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The Bedouin, or Bedu, are traditionally nomadic Arab tribes originating from the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The term “Bedouin” is derived from the Arabic word “badawī,” meaning “desert dweller,” distinguishing them from sedentary populations.

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• Traditionally, the Bedouins move from place to place with their camels, sheep, and goats, looking for water and grass.

• They live in tribes, and each tribe has a leader called a sheikh.

• Their culture is known for hospitality, poetry, and storytelling.

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• Today, many Bedouins no longer live as nomads. Some have moved to cities, while others live in villages built by governments.

• In places like Israel and the West Bank, some Bedouins face problems like land disputes, lack of services, and pressure to leave their traditional lifestyle.

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• Despite modern challenges, many Bedouin communities strive to preserve their cultural heritage.

• Efforts include promoting traditional crafts, music, and storytelling, as well as adapting to contemporary circumstances while maintaining core aspects of their identity.

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https://blog.windstarcruises.com/all-about-bedouins-in-the-middle-east/

https://bedawi.com/Bedouin_Culture/

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Bedouin, also spelled Beduin, Arabic Badawi and plural Badw, Arabic-speaking nomadic peoples of the Middle Eastern deserts, especially of North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan.

Frans Lemmens/SuperStock

Most Bedouins are animal herders who migrate into the desert during the rainy winter season and move back toward the cultivated land in the dry summer months. Bedouin tribes have traditionally been classified according to the animal species that are the basis of their livelihood. Camel nomads occupy huge territories and are organized into large tribes in the Sahara, Syrian, and Arabian deserts. Sheep and goat nomads have smaller ranges, staying mainly near the cultivated regions of Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. Cattle nomads are found chiefly in South Arabia and in Sudan, where they are called Baqqārah (Baggara). Historically many Bedouin groups also raided trade caravans and villages at the margins of settled areas or extracted payments from settled areas in return for protection.

Bedouin society is tribal and patriarchal, typically composed of extended families that are patrilineal, endogamous, and polygynous. The head of the family, as well as of each successively larger social unit making up the tribal structure, is called sheikh; the sheikh is assisted by an informal tribal council of male elders.

Bedouin© Ed Brambley (CC BY-SA 2.0)

In addition to the "noble" tribes who trace their ancestry to either Qaysi (northern Arabian) or Yamani (southern Arabian) origin, traditional Bedouin society comprises scattered "ancestor-less" groups who shelter under the protection of the large noble tribes and make a living by serving them as blacksmiths, tinkers, artisans, entertainers, and other workers.

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The growth of modern states in the Middle East and the extension of their authority into previous ungovernable regions greatly impinged upon Bedouins' traditional ways of life. Following World War I, Bedouin tribes had to submit to the control of the governments of the countries in which their wandering areas lay. This also meant that the Bedouins' internal feuding and the raiding of outlying villages had to be given up, to be replaced by more peaceful commercial relations. In several instances Bedouins were incorporated into military and police forces, taking advantage of their mobility and habituation to austere environments, while others found employment in construction and the petroleum industry.

In the second half of the 20th century, Bedouins faced new pressures to abandon nomadism. Middle Eastern governments nationalized Bedouin rangelands, imposing new limits on Bedouins' movements and grazing, and many also implemented settlement programs that compelled Bedouin communities to adopt sedentary or semisedentary lifestyles. Some other Bedouin groups settled voluntarily in response to changing political and economic conditions. Advancing technology also left its mark as many of the remaining nomadic groups exchanged their traditional modes of animal transportation for motor vehicles.

Because Bedouin populations are represented inconsistently-or not at all-in official statistics, the number of nomadic Bedouins living in the Middle East today is difficult to ascertain. But it is generally understood that they constitute only a small fraction of the total population in the countries where they are present.

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Bedouin, Arab-speaking nomadic peoples of the Middle Eastern deserts, especially of North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. Most Bedouins are animal herders, and their society is tribal and patriarchal, typically composed of extended families that are headed by sheikhs.

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The Tuareg are a nomadic people who primarily inhabit the Saharan regions across countries like Niger, Mali, Libya, Algeria, and Burkina Faso. They are a subgroup of the larger Berber ethnic group, known as the Amazigh, indigenous to North Africa.

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• The Tuareg refer to themselves as “Imohag,” meaning “free people.”

• They speak Tamasheq, a Berber language, and use a unique script called Tifinagh, believed to have ancient Libyan roots.

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• Traditionally, the Tuareg are nomadic herders, relying on camels, goats, and other livestock for survival.

• Their society is matrilineal, meaning descent and inheritance are traced through the mother. • The Tuareg are known for their distinctive blue clothing, which has earned them the nickname “Blue People” because the indigo dye stains their skin.

• Tuareg men wear a traditional head covering called a tagelmust.

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• The Tuareg face various challenges, including political instability.

• In countries like Mali, they have fought for autonomy and independence, leading to conflicts.

• They are also affected by climate change, which disrupts their traditional nomadic lifestyle. • Despite these difficulties, they continue to preserve their cultural heritage through music, poetry, and craftsmanship

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tuareg

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The Tuareg the Nomadic inhabitants of North Africa

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The Tuareg are the nomadic inhabitants of north Africa, no one knows when the Tuareg arrived in Africa’s Sahara. Tuareg is an Arabic term meaning abandoned by God. The most striking attribute of the Tuareg is the indigo veil, giving rise to the name the Blue Men of the Sahara.

