysler Building, an early skyscraper, was characterized by a competition with 40 Wall Street and the Empire State Building to become the world's tallest building. Although the Chrysler Building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer, the corporation did not pay for its construction and never owned it; Walter Chrysler decided to fund the entire cost so his children could inherit it. An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.

When the Chrysler Building opened, there were mixed reviews of the building's design, ranging from views of it as inane and unoriginal to the idea that it was modernist and iconic. Perceptions of the building have slowly evolved into its now being seen as a paragon of the Art Deco architectural style; and in 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. The building was designated a New York City landmark in 1978, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1976.

The Chrysler Building is on the eastern side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd streets. The land was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902. The site is roughly a trapezoid with a 201-foot-long (61 m) frontage on Lexington Avenue; a 167-foot-long (51 m) frontage on 42nd Street; and a 205-foot-long (62 m) frontage on 43rd Street. The site bordered the old Boston Post Road, which predated, and ran aslant of, the Manhattan street grid established by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811. As a result, the east side of the building's base is similarly aslant.

The Grand Hyatt New York hotel and the Graybar Building are across Lexington Avenue, while the Socony-Mobil Building is across 42nd Street. In addition, the Chanin Building is to the southwest, diagonally across Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street.

In the mid-1920s, New York's metropolitan area surpassed London's as the world's most populous metropolitan area and its population exceeded ten million by the early 1930s. The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes. Consumer goods such as radio, cinema, and the automobile became widespread. In 1927, Walter Chrysler's automotive company, the Chrysler Corporation, became the third-largest car manufacturer in the United States, behind Ford and General Motors. The following year, Chrysler was named magazine's "Person of the Year".

The economic boom of the 1920s and speculation in the real estate market fostered a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York City. The Chrysler Building was built as part of an ongoing building boom that resulted in the city having the world's tallest building from 1908 to 1974. Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity. The 1916 Zoning Resolution restricted the height that street-side exterior walls of New York City buildings could rise before needing to be setback from the street. This led to the construction of Art Deco structures in New York City with significant setbacks, large volumes, and striking silhouettes that were often elaborately decorated. Art Deco buildings were constructed for only a short period of time; but because that period was during the city's late-1920s real estate boom, the numerous skyscrapers built in the Art Deco style predominated in the city skyline, giving it the romantic quality seen in films and plays. The Chrysler Building project was shaped by these circumstances.

Originally, the Chrysler Building was to be the Reynolds Building, a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds. Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park. When the amusement park was destroyed by fire in 1911, Reynolds turned his attention to Manhattan real estate, where he set out to build the tallest building in the world.

In 1921, Reynolds rented a large plot of land at the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street with the intention of building a tall building on the site. In 1927, after several years of delays, Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there. Van Alen's original design featured many Modernist stylistic elements, with glazed, curved windows at the corners.

Van Alen was respected in his field for his work on the Albemarle Building at Broadway and 24th Street, designing it in collaboration with his partner H. Craig Severance. Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances. However, the relationship between them became tense over disagreements on how best to run the firm. The breaking point came after a 1924 article in the Architectural Review, praising the Albemarle Building's design; Van Alen was attributed as the designer in the firm, while Severance's role was altogether ignored. The architects' partnership dissolved acrimoniously several months later, with lawsuits over the firm's clients and assets lasting over a year. The rivalry ended up being decisive for the design of the future Chrysler Building, since Severance's more traditional architectural style would otherwise have restrained Van Alen's more modern outlook.

By February 2, 1928, the proposed building's height had been increased to 54 stories, which would have made it the tallest building in Midtown. The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building. A little more than a week after that, the plan was changed for the third time, with two additional stories added. By this time, 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue were both hubs for construction activity, due to the removal of the Third Avenue Elevated's 42nd Street spur, which was seen as a blight on the area. The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction. Because of the elevated spur's removal, real estate speculators believed that Lexington Avenue would become the "Broadway of the East Side", causing a ripple effect that would spur developments farther east.

Eventually, this design would prove too advanced and expensive for Reynolds. He instead devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928. The new design was much more conservative, with an Italianate dome that a critic compared to Governor Al Smith's bowler hat, and a brick arrangement on the upper floors that simulated windows in the corners, a detail that remains in the current Chrysler Building. This design almost exactly reflected the shape, setbacks, and the layout of the windows of the current building, but with a different dome.

From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued. In March 1929, the press published details of an "artistic dome" that had the shape of a giant thirty-pointed star, which would be crowned by a sculpture five meters high. The final design of the dome included several arches and triangular windows. Lower down, the design was affected by Walter Chrysler's intention to make the building the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, and as such, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see § Designs between setbacks). The building's gargoyles on the 31st floor and the eagles on the 61st floor, were created to represent flight, and to embody the machine age of the time. Even the topmost needle was built using a process similar to one Chrysler used to manufacture his cars, with precise "hand craftmanship". In his autobiography, Chrysler says he suggested that his building be taller than the Eiffel Tower.

Meanwhile, excavation of the new building's 69-foot-deep (21 m) foundation began in mid-November 1928 and was completed in mid-January 1929, when bedrock was reached. A total of 105,000,000 pounds (48,000,000 kg) of rock and 36,000,000 pounds (16,000,000 kg) of soil was excavated for the foundation, equal to 63% of the future building's weight. Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929. The Carnegie Steel Company provided the steel beams, the first of which was installed on March 27; and by April 9, the first upright beams had been set into place. The steel structure was "a few floors" high by June 1929, 35 floors high by early August, and completed by September. Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork. Chrysler lauded this achievement, saying, "It is the first time that any structure in the world has reached such a height, yet the entire steel construction was accomplished without loss of life". In total, 391,881 rivets were used, and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper. Walter Chrysler personally financed the construction with his income from his car company. The Chrysler Building's height officially surpassed the Woolworth's on October 16, 1929, thereby becoming the world's tallest structure.

Competition for "world's tallest building" title

The same year that the Chrysler Building's construction started, banker George L. Ohrstrom proposed the construction of a 47-story office building at 40 Wall Street downtown. Shortly thereafter Ohrstrom modified his project to have 60 floors, but it was still below Woolworth and the 808-foot Chrysler Building project as announced in 1928. H. Craig Severance, Van Alen's former partner and the architect of 40 Wall Street, increased 40 Wall's height to 840 feet (260 m) with 62 floors in April of that year. It would thus exceed the Woolworth's height by 48 feet (15 m) and the Chrysler's by 32 feet (9.8 m). 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the distinction of " world's tallest building". The Empire State Building, on 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, entered the competition in 1929. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The "Race into the Sky", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, which helped fuel the building boom in major cities. The 40 Wall Street tower was revised from 840 feet (260 m) to 925 feet in April 1929, which would make it the world's tallest. Severance then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building. Construction of 40 Wall Street began in May 1929 at a frantic pace, and it was completed twelve months later.

In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 125-foot-long (38 m) spire and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of his building. The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections. On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the catastrophic Wall Street Crash of 1929 started, the spire was assembled. According to one account, "the bottom section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building." Then, within 90 minutes the rest of the spire's pieces were raised and riveted in sequence, helping raise the tower's height to 1,046 feet. Van Alen, who witnessed the process from the street along with its engineers and Walter Chrysler, compared the experience to watching a butterfly leaving its cocoon.

In "The Structure and Metal Work of the Chrysler Building", an article published in the October 1930 edition of Architectural Forum, Van Alen explained the design and construction of the crown and needle:

A high spire structure with a needle-like termination was designed to surmount the dome. This is 185 feet high and 8 feet square at its base. It was made up of four corner angles, with light angle strut and diagonal members, all told weighing 27 tons. It was manifestly impossible to assemble this structure and hoist it as a unit from the ground, and equally impossible to hoist it in sections and place them as such in their final positions. Besides, it would be more spectacular, for publicity value, to have this cloud-piercing needle appear unexpectedly.

The steel tip brought the Chrysler Building to a height of 1,046 feet (319 m), greatly exceeding 40 Wall Street's height. However, contemporary news media did not write of the spire's erection, nor were there any press releases celebrating the spire's erection. Even the New York Herald Tribune, which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.

Chrysler realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having ordered Van Alen to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to the narrow steel spire. However, the Empire State's developer John J. Raskob reviewed the plans and realized that he could add five more floors and a spire of his own to his 80-story building, and subsequently acquired the nearby plots needed to support that building's height extension. Two days later, the Empire State Building's co-developer, former Governor Al Smith, announced the updated plans for that skyscraper, with an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of 1,050 feet (320 m), higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck at 783 feet (239 m).

In January 1930, it was announced that the Chrysler Corporation would maintain offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week, and the first leases by outside tenants were announced in April 1930, before the building was officially completed. The building was formally opened on May 27, 1930, in a ceremony that coincided with the 42nd Street Property Owners and Merchants Association's meeting that year. In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read "in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement" was unveiled. Former Governor Smith, former Assemblyman Martin G. McCue, and 42nd Street Association president George W. Sweeney were among those in attendance. By June, it was reported that 65% of the available space had been leased. By August, the building was declared complete, but the New York City Department of Construction did not mark it as finished until February 1932.

The added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. The Chrysler Building was thus the first man-made structure to be taller than 1,000 feet (300 m); and as one newspaper noted, the tower was also taller than the highest points of five states. The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union. The city had attempted to repeal the tax exemption, but Cooper Union had opposed that measure. Because the Chrysler Building retains the tax exemption, it has paid Cooper Union for the use of their land since opening.

Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee. Chrysler alleged that Van Alen had received bribes from suppliers, and Van Alen had not signed any contracts with Walter Chrysler when he took over the project. Van Alen sued and the courts ruled in his favor, requiring Chrysler to pay Van Alen $840,000, or 6% of the total budget of the building. However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career. Van Alen ended his career as professor of sculpture at the nearby Beaux-Arts Institute of Design and died in 1954. According to author Neal Bascomb, "The Chrysler Building was his greatest accomplishment, and the one that guaranteed his obscurity."

The Chrysler Corporation was not involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building, although it was built and designed for the corporation. It was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children. In his autobiography, Chrysler wrote that he wanted to erect the building "so that his sons would have something to be responsible for".

The Chrysler family inherited the property after the death of Walter Chrysler in 1940, with the property being under the ownership of W.P. Chrysler Building Corporation. In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue. In 1949, this was revised to a 32-story annex costing $9 million. The annex building, designed by Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist, had a facade similar to that of the original Chrysler Building. The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated. Construction started on the annex in June 1950, and the first tenants started leasing in June 1951. The building itself was completed by 1952, and a sky bridge connecting the two buildings' seventh floors was built in 1959.

The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million. The 1953 deal included the annex and the nearby Graybar Building, which along with the Chrysler Building sold for a combined $52 million. The new owners were Zeckendorf's company Webb and Knapp, who held a 75% interest in the sale, and the Graysler Corporation, who held a 25% stake. At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history. In 1957, the Chrysler Building, its annex, and the Graybar Building were sold for $66 million to Lawrence Wien's realty syndicate, setting a new record for the largest sale in the city. In 1960, the complex was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, who received a mortgage from the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. In 1961, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time. A group of ten workers steam-cleaned the facade below the 30th floor, and manually cleaned the portion of the tower above the 30th floor, for a cost of about $200,000.

Massachusetts Mutual obtained outright ownership in 1975 after Goldman and DiLorenzo defaulted on the mortgage. The company purchased the building for $35 million. In 1978, they devised plans to renovate the facade, heating, ventilation, air‐conditioning, elevators, lobby murals, and Cloud Club headquarters in a $23 million project. This renovation was completed in 1979. They delegated the leasing of the building's space to the Edward S. Gordon Company, which leased 750,000 square feet (70,000 m ²) of vacant space within five years. During Massachusetts Mutual's ownership of the Chrysler Building, the tower received two historic designations. The building was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1976, and as a New York City Landmark in 1978, although the city only landmarked the lobby and facade. Massachusetts Mutual had opposed the city landmark designation because it "would cause 'inevitable delay' in moving new tenants into the skyscraper". At the time, the building had 500,000 square feet (46,000 m ²) of vacant floor space, representing 40% of the total floor area. In September 1979, the building was sold again, this time to entrepreneur and Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke, in a deal that also transferred ownership of the Los Angeles Kings and Lakers to Jerry Buss.

The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995. The joints in the now-closed observation deck were polished, and the facade restored, as part of a $1.5 million project. Some damaged steel strips of the needle were replaced and several parts of the gargoyles were re-welded together. The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997. Cooke died in 1997, and creditors moved to foreclose on the estate's unpaid fees soon after. Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group bought the Chrysler Center in 1997-1998 for about $220 million (equal to $350 million in 2020) from a consortium of banks and the estate of Jack Kent Cooke. Tishman Speyer Properties had negotiated a 150-year lease from the Cooper Union, and the college continues to own the land under the Chrysler Building. Cooper Union's name is on the deed.

In 2001, a 75% stake in the building was sold, for US$300 million (equal to $440 million in 2020), to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund. In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million. In July 2008, it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now 90% owner of the building, with Tishman Speyer retaining 10%.

From 2010 to 2011, the building's energy, plumbing, and waste management systems were renovated. This resulted in a 21% decrease in the building's total energy consumption, a 64% decrease in water consumption, and an 81% rate of waste being recycled. In 2012, the building received a LEED Gold accreditation from the U.S. Green Building Council, which recognized the building's environmental sustainability and energy efficiency.

The Abu Dhabi Investment Council and Tishman Speyer put the Chrysler Building on sale again in January 2019. It was reported in March 2019 that Aby Rosen's RFR Holding LLC, in a joint venture with the Austrian SIGNA Group, had reached an agreement to purchase the Chrysler Building, albeit at a steeply discounted price, for US$150 million.

The Chrysler Building is considered a leading example of Art Deco architecture. It is constructed of a steel frame in-filled with masonry, with areas of decorative metal cladding. The structure contains 3,862 exterior windows. Approximately fifty metal ornaments protrude at the building's corners on five floors reminiscent of gargoyles on Gothic cathedrals. The 31st-floor contains gargoyles and replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps, the 61st-floor eagles, a nod to America's national bird.

The Chrysler Building uses bright "Nirosta" stainless steel extensively in its design, an austenitic alloy developed in Germany by Krupp (a German acronym for , meaning "non-rusting steel"). It was the first use of this "18-8 stainless steel" in an American project, composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Nirosta was used in the exterior ornaments, the window frames, the crown, and the needle. The steel was an integral part of Van Alen's design, as E.E. Thum explains: "The use of permanently bright metal was of greatest aid in the carrying of rising lines and the diminishing circular forms in the roof treatment, so as to accentuate the gradual upward swing until it literally dissolves into the sky...." Stainless steel producers used the Chrysler Building to evaluate the durability of the product in architecture. In 1929, the American Society for Testing Materials created an inspection committee to study its performance, which regarded the Chrysler Building as the best location to do so; a subcommittee examined the building's panels every five years until 1960, when the inspections were canceled because the panels had shown minimal deterioration.

The Chrysler Building's height and legally mandated setbacks influenced Van Alen in his design. The walls of the lowermost sixteen floors rise directly from the sidewalk property lines, except for a recess on one side that gives the building a "U"-shaped floor plan above the fourth floor. There are setbacks on floors 16, 18, 23, 28, and 31, making the building compliant with the 1916 Zoning Resolution. This gives the building the appearance of a ziggurat on one side and a U-shaped palazzo on the other. Above the 31st floor, there are no more setbacks until the 60th floor, above which the structure is funneled into a Maltese cross shape that "blends the square shaft to the finial", according to author and photographer Cervin Robinson.

The floor plans of the first sixteen floors were made as large as possible to optimize the amount of rental space nearest ground level, which was seen as most desirable. The U-shaped cut above the fourth floor served as a shaft for air flow and illumination. The area between floors 28 and 31 added "visual interest to the middle of the building, preventing it from being dominated by the heavy detail of the lower floors and the eye-catching design of the finial. They provide a base to the column of the tower, effecting a transition between the blocky lower stories and the lofty shaft."

The ground floor exterior is covered in polished black granite from Shastone, while the three floors above it are clad in white marble from Georgia. There are two main entrances, on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street, each three floors high with Shastone granite surrounding each proscenium-shaped entryway. At some distance into each main entryway, there are revolving doors "beneath intricately patterned metal and glass screens", designed so as to embody the Art Deco tenet of amplifying the entrance's visual impact. A smaller side entrance on 43rd Street is one story high. There are storefronts consisting of large Nirosta-steel-framed windows at ground level, with office windows on the second through fourth floors.

The west and east elevations of the building contain the air shafts above the fourth floor, while the north and south sides contain the receding setbacks. Below the 16th floor, the facade is clad with white brick interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to a basket weaving. The windows, arranged in grids, do not have window sills, the frames being flush with the facade. Between the 16th and 24th floors, the exterior exhibits vertical white brick columns that are separated by windows on each floor. This visual effect is made possible by the presence of aluminum spandrels between the columns of windows on each floor. There are abstract reliefs on the 20th through 22nd-floor spandrels, while the 24th floor contains 9-foot (2.7 m) decorative pineapples.

The shaft of the tower was designed to emphasize both the horizontal and vertical: each of the tower's four sides contains three columns of windows, each framed by bricks and an unbroken marble pillar that rises along the entirety of each side. The spandrels separating the windows contain "alternating vertical stripes in gray and white brick", while each corner contains horizontal rows of black brick.

The Chrysler Building is renowned for, and recognized by, its terraced crown, which is an extension of the main tower. Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault of seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks, mounted one behind another. The entire crown is clad with Nirosta steel, ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, reminiscent of the spokes of a wheel. The windows are repeated, in smaller form, on the terraced crown's seven narrow setbacks. Due to the curved shape of the dome, the Nirosta sheets had to be measured on site, so most of the work was carried out in workshops on the building's 67th and 75th floors. According to Robinson, the terraced crown "continue[s] the wedding-cake layering of the building itself. This concept is carried forward from the 61st floor, whose eagle gargoyles echo the treatment of the 31st, to the spire, which extends the concept of 'higher and narrower' forward to infinite height and infinitesimal width. This unique treatment emphasizes the building's height, giving it an other worldly atmosphere reminiscent of the fantastic architecture of Coney Island or the Far East."

Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originated its transmission from the top of the Chrysler Building in 1938. WCBS-TV transmissions were shifted to the Empire State Building in 1960 in response to competition from RCA's transmitter on that building. For many years WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also transmitted from the Chrysler Building, but their move to the Empire State Building by the 1970s ended commercial broadcasting from the structure.

The crown and spire are illuminated by a combination of fluorescent lights framing the crown's distinctive triangular windows and colored floodlights that face toward the building, allowing it to be lit in a variety of schemes for special occasions. The V-shaped fluorescent "tube lighting" - hundreds of 480V 40W bulbs framing 120 window openings - was added in 1981, although it had been part of the original design. Until 1998, the lights were turned off at 2 a.m., but The New York Observer columnist Ron Rosenbaum convinced Tishman Speyer to keep the lights on until 6 a.m. Since 2015, the Chrysler Building and other city skyscrapers have been part of the Audubon Society's Lights Out program, turning off their lights during bird migration seasons.

The interior of the building contains several innovative elements. The partitions between the offices are soundproofed and divided into interchangeable sections, so that the layout of any could be changed quickly and comfortably. Pipes under the floors carry both telephone and electricity cables.

The triangular lobby is regarded as a paragon of the Art Deco style, with clear influences of German Expressionism. Chrysler wanted the design to impress other architects and automobile magnates, so he imported various materials without giving consideration to the extra costs incurred. He covered the walls with huge slabs of African red granite. On the floor, he marked a path from the entrances to the elevators using travertine from Siena. Originally, Van Alen's plans for the lobby included four large supporting columns, but they were removed after Chrysler objected on the grounds that the columns made the lobby appear "cramped". Opposite the main entrance is a security guard's desk topped by a digital clock.

The lobby has dim lighting that gives it a somewhat subdued quality, although the appliqués of the lamps are striking and iconic. Both combine to create an intimate atmosphere and act to highlight the place. Vertical bars of fluorescent light are covered with Belgian blue marble and Mexican amber onyx, which soften and diffuse the light, to both illuminate and blend with the red marble walls. The lobby also contains four elevator banks, each with a different design.

The ceiling contains a 110-by-67-foot (34 by 20 m) mural named " Transport and Human Endeavor", commissioned from Edward Trumbull in 1930. The mural's theme is "energy and man's application of it to the solution of his problems", and it pays homage to the Golden Age of Aviation and the Machine Age. The mural is painted in the shape of a "Y" with ocher and golden tones. The central image of the mural is a "muscled giant whose brain directs his boundless energy to the attainment of the triumphs of this mechanical era", according to a 1930 pamphlet that advertised the building. The mural's Art Deco style is manifested in characteristic triangles, sharp angles, slightly curved lines, chrome ornaments, and numerous patterns. The mural depicts several silver planes, including the Spirit of St. Louis, as well as furnaces of incandescent steel and the building itself. There is a wall panel dedicated to the work of clinchers, surveyors, masons, carpenters, plasterers, and builders. Fifty different figures were modeled after workers who participated in its construction. In 1999, the mural was returned to its original state after a restoration that removed the polyurethane coating and filled-in holes added in the 1970s.

Presently, the lobby is the only publicly accessible part of the Chrysler Building. When the building opened, the first and second floors housed a public exhibition of Chrysler vehicles. The exhibition, known as the Chrysler Automobile Salon, was near the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Streets, and opened in 1936. The ground floor featured "invisible glass" display windows, a 51-foot (16 m) diameter turntable upon which automobiles were displayed, and a ceiling with lights arranged in concentric circles. Escalators led to the showroom's second floor where Plymouths, Dodges, and DeSotos were sold. The Chrysler Salon remained operational through at least the 1960s.

Over the course of a year, Van Alen painstakingly designed these elevators with the assistance of L.T.M. Ralston, who was in charge of developing the elevator cabs' mechanical parts. The cabs were manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company, while the doors were made by the Tyler Company. The dimensions of each elevator were 5.5 feet (1.7 m) deep by 8 feet (2.4 m) wide. The doors are made of metal and covered with eight types of exotic woods. When the doors are closed, they resemble "tall fans set off by metallic palm fronds rising through a series of silver parabolas, whose edges were set off by curved lilies" from the outside, as noted by Curcio. However, when a set of doors is open, the cab behind the doors resembles "an exquisite Art Deco room". These elements were influenced by ancient Egyptian designs, which significantly impacted the Art Deco style. According to Vincent Curcio, "these elevator interiors were perhaps the single most beautiful and, next to the dome, the most important feature of the entire building."

On the 42nd Street side of the Chrysler Building, a staircase from the street leads directly under the building to the New York City Subway's , ​, ​, ​, , ​​, and trains at Grand Central-42nd Street station. It is part of the structure's original design. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time was the operator of all the routes serving the 42nd Street station, originally sued to block construction of the new entrance because it would cause crowding, but the New York City Board of Transportation pushed to allow the corridor anyway. Chrysler eventually built and paid for the building's subway entrance. Work on the new entrance started in March 1930 and it opened along with the Chrysler Building two months later.

The basement also had a "hydrozone water bottling unit" that would filter tap water into drinkable water for the building's tenants. The drinkable water would then be bottled and shipped to higher floors.

The private Cloud Club formerly occupied the 66th through 68th floors. It opened in July 1930 with some three hundred members, all wealthy males who formed the city's elite. Its creation was spurred by Texaco's wish for a proper restaurant for its executives prior to renting fourteen floors in the building. The Cloud Club was a compromise between William Van Alen's modern style and Walter Chrysler's stately and traditional tastes. A member had to be elected, and if accepted, paid an initial fee of $200, plus a $150 to $300 annual fee.

There was a Tudor-style foyer on the 66th floor with oak paneling, and an old English-style grill room with wooden floors, wooden beams, wrought-iron chandeliers, and glass and lead doors. The main dining room, on the 67th floor, was connected to the 66th floor by a Renaissance-style marble and bronze staircase and had a futuristic appearance, with polished granite columns and etched glass appliqués in Art Deco style. There was a mural of a cloud on the ceiling, and a mural of Manhattan on the dining room's north side. It is believed that the dining room was an inspiration for the Rainbow Room and the Rockefeller Center Luncheon Club, both at 30 Rockefeller Center. On the same floor, Walter Chrysler and Texaco both had private dining rooms. Chrysler's dining room had a black and frosted-blue glass frieze of automobile workers. The 68th floor mainly contained service spaces.

In the 1950s and 1960s, members left the Cloud Club for other clubs. Texaco, whose executives comprised most of the Cloud Club's membership, moved to Westchester County in 1977, and the club closed two years later. Although there have been several projects to rehabilitate the club or transform it into a disco or a gastronomic club, these plans have never materialized, as then-owner Cooke reportedly did not want a "conventional" restaurant operating within the old club. Tishman Speyer rented the top two floors of the old Cloud Club. The old staircase has been removed, as have many of the original decorations, which prompted objections from the Art Deco Society of New York.

Originally, Walter Chrysler had a two-story apartment on the 69th and 70th floors with a fireplace and a private office. The office also contained a gymnasium and the loftiest bathrooms in the city. The office had a medieval ambience with leaded windows, elaborate wooden doors, and heavy plaster. Chrysler did not use his gym much, instead choosing to stay at the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters in Detroit. Subsequently, the 69th and 70th floors were converted into a dental clinic. In 2005, a report by The New York Times found that one of the dentists, Charles Weiss, had operated at the clinic's current rooftop location since 1969. The office still had the suite's original bathroom and gymnasium. Chrysler also had a unit on the 58th through 60th floors, which served as his residence.

After the observatory closed, it was used to house radio and television broadcasting equipment. Since 1986, the old observatory has housed the office of architects Harvey Morse and Cowperwood Interests. As of May 2020, a new observation deck has been proposed for the 61st floor of the building. The new deck will take advantage of that floor's setbacks to create an outdoor space.

The stories above the 71st floor are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire and do not contain office space. They are very narrow, have low and sloping roofs, and are only used to house radio transmitters and other mechanical and electrical equipment. For example, the 73rd floor houses the motors of the elevators and a 15,000-US-gallon (57,000 L) water tank, of which 3,500 US gallons (13,000 L) are reserved for extinguishing fires.

Chrysler Center is the name of the building complex consisting of the Chrysler Building, Chrysler Building East, and the commercial pavilion between the two, called Chrysler Trylons. In 1998, Tishman Speyer acquired the entire complex and renovated it completely over the next two years.

The Chrysler Building annex at 666 Third Avenue, also known as the Kent Building at the time, was renovated and renamed Chrysler Building East. This International Style building, built in 1952, is 432 feet (132 m) high and has 32 floors. The mechanical systems were modernized and the interior was modified. Renowned architect Philip Johnson replaced the glass facade with darker glass and added a 135,000 square feet (12,500 m ²) extension. After the addition, the total area of this building was 770,000 square feet (72,000 m ²).

Finally, a new building, which was also designed by Philip Johnson, was built between the original skyscraper and the annex. This became the Chrysler Trylons, a commercial pavilion three stories high with a retail area of 22,000 square feet (2,000 m ²). Its design, consisting of three triangular glass pyramids that intersect each other, was inspired by the triangular windows of the Chrysler Building's crown. The building's design was so complex that a replica was built at Rimouski, Quebec. Johnson designed Chrysler Trylons as "a monument for 42nd Street [...] to give you the top of the Chrysler Building at street level."

After these modifications, the total leasable area of the complex was 2,062,772 square feet (191,637.8 m ²). The total cost of this project was about one hundred million dollars. This renovation has won several awards and commendations, including an Energy Star rating from the Environmental Protection Agency; a LEED Gold designation; and the Skyscraper Museum Outstanding Renovation Award of 2001.

The Chrysler Corporation moved into the building as an anchor tenant in 1930. In addition to the Chrysler Salon on the first and second floors, parts of the building had the Chrysler Corporation's offices, as well as a lounge and a theater for showing films of Chrysler products. Other original large tenants included Time, Inc. and Texaco oil. Needing more office space, Time moved to Rockefeller Center in 1937. Texaco relocated to a more suburban workplace in Purchase, New York, in 1977. In addition, the offices of Shaw Walker and J. S. Bache & Company were immediately atop the Chrysler Salon, while A. B. Dick, Pan American World Airways, Adams Hats, Schrafft's, and Florsheim Shoes also had offices in the building.

Notable modern tenants include:

The completed Chrysler Building garnered mixed reviews in the press. Van Alen was hailed as the "Doctor of Altitude" by magazine, while architect Kenneth Murchison called Van Alen the "Ziegfeld of his profession", comparing him to popular Broadway producer Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.. The building was praised for being "an expression of the intense activity and vibrant life of our day", and for "teem[ing] with the spirit of modernism, ... the epitome of modern business life, stand[ing] for progress in architecture and in modern building methods." An anonymous critic wrote in Architectural Forum's October 1930 issue: "The Chrysler...stands by itself, something apart and alone. It is simply the realization, the fulfillment in metal and masonry, of a one-man dream, a dream of such ambitions and such magnitude as to defy the comprehension and the criticism of ordinary men or by ordinary standards." Conversely, journalist George S. Chappell called the Chrysler's design "distinctly a stunt design, evolved to make the man in the street look up". Douglas Haskell stated that the building "embodies no compelling, organic idea", and alleged that Van Alen had abandoned "some of his best innovations in behalf of stunts and new 'effects'". Others compared the Chrysler Building to "an upended swordfish", or claimed it had a " Little Nemo"-like design. Lewis Mumford, a supporter of the International Style and one of the foremost architectural critics of the United States at the time, despised the building for its "inane romanticism, meaningless voluptuousness, [and] void symbolism". The public also had mixed reviews of the Chrysler Building, as Murchison wrote: "Some think it's a freak; some think it's a stunt."

Later reviews were more positive. Architect Robert A. M. Stern wrote that the Chrysler Building was "the most extreme example of the [1920s and 1930s] period's stylistic experimentation", as contrasted with 40 Wall Street and its "thin" detailing. George H. Douglas wrote in 2004 that the Chrysler Building "remains one of the most appealing and awe-inspiring of skyscrapers". Architect Le Corbusier called the building "hot jazz in stone and steel". Architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable stated that the building had "a wonderful, decorative, evocative aesthetic", while Paul Goldberger noted the "compressed, intense energy" of the lobby, the "magnificent" elevators, and the "magical" view from the crown.

The city's Landmarks Preservation Commission said that the tower "embodies the romantic essence of the New York City skyscraper". The travel guide gave the building an "exceptional" recommendation, with author Pauline Frommer writing, "In the Chrysler Building we see the roaring-twenties version of what Alan Greenspan called 'irrational exuberance'-a last burst of corporate headquarter building before stocks succumbed to the thudding crash of 1929."

The Chrysler Building appears in several films set in New York and is widely considered one of the most positively acclaimed buildings in the city. A 1996 survey of New York architects revealed it as their favorite, and The New York Times described it in 2005 as "the single most important emblem of architectural imagery on the New York skyline". In mid-2005, the Skyscraper Museum in Lower Manhattan asked 100 architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 of the city's towers. The Chrysler Building came in first place, with 90 respondents placing it on their ballots. In 2007, the building ranked ninth among 150 buildings in the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture.

The Chrysler Building is widely heralded as an Art Deco icon. Fodor's New York City 2010 described the building as being "one of the great art deco masterpieces" which "wins many a New Yorker's vote for the city's most iconic and beloved skyscraper". Frommer's states that the Chrysler was "one of the most impressive Art Deco buildings ever constructed". Insight Guides' 2016 edition maintains that the Chrysler Building is considered among the city's "most beautiful" buildings. Its distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia, Two Prudential Plaza in Chicago, and the Al Kazim Towers in Dubai.

While seen in many films, the Chrysler Building almost never appears as a main setting in them, prompting architect and author James Sanders to quip it should win "the Award for Best Supporting Skyscraper". The building was supposed to be featured in the 1933 film , but only makes a cameo at the end thanks to its producers opting for the Empire State Building in a central role. The Chrysler Building notably appears in the background of (1978); as the setting of much of Q - The Winged Serpent (1982); in the initial credits of The Shadow of the Witness (1987); and during or after apocalyptic events in Independence Day (1996), Armageddon (1998), Deep Impact (1998), (1998), and A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001). The building also appears in other films, such as (2002), Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007), Two Weeks Notice (2002), The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010) and Men in Black 3 (2012). In The Avengers (2012), Thor uses the building as an apparent amplifier to increase the effectiveness of his hammer's lighting power.

The Chrysler Building is frequently the subject of photographers. In December 1929, Walter Chrysler hired the famed Margaret Bourke-White to capture it for publicity purposes. She took the images from a scaffold 400 feet (120 m) high and worked in a 61st-floor studio designed by John Vassos, until she was evicted in 1934. According to one account, Bourke-White wanted to live in the building for the duration of the photo shoot, but the only person able to do so was the janitor, so she was instead relegated to co-leasing a studio with Time Inc. In 1930, several of her photographs were used in a special report on skyscrapers in the then-new magazine. In 1934, Bourke-White's partner Oscar Graubner took a famous photo called "Margaret Bourke-White atop the Chrysler Building", which depicts her taking a photo of the city's skyline while sitting on one of the 61st-floor eagle ornaments. On October 5, 1998, Christie's auctioned the photograph for $96,000. In addition, during a January 1931 dance organized by the Society of Beaux-Arts, six architects, including Van Alen, were photographed while wearing costumes resembling the buildings that each architect designed.

The building is also mentioned in the lyrics of several songs, as well as in the number " It's the Hard Knock Life" for the musical . In the Squaresoft (now Square Enix) videogame Parasite Eve, the building is the setting for the post-game content.

Bascomb, Neal (2004). Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City. Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-1268-6.

"Chrysler Building" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. September 12, 1978.

Douglas, G.H. (2004). Skyscrapers: A Social History of the Very Tall Building in America. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2030-8.

Kingston, G.C. (2017). William Van Alen, Fred T. Ley and the Chrysler Building. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4766-6847-5.

Miller, Donald L. (2015). Supreme City: How Jazz Age Manhattan Gave Birth to Modern America. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-5020-4.

Murchison, Kenneth M (September 1930). "The Chrysler Building, as I See It". The American Architect. 138: 24-33, 78.

Nash, E.; McGrath, N. (1999). Manhattan Skyscrapers. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-56898-181-9.

Stern, Robert A. M.; Gilmartin, Patrick; Mellins, Thomas (1987). New York 1930: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Two World Wars. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-3096-1. OCLC 13860977.

Stravitz, David (2002). The Chrysler Building: Creating a New York Icon Day by Day. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-354-9.

Tauranac, John (2014). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-19678-7.

Willis, Carol; Friedman, Donald (1998). Building the Empire State. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-73030-2.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in the Turtle Bay neighborhood on the East Side of Manhattan, New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue near Midtown Manhattan. At 1,046 feet (319 m), it is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework, and was the world's tallest building for 11 months after its completion in 1930.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
"The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World" was a gift of friendship from the people of France to the United States and is recognized as a universal symbol of freedom and democracy. The Statue of Liberty was dedicated on October 28, 1886. It was designated as a National Monument in 1924. Employees of the National Park Service have been caring for the colossal copper statue since 1933.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Statue Of Liberty National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
"The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World" was a gift of friendship from the people of France to the United States and is recognized as a universal symbol of freedom and democracy. The Statue of Liberty was dedicated on October 28, 1886. It was designated as a National Monument in 1924.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/ suspension bridge in New York City, spanning the East River between the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. Opened on May 24, 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was the first fixed crossing of the East River. It was also the longest suspension bridge in the world at the time of its opening, with a main span of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) and a deck 127 ft (38.7 m) above mean high water. The span was originally called the New York and Brooklyn Bridge or the East River Bridge but was officially renamed the Brooklyn Bridge in 1915.

Proposals for a bridge connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn were first made in the early 19th century, which eventually led to the construction of the current span, designed by John A. Roebling. The project's chief engineer, his son Washington Roebling, contributed further design work, assisted by the latter's wife, Emily Warren Roebling. Construction started in 1870, with the Tammany Hall-controlled New York Bridge Company overseeing construction, although numerous controversies and the novelty of the design prolonged the project over thirteen years. Since opening, the Brooklyn Bridge has undergone several reconfigurations, having carried horse-drawn vehicles and elevated railway lines until 1950. To alleviate increasing traffic flows, additional bridges and tunnels were built across the East River. Following gradual deterioration, the Brooklyn Bridge has been renovated several times, including in the 1950s, 1980s, and 2010s.

The Brooklyn Bridge is the southernmost of the four toll-free vehicular bridges connecting Manhattan Island and Long Island, with the Manhattan Bridge, the Williamsburg Bridge, and the Queensboro Bridge to the north. Only passenger vehicles and pedestrian and bicycle traffic are permitted. A major tourist attraction since its opening, the Brooklyn Bridge has become an icon of New York City. Over the years, the bridge has been used as the location of various stunts and performances, as well as several crimes and attacks. The Brooklyn Bridge has been designated a National Historic Landmark, a New York City landmark, and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.

Description

The Brooklyn Bridge, an early example of a steel-wire suspension bridge, uses a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge design, with both vertical and diagonal suspender cables. Its stone towers are neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches. The New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT), which maintains the bridge, says that its original paint scheme was "Brooklyn Bridge Tan" and "Silver", although a writer for The New York Post states that it was originally entirely " Rawlins Red".

An approach ramp to the Brooklyn Bridge, seen from Brooklyn, with Manhattan Bridge (partially hidden by buildings) seen in the background

To provide sufficient clearance for shipping in the East River, the Brooklyn Bridge incorporates long approach viaducts on either end to raise it from low ground on both shores. Including approaches, the Brooklyn Bridge is a total of 6,016 feet (1,834 m) long when measured between the curbs at Park Row in Manhattan and Sands Street in Brooklyn. A separate measurement of 5,989 feet (1,825 m) is sometimes given; this is the distance from the curb at Centre Street in Manhattan.

The main span between the two suspension towers is 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) long and 85 feet (26 m) wide. The bridge "elongates and contracts between the extremes of temperature from 14 to 16 inches". Navigational clearance is 127 ft (38.7 m) above mean high water (MHW). A 1909 Engineering Magazine article said that, at the center of the span, the height above MHW could fluctuate by more than 9 feet (2.7 m) due to temperature and traffic loads, while more rigid spans had a lower maximum deflection.

The side spans, between each suspension tower and each side's suspension anchorages, are 930 feet (280 m) long. At the time of construction, engineers had not yet discovered the aerodynamics of bridge construction, and bridge designs were not tested in wind tunnels. John Roebling designed the Brooklyn Bridge's truss system to be six to eight times as strong as he thought it needed to be. As such, the open truss structure supporting the deck is, by its nature, subject to fewer aerodynamic problems. However, due to a supplier's fraudulent substitution of inferior-quality cable in the initial construction, the bridge was reappraised at the time as being only four times as strong as necessary.

An elevated pedestrian-only promenade runs in between the two roadways and 18 feet (5.5 m) above them. It typically runs 4 feet (1.2 m) below the level of the crossbeams, except at the areas surrounding each tower. Here, the promenade rises to just above the level of the crossbeams, connecting to a balcony that slightly overhangs the two roadways. The path is generally 10 to 17 feet (3.0 to 5.2 m) wide. The iron railings were produced by Janes & Kirtland, a Bronx iron foundry that also made the United States Capitol dome and the Bow Bridge in Central Park.

Each of the side spans is reached by an approach ramp. The 971-foot (296 m) approach ramp from the Brooklyn side is shorter than the 1,567-foot (478 m) approach ramp from the Manhattan side. The approaches are supported by Renaissance-style arches made of masonry; the arch openings themselves were filled with brick walls, with small windows within. The approach ramp contains nine arch or iron- girder bridges across side streets in Manhattan and Brooklyn.

Brooklyn Banks skate park, seen in 2009

Underneath the Manhattan approach, a series of brick slopes or "banks" was developed into a skate park, the Brooklyn Banks, in the late 1980s. The park uses the approach's support pillars as obstacles. In the mid-2010s, the Brooklyn Banks were closed to the public because the area was being used as a storage site during the bridge's renovation. The skateboarding community has attempted to save the banks on multiple occasions; after the city destroyed the smaller banks in the 2000s, the city government agreed to keep the larger banks for skateboarding. When the NYCDOT removed the bricks from the banks in 2020, skateboarders started an online petition.

The Brooklyn Bridge contains four main cables, which descend from the tops of the suspension towers and help support the deck. Two are located to the outside of the bridge's roadways, while two are in the median of the roadways. Each main cable measures 15.75 inches (40.0 cm) in diameter and contains 5,282 parallel, galvanized steel wires wrapped closely together in a cylindrical shape. These wires are bundled in 19 individual strands, with 278 wires to a strand. This was the first use of bundling in a suspension bridge and took several months for workers to tie together. Since the 2000s, the main cables have also supported a series of 24- watt LED lighting fixtures, referred to as "necklace lights" due to their shape.

In addition, 1,520 galvanized steel wire suspender cables hang downward from the main cables, and another 400 cable stays extend diagonally from the towers. These wires hold up the truss structure around the bridge deck.

Each side of the bridge contains an anchorage for the main cables. The anchorages are trapezoidal limestone structures located slightly inland of the shore, measuring 129 by 119 feet (39 by 36 m) at the base and 117 by 104 feet (36 by 32 m) at the top. Each anchorage weighs 60,000 short tons (54,000 long tons; 54,000 t). The Manhattan anchorage rests on a foundation of bedrock while the Brooklyn anchorage rests on clay.

The anchorages both have four anchor plates, one for each of the main cables, which are located near ground level and parallel to the ground. The anchor plates measure 16 by 17.5 feet (4.9 by 5.3 m), with a thickness of 2.5 feet (0.76 m) and weigh 46,000 pounds (21,000 kg) each. Each anchor plate is connected to the respective main cable by two sets of nine eyebars, each of which is about 12.5 feet (3.8 m) long and up to 9 by 3 inches (229 by 76 mm) thick. The chains of eyebars curve downward from the cables toward the anchor plates, and the eyebars vary in size depending on their position.

The anchorages also contain numerous passageways and compartments. Starting in 1876, in order to fund the bridge's maintenance, the New York City government made the large vaults under the bridge's Manhattan anchorage available for rent, and they were in constant use during the early 20th century. The vaults were used to store wine, as they were kept at a consistent 60 °F (16 °C) temperature due to a lack of air circulation. The Manhattan vault was called the "Blue Grotto" because of a shrine to the Virgin Mary next to an opening at the entrance. The vaults were closed for public use in the late 1910s and 1920s during World War I and Prohibition but were reopened thereafter. When magazine visited one of the cellars in 1978, it discovered a "fading inscription" on a wall reading: "Who loveth not wine, women and song, he remaineth a fool his whole life long." Leaks found within the vault's spaces necessitated repairs during the late 1980s and early 1990s. By the late 1990s, the chambers were being used to store maintenance equipment.

Characteristic pointed arches of the bridge's Gothic Revival suspension towers

The bridge's two suspension towers are 278 feet (85 m) tall with a footprint of 140 by 59 feet (43 by 18 m) at the high water line. They are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. The limestone was quarried at the Clark Quarry in Essex County, New York. The granite blocks were quarried and shaped on Vinalhaven Island, Maine, under a contract with the Bodwell Granite Company, and delivered from Maine to New York by schooner. The Manhattan tower contains 46,945 cubic yards (35,892 m ³) of masonry, while the Brooklyn tower has 38,214 cubic yards (29,217 m ³) of masonry.

Each tower contains a pair of Gothic Revival pointed arches, through which the roadways run. The arch openings are 117 feet (36 m) tall and 33.75 feet (10.29 m) wide. The tops of the towers are located 159 feet (48 m) above the floor of each arch opening, while the floors of the openings are 119.25 feet (36.35 m) above mean water level, giving the towers a total height of 278.25 feet (84.81 m) above mean high water.

The towers rest on underwater caissons made of southern yellow pine. Both caissons contain interior spaces that were used by construction workers. The Manhattan side's caisson is slightly larger, measuring 172 by 102 feet (52 by 31 m) and located 78.5 feet (23.9 m) below high water, while the Brooklyn side's caisson measures 168 by 102 feet (51 by 31 m) and is located 44.5 feet (13.6 m) below high water. The caissons were designed to hold at least the weight of the towers which would exert a pressure of 5 short tons per square foot (49 t/m ²) when fully built, but the caissons were over-engineered for safety. During an accident on the Brooklyn side, when air pressure was lost and the partially-built towers dropped full-force down, the caisson sustained an estimated pressure of 23 short tons per square foot (220 t/m ²) with only minor damage. Most of the timber used in the bridge's construction, including in the caissons, came from mills at Gascoigne Bluff on St. Simons Island, Georgia.

The Brooklyn side's caisson, which was built first, originally had a height of 9.5 feet (2.9 m) and a ceiling composed of five layers of timber, each layer 1 foot (0.30 m) tall. Ten more layers of timber were later added atop the ceiling, and the entire caisson was wrapped in tin and wood for further protection against flooding. The thickness of the caisson's sides was 8 feet (2.4 m) at both the bottom and the top. The caisson had six chambers: two each for dredging, supply shafts, and airlocks.

The caisson on the Manhattan side was slightly different because it had to be installed at a greater depth. To protect against the increased air pressure at that depth, the Manhattan caisson had 22 layers of timber on its roof, seven more than its Brooklyn counterpart had. The Manhattan caisson also had fifty 4-inch-diameter (10 cm) pipes for sand removal, a fireproof iron-boilerplate interior, and different airlocks and communication systems.

Proposals for a bridge between the then-separate cities of Brooklyn and New York had been suggested as early as 1800. At the time, the only travel between the two cities was by a number of ferry lines. Engineers presented various designs, such as chain or link bridges, though these were never built because of the difficulties of constructing a high enough fixed-span bridge across the extremely busy East River. There were also proposals for tunnels under the East River, but these were considered prohibitively expensive. German immigrant engineer John Augustus Roebling proposed building a suspension bridge over the East River in 1857. He had previously designed and constructed shorter suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, and the Niagara Suspension Bridge. In 1867, Roebling erected what became the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge over the Ohio River between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky.

Artists' conception, by Currier and Ives, of the bridge while construction was underway, 1872

Roebling was subsequently named the chief engineer of the work and, by September 1867, had presented a master plan. According to the plan, the bridge would be longer and taller than any suspension bridge previously built. It would incorporate roadways and elevated rail tracks, whose tolls and fares would provide the means to pay for the bridge's construction. It would also include a raised promenade that served as a leisurely pathway. The proposal received much acclaim in both cities, and residents predicted that the New York and Brooklyn Bridge's opening would have as much of an impact as the Suez Canal, the first transatlantic telegraph cable or the first transcontinental railroad. By early 1869, however, some individuals started to criticize the project, saying either that the bridge was too expensive, or that the construction process was too difficult.

To allay concerns about the design of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, Roebling set up a "Bridge Party" in March 1869, where he invited engineers and members of U.S. Congress to see his other spans. Following the bridge party in April, Roebling and several engineers conducted final surveys. During the process, it was determined that the main span would have to be raised from 130 to 135 feet (40 to 41 m) above MHW, requiring several changes to the overall design. In June 1869, while conducting these surveys, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned it against a piling. After amputation of his crushed toes, he developed a tetanus infection that left him incapacitated and resulted in his death the following month. Washington Roebling, John Roebling's 32-year-old son, was then hired to fill his father's role. Tammany Hall leader William M. Tweed also became involved in the bridge's construction because, as a major landowner in New York City, he had an interest in the project's completion. The New York and Brooklyn Bridge Company-later known simply as the New York Bridge Company-was actually overseen by Tammany Hall, and it approved Roebling's plans and designated him as chief engineer of the project.

Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge began on January 2, 1870. The first work entailed the construction of two caissons, upon which the suspension towers would be built. The Brooklyn side's caisson was built at the Webb & Bell shipyard in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and was launched into the river on March 19, 1870. Compressed air was pumped into the caisson, and workers entered the space to dig the sediment until it sank to the bedrock. As one sixteen-year-old from Ireland, Frank Harris, described the fearful experience:

The six of us were working naked to the waist in the small iron chamber with the temperature of about 80 degrees Fahrenheit: In five minutes the sweat was pouring from us, and all the while we were standing in icy water that was only kept from rising by the terrific pressure. No wonder the headaches were blinding.

The Manhattan side's caisson was the next structure to be built. To ensure that it would not catch fire like its counterpart had, the Manhattan caisson was lined with fireproof plate iron. It was launched from Webb & Bell's shipyard on May 11, 1871, and maneuvered into place that September. Due to the extreme underwater air pressure inside the much deeper Manhattan caisson, many workers became sick with "the bends"- decompression sickness-during this work, despite the incorporation of airlocks (which were believed to help with decompression sickness at the time). This condition was unknown at the time and was first called "caisson disease" by the project physician, Andrew Smith. Between January 25 and May 31, 1872, Smith treated 110 cases of decompression sickness, while three workers died from the disease. When iron probes underneath the Manhattan caisson found the bedrock to be even deeper than expected, Washington Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness. After the Manhattan caisson reached a depth of 78.5 feet (23.9 m) with an air pressure of 35 pounds per square inch (240 kPa), Washington deemed the sandy subsoil overlying the bedrock 30 feet (9.1 m) beneath to be sufficiently firm, and subsequently infilled the caisson with concrete in July 1872.

Washington Roebling himself suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of caisson disease shortly after ground was broken for the Brooklyn tower foundation. His debilitating condition left him unable to supervise the construction in person, so he designed the caissons and other equipment from his apartment, directing "the completion of the bridge through a telescope from his bedroom." His wife, Emily Warren Roebling, not only provided written communications between her husband and the engineers on site, but also understood mathematics, calculations of catenary curves, strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cable construction. She spent the next 11 years helping supervise the bridge's construction, taking over much of the chief engineer's duties, including day-to-day supervision and project management.

After the caissons were completed, piers were constructed on top of each of them upon which masonry towers would be built. The towers' construction was a complex process that took four years. Since the masonry blocks were heavy, the builders transported them to the base of the towers using a pulley system with a continuous 1.5-inch (3.8 cm)-diameter steel wire rope, operated by steam engines at ground level. The blocks were then carried up on a timber track alongside each tower and maneuvered into the proper position using a derrick atop the towers. The blocks sometimes vibrated the ropes because of their weight, but only once did a block fall.

George Bradford Brainerd, From Bridge Tower, c. 1872, Brooklyn Museum

In 1875, while the towers were being constructed, the project had depleted its original $5 million budget. Two bridge commissioners, one each from Brooklyn and Manhattan, petitioned New York state lawmakers to allot another $8 million for construction. Ultimately, the legislators passed a law authorizing the allotment with the condition that the cities would buy the stock of Brooklyn Bridge's private stockholders.

The first temporary wire was stretched between the towers on August 15, 1876, using chrome steel provided by the Chrome Steel Company of Brooklyn. The wire was then stretched back across the river, and the two ends were spliced to form a traveler, a lengthy loop of wire connecting the towers, which was driven by a 30 horsepower (22 kW) steam hoisting engine at ground level. The wire was one of two that were used to create a temporary footbridge for workers while cable spinning was ongoing. The next step was to send an engineer across the completed traveler wire in a boatswain's chair slung from the wire, to ensure it was safe enough. The bridge's master mechanic, E.F. Farrington, was selected for this task, and an estimated crowd of 10,000 people on both shores watched him cross. A second traveler wire was then stretched across the span, a task that was completed by August 30. The temporary footbridge, located some 60 feet (18 m) above the elevation of the future deck, was completed in February 1877.

By December 1876, a steel contract for the permanent cables still had not been awarded. There was disagreement over whether the bridge's cables should use the as-yet-untested Bessemer steel or the well-proven crucible steel. Until a permanent contract was awarded, the builders ordered 30 short tons (27 long tons) of wire in the interim, 10 tons each from three companies, including Washington Roebling's own steel mill in Brooklyn. In the end, it was decided to use number 8 Birmingham gauge (approximately 4 mm or 0.165 inches in diameter) crucible steel, and a request for bids was distributed, to which eight companies responded. In January 1877, a contract for crucible steel was awarded to J. Lloyd Haigh, who was associated with bridge trustee Abram Hewitt, whom Roebling distrusted.

The spinning of the wires required the manufacture of large coils of it which were galvanized but not oiled when they left the factory. The coils were delivered to a yard near the Brooklyn anchorage. There they were dipped in linseed oil, hoisted to the top of the anchorage, dried out and spliced into a single wire, and finally coated with red zinc for further galvanizing. There were thirty-two drums at the anchorage yard, eight for each of the four main cables. Each drum had a capacity of 60,000 feet (18,000 m) of wire. The first experimental wire for the main cables was stretched between the towers on May 29, 1877, and spinning began two weeks later. All four main cables were being strung by that July. During that time, the temporary footbridge was unofficially opened to members of the public, who could receive a visitor's pass; by August 1877 several thousand visitors from around the world had used the footbridge. The visitor passes ceased that September after a visitor had an epileptic seizure and nearly fell off.

After the suspender wires had been placed, workers began erecting steel crossbeams to support the roadway as part of the bridge's overall superstructure. Construction on the bridge's superstructure started in March 1879, but, as with the cables, the trustees initially disagreed on whether the steel superstructure should be made of Bessemer or crucible steel. That July, the trustees decided to award a contract for 500 short tons (450 long tons) of Bessemer steel to the Edgemoor (or Edge Moor) Iron Works, based in Philadelphia, to be delivered by 1880. The trustees later passed another resolution for another 500 short tons (450 long tons) of Bessemer steel. However, by February 1880 the steel deliveries had not started. That October, the bridge trustees questioned Edgemoor's president about the delay in steel deliveries. Despite Edgemoor's assurances that the contract would be fulfilled, the deliveries still had not been completed by November 1881. Brooklyn mayor Seth Low, who became part of the board of trustees in 1882, became the chairman of a committee tasked to investigate Edgemoor's failure to fulfill the contract. When questioned, Edgemoor's president stated that the delays were the fault of another contractor, the Cambria Iron Company, who was manufacturing the eyebars for the bridge trusses; at that point, the contract was supposed to be complete by October 1882.

Further complicating the situation, Washington Roebling had failed to appear at the trustees' meeting in June 1882, since he had gone to Newport, Rhode Island. After the news media discovered this, most of the newspapers called for Roebling to be fired as chief engineer, except for the Daily State Gazette of Trenton, New Jersey, and the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Some of the longstanding trustees, including Henry C. Murphy, James S. T. Stranahan, and William C. Kingsley, were willing to vouch for Roebling, since construction progress on the Brooklyn Bridge was still ongoing. However, Roebling's behavior was considered suspect among the younger trustees who had joined the board more recently.

Construction on the bridge itself was noted in formal reports that Murphy presented each month to the mayors of New York and Brooklyn. For example, Murphy's report in August 1882 noted that the month's progress included 114 intermediate cords erected within a week, as well as 72 diagonal stays, 60 posts, and numerous floor beams, bridging trusses, and stay bars. By early 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was considered mostly completed and was projected to open that June. Contracts for bridge lighting were awarded by February 1883, and a toll scheme was approved that March.

There was substantial opposition to the bridge's construction from shipbuilders and merchants located to the north, who argued that the bridge would not provide sufficient clearance underneath for ships. In May 1876, these groups, led by Abraham Miller, filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York against the cities of New York and Brooklyn.

In 1879, an Assembly Sub-Committee on Commerce and Navigation began an investigation into the Brooklyn Bridge. A seaman who had been hired to determine the height of the span, testified to the committee about the difficulties that ship masters would experience in bringing their ships under the bridge when it was completed. Another witness, Edward Wellman Serrell, a civil engineer, said that the calculations of the bridge's assumed strength were incorrect. The Supreme Court decided in 1883 that the Brooklyn Bridge was a lawful structure.

The New York and Brooklyn Bridge was opened for use on May 24, 1883. Thousands of people attended the opening ceremony, and many ships were present in the East River for the occasion. Officially, Emily Warren Roebling was the first to cross the bridge. The bridge opening was also attended by U.S. president Chester A. Arthur and New York mayor Franklin Edson, who crossed the bridge and shook hands with Brooklyn mayor Seth Low at the Brooklyn end. Abram Hewitt gave the principal address.

It is not the work of any one man or of any one age. It is the result of the study, of the experience, and of the knowledge of many men in many ages. It is not merely a creation; it is a growth. It stands before us today as the sum and epitome of human knowledge; as the very heir of the ages; as the latest glory of centuries of patient observation, profound study and accumulated skill, gained, step by step, in the never-ending struggle of man to subdue the forces of nature to his control and use.

Though Washington Roebling was unable to attend the ceremony (and rarely visited the site again), he held a celebratory banquet at his house on the day of the bridge opening. Further festivity included the performance by a band, gunfire from ships, and a fireworks display. On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed the span. Less than a week after the Brooklyn Bridge opened, ferry crews reported a sharp drop in patronage, while the bridge's toll operators were processing over a hundred people a minute. However, cross-river ferries continued to operate until 1942.

The bridge had cost US$15.5 million in 1883 dollars (about US$471,107,000 in 2022) to build, of which Brooklyn paid two-thirds. The bonds to fund the construction would not be paid off until 1956. An estimated 27 men died during its construction. Since the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the only bridge across the East River at that time, it was also called the East River Bridge. Until the construction of the nearby Williamsburg Bridge in 1903, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the longest suspension bridge in the world, 20% longer than any built previously.

At the time of opening, the Brooklyn Bridge was not complete; the proposed public transit across the bridge was still being tested, while the Brooklyn approach was being completed. On May 30, 1883, six days after the opening, a woman falling down a stairway at the Brooklyn approach caused a stampede which resulted in at least twelve people being crushed and killed. In subsequent lawsuits, the Brooklyn Bridge Company was acquitted of negligence. However, the company did install emergency phone boxes and additional railings, and the trustees approved a fireproofing plan for the bridge. Public transit service began with the opening of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, a cable car service, on September 25, 1883. On May 17, 1884, one of the circus master P. T. Barnum's most famous attractions, Jumbo the elephant, led a parade of 21 elephants over the Brooklyn Bridge. This helped to lessen doubts about the bridge's stability while also promoting Barnum's circus.

Patronage across the Brooklyn Bridge increased in the years after it opened; a million people paid to cross in the six first months. The bridge carried 8.5 million people in 1884, its first full year of operation; this number doubled to 17 million in 1885 and again to 34 million in 1889. Many of these people were cable car passengers. Additionally, about 4.5 million pedestrians a year were crossing the bridge for free by 1892.

The first proposal to make changes to the bridge was sent in only two and a half years after it opened, when Linda Gilbert suggested glass steam-powered elevators and an observatory be added to the bridge and a fee charged for use, which would in part fund the bridge's upkeep and in part fund her prison reform charity. This proposal was considered but not acted upon. Numerous other proposals were made during the first fifty years of the bridge's life. Trolley tracks were added in the center lanes of both roadways in 1898, allowing trolleys to use the bridge as well. That year, the formerly separate City of Brooklyn was unified with New York City, and the Brooklyn Bridge fell under city control.

Concerns about the Brooklyn Bridge's safety were raised during the turn of the century. In 1898, traffic backups due to a dead horse caused one of the truss cords to buckle. There were more significant worries after twelve suspender cables snapped in 1901, though a thorough investigation found no other defects. After the 1901 incident, five inspectors were hired to examine the bridge each day, a service that cost $250,000 a year. The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, which operated routes across the Brooklyn Bridge, issued a notice in 1905 saying that the bridge had reached its transit capacity.

By 1890, due to the popularity of the Brooklyn Bridge, there were proposals to construct other bridges across the East River between Manhattan and Long Island. Although a second deck for the Brooklyn Bridge was proposed, it was thought to be infeasible because doing so would overload the bridge's structural capacity. The first new bridge across the East River, the Williamsburg Bridge, opened upstream in 1903 and connected Williamsburg, Brooklyn, with the Lower East Side of Manhattan. This was followed by the Queensboro Bridge between Queens and Manhattan in March 1909, and the Manhattan Bridge between Brooklyn and Manhattan in December 1909. Several subway, railroad, and road tunnels were also constructed, which helped to accelerate the development of Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Queens.

Though tolls had been instituted for carriages and cable-car customers since the bridge's opening, pedestrians were spared from the tolls originally. However, by the first decade of the 20th century, pedestrians were also paying tolls. Tolls on all four bridges across the East River-the Brooklyn Bridge, as well as the Manhattan, Williamsburg, and Queensboro bridges to the north-were abolished in July 1911 as part of a populist policy initiative headed by New York City mayor William Jay Gaynor. The city government passed a bill to officially name the structure the "Brooklyn Bridge" in January 1915.

Ramp from the Brooklyn Bridge to FDR Drive (pictured in 2008), completed c. 1969

The widened south roadway was completed in May 1951, followed by the north roadway in October 1953. The restoration was finished in May 1954 with the completion of the reconstructed elevated promenade. While the rebuilding of the span was ongoing, a fallout shelter was constructed beneath the Manhattan approach in anticipation of the Cold War. The abandoned space in one of the masonry arches was stocked with emergency survival supplies for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union; these supplies remained in place half a century later. In addition, defensive barriers were added to the bridge as a safeguard against sabotage.

Simultaneous with the rebuilding of the Brooklyn Bridge, a double-decked viaduct for the BQE was being built through an existing steel overpass of the bridge's Brooklyn approach ramp. The segment of the BQE from Brooklyn Bridge south to Atlantic Avenue opened in June 1954, but the direct ramp from the northbound BQE to the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge did not open until 1959. The city also widened the Adams Street approach in Brooklyn, between the bridge and Fulton Street, from 60 to 160 feet (18 to 49 m) between 1954 and 1955. Subsequently, Boerum Place from Fulton Street south to Atlantic Avenue was also widened. This required the demolition of the old Kings County courthouse. The towers were cleaned in 1958 and the Brooklyn anchorage was repaired the next year.

On the Manhattan side, the city approved a controversial rebuilding of the Manhattan entrance plaza in 1953. The project, which would add a grade-separated junction over Park Row, was hotly contested because it would require the demolition of 21 structures, including the old New York World Building. The reconstruction also necessitated the relocation of 410 families on Park Row. In December 1956, the city started a two-year renovation of the plaza. This required the closure of one roadway at a time, as was done during the rebuilding of the bridge itself. Work on redeveloping the area around the Manhattan approach started in the mid-1960s. At the same time, plans were announced for direct ramps to the FDR Drive elevated highway to alleviate congestion at the approach. The ramp from the FDR Drive to the Brooklyn Bridge was opened in 1968, followed by the ramp from the bridge to the FDR Drive the next year. A single ramp from the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge to northbound Park Row was constructed in 1970. A repainting of the bridge was announced two years later in advance of its 90th anniversary.

The Brooklyn Bridge gradually deteriorated due to age and neglect. While it had 200 full-time dedicated maintenance workers before World War II, that number dropped to five by the late 20th century, and the city as a whole only had 160 bridge maintenance workers. In 1974, heavy vehicles such as vans and buses were banned from the bridge to prevent further erosion of the concrete roadway. A report in The New York Times four years later noted that the cables were visibly fraying and the pedestrian promenade had holes in it. The city began planning to replace all the Brooklyn Bridge's cables at a cost of $115 million, as part of a larger project to renovate all four toll-free East River spans. By 1980, the Brooklyn Bridge was in such dire condition that it faced imminent closure. In some places, half of the strands in the cables were broken.

In June 1981, two of the diagonal stay cables snapped, seriously injuring a pedestrian who later died. Subsequently, the anchorages were found to have developed rust, and an emergency cable repair was necessitated less than a month later after another cable developed slack. Following the incident, the city accelerated the timetable of its proposed cable replacement, and it commenced a $153 million rehabilitation of the Brooklyn Bridge in advance of the 100th anniversary. As part of the project, the bridge's original suspender cables installed by J. Lloyd Haigh were replaced by Bethlehem Steel in 1986, marking the cables' first replacement since construction. In addition, the staircase at Washington Street in Brooklyn was renovated, the stairs from Tillary and Adams Streets were replaced with a ramp, and the short flights of steps from the promenade to each tower's balcony were removed. In a smaller project, the bridge was floodlit at night starting in 1982 to highlight its architectural features.

Additional problems persisted, and in 1993, high levels of lead were discovered near the bridge's towers. Further emergency repairs were undertaken in mid-1999 after small concrete shards began falling from the bridge into the East River. The concrete deck had been installed during the 1950s renovations and had a lifespan of about 60 years. The Park Row exit from the bridge's westbound lanes was closed as a safety measure after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the nearby World Trade Center. That section of Park Row had been closed off since it ran right underneath 1 Police Plaza, the headquarters of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). In early 2003, to save money on electricity, the NYCDOT turned off the bridge's "necklace lights" at night. They were turned back on later that year after several private entities made donations to fund the lights.

After the 2007 collapse of the I-35W bridge in Minneapolis, public attention focused on the condition of bridges across the U.S. The New York Times reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps had received a "poor" rating during an inspection in 2007. However, a NYCDOT spokesman said that the poor rating did not indicate a dangerous state but rather implied it required renovation. In 2010, the NYCDOT began renovating the approaches and deck, as well as repainting the suspension span. Work included widening two approach ramps from one to two lanes by re-striping a new prefabricated ramp; raising clearance over the eastbound BQE at York Street; seismic retrofitting; replacement of rusted railings and safety barriers; and road deck resurfacing. The work necessitated detours for four years. At the time, the project was scheduled to be completed in 2014; but completion was later delayed to 2015, then again to 2017. The project's cost also increased from $508 million in 2010 to $811 million in 2016.

In August 2016, after the renovation had been completed, the NYCDOT announced that it would conduct a seven-month, $370,000 study to verify if the bridge could support a heavier upper deck that consisted of an expanded bicycle and pedestrian path. As of 2016, about 10,000 pedestrians and 3,500 cyclists used the pathway on an average weekday. Work on the pedestrian entrance on the Brooklyn side was underway by 2017. The NYCDOT also indicated in 2016 that it planned to reinforce the Brooklyn Bridge's foundations to prevent it from sinking, as well as repair the masonry arches on the approach ramps, which had been damaged by Hurricane Sandy in 2012. In July 2018, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission approved a further renovation of the Brooklyn Bridge's suspension towers and approach ramps. That December, the federal government gave the city $25 million in funding, which would pay for a $337 million rehabilitation of the bridge approaches and the suspension towers. Work started in late 2019 and was scheduled to be completed in 2023. This restoration included removing bricks from the arches and putting fresh concrete behind them, using mortar from the same upstate quarries as the original mortar. The granite arches were also cleaned, showing off the colors of the stone, which had long been hidden by grime.

In early 2020, City Council speaker Corey Johnson and the nonprofit Van Alen Institute hosted an international contest to solicit plans for the redesign of the bridge's walkway. Ultimately, in January 2021, the city decided to install a two-way protected bike path on the Manhattan-bound roadway, replacing the leftmost vehicular lane. The bike lane would allow the existing promenade to be used exclusively by pedestrians. Work on the bike lane started in June 2021, and the new path was completed on September 14, 2021. Despite the addition of the bike path, the bridge's walkway was still frequently overcrowded, prompting the city to propose in mid-2023 that street vendors be banned from the bridge and others citywide.

Horse-drawn carriages have been allowed to use the Brooklyn Bridge's roadways since its opening. Originally, each of the two roadways carried two lanes of a different direction of traffic. The lanes were relatively narrow at only 8 feet (2.4 m) wide. In July 1922, motor vehicles were banned from the bridge; the ban lasted until May 1925.

After 1950, the main roadway carried six lanes of automobile traffic, three in each direction. It was then reduced to five lanes with the addition of a two-way bike lane on the Manhattan-bound side in 2021. Because of the roadway's height (11 ft (3.4 m) posted) and weight (6,000 lb (2,700 kg) posted) restrictions, commercial vehicles and buses are prohibited from using the Brooklyn Bridge. The weight restrictions prohibit heavy passenger vehicles such as pickup trucks and SUVs from using the bridge, though this is not often enforced in practice.

On the Brooklyn side, vehicles can enter the bridge from Tillary/Adams Streets to the south, Sands/Pearl Streets to the west, and exit 28B of the eastbound Brooklyn-Queens Expressway. In Manhattan, cars can enter from both the northbound and southbound FDR Drive, as well as Park Row to the west, Chambers/Centre Streets to the north, and Pearl Street to the south. However, the exit from the bridge to northbound Park Row was closed after the September 11 attacks because of increased security concerns: that section of Park Row ran under One Police Plaza, the NYPD headquarters.

Vehicular access to the bridge is provided by a complex series of ramps on both sides of the bridge. There are two entrances to the bridge's pedestrian promenade on either side.

Formerly, rail traffic operated on the Brooklyn Bridge as well. Cable cars and elevated railroads used the bridge until 1944, while trolleys ran until 1950.

Thomas A. Edison, Inc.: "New Brooklyn to New York Via Brooklyn Bridge", 1899

The New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, a cable car service, began operating on September 25, 1883; it ran on the inner lanes of the bridge, between terminals at the Manhattan and Brooklyn ends. Since Washington Roebling believed that steam locomotives would put excessive loads upon the structure of the Brooklyn Bridge, the cable car line was designed as a steam/cable-hauled hybrid. They were powered from a generating station under the Brooklyn approach. The cable cars could not only regulate their speed on the % upward and downward approaches, but also maintain a constant interval between each other. There were 24 cable cars in total.

Following the unification of the cities of New York and Brooklyn in 1898, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway ceased to be a separate entity that June and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT) assumed control of the line. The BRT started running through-services of elevated trains, which ran from Park Row Terminal in Manhattan to points in Brooklyn via the Sands Street station on the Brooklyn side. Before reaching Sands Street (at Tillary Street for Fulton Street Line trains, and at Bridge Street for Fifth Avenue Line and Myrtle Avenue Line trains), elevated trains bound for Manhattan were uncoupled from their steam locomotives. The elevated trains were then coupled to the cable cars, which would pull the passenger carriages across the bridge.

The BRT did not run any elevated train through services from 1899 to 1901. Due to increased patronage after the opening of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s first subway line, the Park Row station was rebuilt in 1906. In the early 20th century, there were plans for Brooklyn Bridge elevated trains to run underground to the BRT's proposed Chambers Street station in Manhattan, though the connection was never opened. The overpass across William Street was closed in 1913 to make way for the proposed connection. In 1929, the overpass was reopened after it became clear that the connection would not be built.

After the IRT's Joralemon Street Tunnel and the Williamsburg Bridge tracks opened in 1908, the Brooklyn Bridge no longer held a monopoly on rail service between Manhattan and Brooklyn, and cable service ceased. New subway lines from the IRT and from the BRT's successor Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), built in the 1910s and 1920s, posed significant competition to the Brooklyn Bridge rail services. With the opening of the Independent Subway System in 1932 and the subsequent unification of all three companies into a single entity in 1940, the elevated services started to decline, and the Park Row and Sands Street stations were greatly reduced in size. The Fifth Avenue and Fulton Street services across the Brooklyn Bridge were discontinued in 1940 and 1941 respectively, and the elevated tracks were abandoned permanently with the withdrawal of Myrtle Avenue services in 1944.

Brooklyn Bridge with Freedom Tower and 8 Spruce Street in the background

A center line was painted to separate cyclists from pedestrians in 1971, creating one of the city's first dedicated bike lanes. Initially, the northern side of the promenade was used by pedestrians and the southern side by cyclists. In 2000, these were swapped, with cyclists taking the northern side and pedestrians taking the southern side. On September 14, 2021, the DOT closed off the inner-most car lane on the Manhattan-bound side with protective barriers and fencing to create a new bike path. Cyclists are now prohibited from the upper pedestrian lane.

Pedestrian access to the bridge from the Brooklyn side is from either the median of Adams Street at its intersection with Tillary Street or a staircase near Prospect Street between Cadman Plaza East and West. In Manhattan, the pedestrian walkway is accessible from crosswalks at the intersection of the bridge and Centre Street, or through a staircase leading to Park Row.

While the bridge has always permitted the passage of pedestrians, the promenade facilitates movement when other means of crossing the East River have become unavailable. During transit strikes by the Transport Workers Union in 1980 and 2005, people commuting to work used the bridge; they were joined by Mayors Ed Koch and Michael Bloomberg, who crossed as a gesture to the affected public. Pedestrians also walked across the bridge as an alternative to suspended subway services following the 1965, 1977, and 2003 blackouts, and after the September 11 attacks.

During the 2003 blackouts, many crossing the bridge reported a swaying motion. The higher-than-usual pedestrian load caused this swaying, which was amplified by the tendency of pedestrians to synchronize their footfalls with a sway. Several engineers expressed concern about how this would affect the bridge, although others noted that the bridge did withstand the event and that the redundancies in its design-the inclusion of the three support systems (suspension system, diagonal stay system, and stiffening truss)-make it "probably the best secured bridge against such movements going out of control". In designing the bridge, John Roebling had stated that the bridge would sag but not fall, even if one of these structural systems were to fail altogether.

Robert Emmet Odlum jumping from the bridge on May 19, 1885

There have been several notable jumpers from the Brooklyn Bridge. The first person was Robert Emmet Odlum, brother of women's rights activist Charlotte Odlum Smith, on May 19, 1885. He struck the water at an angle and died shortly afterwards from internal injuries. Steve Brodie supposedly dropped from underneath the bridge in July 1886 and was briefly arrested for it, though there is some doubt about whether he actually jumped. Larry Donovan made a slightly higher jump from the railing a month afterward. The first person to jump from the bridge with the intention of suicide was Francis McCarey in 1892. A lesser known early jumper was James Duffy of County Cavan, Ireland, who on April 15, 1895, asked several men to watch him jump from the bridge. Duffy jumped and was not seen again. Additionally, the cartoonist Otto Eppers jumped and survived in 1910, and was then tried and acquitted for attempted suicide. The Brooklyn Bridge has since developed a reputation as a suicide bridge due to the number of jumpers who do so intending to kill themselves, though exact statistics are difficult to find.

Other notable feats have taken place on or near the bridge. In 1919, Giorgio Pessi piloted what was then one of the world's largest airplanes, the Caproni Ca.5, under the bridge. In 1993, bridge jumper Thierry Devaux illegally performed eight acrobatic bungee jumps above the East River close to the Brooklyn tower.

On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish Movement, striking 16-year-old student Ari Halberstam and three others traveling on the bridge. Halberstam died five days later from his wounds, and Baz was later convicted of murder. He was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of Palestinian Muslims a few days prior to the incident. After initially classifying the killing as one committed out of road rage, the Justice Department reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was subsequently dedicated as the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp.

Several potential attacks or disasters have also been averted. In 1979, police disarmed a stick of dynamite placed under the Brooklyn approach, and an artist in Manhattan was later arrested for the act. In 2003, truck driver Iyman Faris was sentenced to about 20 years in prison for providing material support to Al-Qaeda, after an earlier plot to destroy the bridge by cutting through its support wires with blowtorches was thwarted.

At 9:00 a.m. on May 19, 1977, artist Jack Bashkow climbed one of the towers for Bridging, a "media sculpture" by the performance group Art Corporation of America Inc. Seven artists climbed the largest bridges connected to Manhattan "to replace violence and fear in mass media for one day". When each of the artists had reached the tops of the bridges, they ignited bright-yellow flares at the same moment, resulting in rush hour traffic disruption, media attention, and the arrest of the climbers, though the charges were later dropped. Called "the first social-sculpture to use mass-media as art" by conceptual artist Joseph Beuys, the event was on the cover of the New York Post, received international attention, and received ABC Eyewitness News' 1977 Best News of the Year award. John Halpern documented the incident in the film Bridging, 1977. Halpern attempted another "bridging" "social sculpture" in 1979, when he planted a radio receiver, gunpowder and fireworks in a bucket atop one of the towers. The piece was later discovered by police, leading to his arrest for possessing a bomb.

On October 1, 2011, more than 700 protesters with the Occupy Wall Street movement were arrested while attempting to march across the bridge on the roadway. Protesters disputed the police account of the events and claimed that the arrests were the result of being trapped on the bridge by the NYPD. The majority of the arrests were subsequently dismissed.

On July 22, 2014, the two American flags on the flagpoles atop each tower were found to have been replaced by bleached-white American flags. Initially, cannabis activism was suspected as a motive, but on August 12, 2014, two Berlin artists claimed responsibility for hoisting the two white flags, having switched out the original flags with their replicas. The artists said that the flags were meant to celebrate "the beauty of public space" and the anniversary of the death of German-born John Roebling, and they denied that it was an "anti-American statement".

The 50th-anniversary celebrations on May 24, 1933, included a ceremony featuring an airplane show, ships, and fireworks, as well as a banquet. During the centennial celebrations on May 24, 1983, President Ronald Reagan led a cavalcade of cars across the bridge. A flotilla of ships visited the harbor, officials held parades, and Grucci Fireworks held a fireworks display that evening. For the centennial, the Brooklyn Museum exhibited a selection of the original drawings made for the bridge's construction, including those by Washington Roebling. Media coverage of the centennial was declared "the public relations triumph of 1983" by

The 125th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated by a five-day event on May 22-26, 2008, which included a live performance by the Brooklyn Philharmonic, a special lighting of the bridge's towers, and a fireworks display. Other events included a film series, historical walking tours, information tents, a series of lectures and readings, a bicycle tour of Brooklyn, a miniature golf course featuring Brooklyn icons, and other musical and dance performances. Just before the anniversary celebrations, artist Paul St George installed the Telectroscope, a video link on the Brooklyn side of the bridge that connected to a matching device on London's Tower Bridge. A renovated pedestrian connection to Dumbo, Brooklyn, was also reopened before the anniversary celebrations.

At the time of construction, contemporaries marveled at what technology was capable of, and the bridge became a symbol of the era's optimism. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the bridge's construction, saying that the "Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology".

The Brooklyn Bridge has been listed as a National Historic Landmark since January 29, 1964, and was subsequently added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The bridge has also been a New York City designated landmark since August 24, 1967, and was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972. In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017.

A bronze plaque is attached to the Manhattan anchorage, which was constructed on the site of the Samuel Osgood House at 1 Cherry Street in Manhattan. Named after Samuel Osgood, a Massachusetts politician and lawyer, it was built in 1770 and served as the first U.S. presidential mansion. The Osgood House was demolished in 1856.

Another plaque on the Manhattan side of the pedestrian promenade, installed by the city in 1975, indicates the bridge's status as a city landmark.

The Brooklyn Bridge has had an impact on idiomatic American English. For example, references to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. George C. Parker and William McCloundy were two early 20th-century con men who may have perpetrated this scam successfully on unwitting tourists, although the author of The Brooklyn Bridge: A Cultural History wrote, "No evidence exists that the bridge has ever been sold to a 'gullible outlander'".

As a tourist attraction, the Brooklyn Bridge is a popular site for clusters of love locks, wherein a couple inscribes a date and their initials onto a lock, attach it to the bridge, and throw the key into the water as a sign of their love. The practice is officially illegal in New York City and the NYPD can give violators a $100 fine. NYCDOT workers periodically remove the love locks from the bridge at a cost of $100,000 per year.

To highlight the Brooklyn Bridge's cultural status, the city proposed building a Brooklyn Bridge museum near the bridge's Brooklyn end in the 1970s. Though the museum was ultimately not constructed, the plans had been established after numerous original planning documents were found in Williamsburg. These documents were given to the New York City Municipal Archives, where they are normally located, though the documents were briefly displayed at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1976.

The bridge is often featured in wide shots of the New York City skyline in television and film and has been depicted in numerous works of art. Fictional works have used the Brooklyn Bridge as a setting; for instance, the dedication of a portion of the bridge, and the bridge itself, were key components in the 2001 film Kate & Leopold. Furthermore, the Brooklyn Bridge has also served as an icon of America, with mentions in numerous songs, books, and poems. Among the most notable of these works is that of American Modernist poet Hart Crane, who used the Brooklyn Bridge as a central metaphor and organizing structure for his second book of poetry, (1930).

The Brooklyn Bridge has also been lauded for its architecture. One of the first positive reviews was "The Bridge As A Monument", a Harper's Weekly piece written by architecture critic Montgomery Schuyler and published a week after the bridge's opening. In the piece, Schuyler wrote: "It so happens that the work which is likely to be our most durable monument, and to convey some knowledge of us to the most remote posterity, is a work of bare utility; not a shrine, not a fortress, not a palace, but a bridge." Architecture critic Lewis Mumford cited the piece as the impetus for serious architectural criticism in the U.S. He wrote that in the 1920s the bridge was a source of "joy and inspiration" in his childhood, and that it was a profound influence in his adolescence. Later critics would regard the Brooklyn Bridge as a work of art, as opposed to an engineering feat or a means of transport. Not all critics appreciated the bridge, however. Henry James, writing in the early 20th century, cited the bridge as an ominous symbol of the city's transformation into a "steel-souled machine room".

The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in numerous media sources, including David McCullough's 1972 book The Great Bridge and Ken Burns's 1981 documentary Brooklyn Bridge. It is also described in Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a BBC docudrama series with an accompanying book, as well as Chief Engineer: Washington Roebling, The Man Who Built the Brooklyn Bridge, a biography published in 2017.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/ suspension bridge in New York City, spanning the East River between the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. Opened on May 24, 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was the first fixed crossing of the East River.