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Primeval forests, also known as old-growth or virgin forests, are woodlands that have developed over long periods without significant human interference.

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Complex structures with diverse tree ages and species, including large, old trees, dead wood, and varied canopy layers.

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High levels of biodiversity, providing habitats for numerous plant and animal species.

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Minimal disturbance from human activities, preserving natural processes and ecosystems

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https://www.eea.europa.eu/help/glossary/eea-glossary/old-growth-forest

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Old-growth forest | Definition, Characteristics, Locations, & Facts | Britannica

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Old-growth forest, a climax forest in the late stages of stand development containing large, old trees and a complex stand structure that has been generally undisturbed by human activities. The definition of an old-growth forest varies from country to country, but most definitions share an

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The Berbers are indigenous to North Africa and have a wide distribution across various countries. Their traditional homeland spans from the Atlantic Ocean to the Nile River, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Saharan Desert.

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Morocco - The Berbers make up a significant portion of the population, particularly in the Atlas Mountains, Rif Mountains, and southern desert regions

Algeria - Berbers are found primarily in the Kabylie region, the Aurès Mountains, and parts of the Saharan Desert

Tunisia - The Berber population is smaller but still exists, especially in the Matmata region

Libya - The Berber population here is concentrated in regions like Nefusa Mountains and parts of the Sahara

Egypt - The Berber presence in Egypt is smaller but is found in areas like Siwa Oasis, where the Siwi Berbers live

Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso - In the Saharan regions of these countries

Mauritania - Berbers are part of the population, particularly in the Adrar Plateau and the Hodh region

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Čorkova uvala is a virgin primeval forest located in the north-western part of Plitvička Jezera National Park in Croatia. Situated at altitudes between 860 and 1,028 meters, it spans approximately 84 hectares. Established as a protected reserve in 1965, it is one of Croatia’s oldest old-growth forest reserves

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• Predominantly composed of beech and fir trees, with some specimens over 500 years old.

• This rich biodiversity supports a variety of plant and animal species, making it a significant area for ecological studies and nature observation

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• Čorkova uvala serves as a vital example of a primary forest, providing valuable data on forest dynamics and the natural development of woodland ecosystems free from significant human interference.

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Čorkova Uvala probably has among the highest silver fir frequency of the virgin forests of Croatia, and therefore also has a great number of large firs. It is also one of the lowest elevation virgin forests to contain fir and spruce in Croatia at 860m. This is most likely due to its position further into the continent with colder climate. In contrast, virgin forests of similar compositions closer to the Adriatic Sea usually grow at 900m–1400m above sea level.

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Berber, any of the descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa. The Berbers live in scattered communities across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Niger, and Mauritania. They speak various Amazigh languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic family related to ancient Egyptian.

An accurate count of Berbers is difficult to come by for a variety of reasons, including a lack of thorough surveys. The two largest populations of Berbers are found in Algeria and Morocco, where large portions of the population are descended from Berbers but only some of them identify as Amazigh. Roughly one-fourth of the population in Algeria is estimated to be Berber, while Berbers are estimated to make up more than three-fifths of the population in Morocco. In the Sahara of southern Algeria and of Libya, Mali, and Niger, the Berber Tuareg number more than two million.

From about 2000 bce, Berber (Amazigh) languages spread westward from the Nile valley across the northern Sahara into the Maghrib. By the 1st millennium bce, their speakers were the native inhabitants of the vast region encountered by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. A series of Berber peoples-Mauri, Masaesyli, Massyli, Musulami, Gaetuli, Garamantes-then gave rise to Berber kingdoms under Carthaginian and Roman influence. Of those kingdoms, Numidia and Mauritania were formally incorporated into the Roman Empire in the late 2nd century bce, but others appeared in late antiquity following the Vandal invasion in 429 ce and the Byzantine reconquest (533 ce) only to be suppressed by the Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries ce.

It was the Arabs, who had enlisted Berber warriors for the conquest of Spain, who nevertheless gave those peoples a single name, turning barbarian (speakers of a language other than Greek and Latin) into Barbar, the name of a race descended from Noah. While unifying the indigenous groups under one rubric, the Arabs began their Islamization. From the very beginning, Islam provided the ideological stimulus for the rise of fresh Berber dynasties. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the greatest of those-the Almoravids and the Almohads, nomads of the Sahara and villagers of the High Atlas, respectively-conquered Muslim Spain and North Africa as far east as Tripoli (now in Libya). Their Berber successors-the Marinids at Fès (now in Morocco), the Ziyanids at Tlemcen (now in Algeria), and the Ḥafṣids at Tunis (now in Tunisia) and Bijaya (now Bejaïa, Algeria)-continued to rule until the 16th century.

Meanwhile, Berber merchants and nomads of the Sahara had initiated a trans-Saharan trade in gold and slaves that incorporated the lands of the Sudan into the Islamic world. Those achievements of the Barbar were celebrated in a massive history of North Africa ( Kitāb al-ʿIbār) by the 14th-century Arab historian Ibn Khaldūn. By then, however, the Berbers were in retreat, subjected to Arabization of two very different kinds. The predominance of written Arabic had ended the writing of Amazigh (Berber) languages in both the old Libyan and the new Arabic script, reducing its languages to folk languages. At the same time, an influx from the east of warrior Arab nomads from the 11th century onward was driving the Berbers off the plains and into the mountains and overrunning the desert. Together those factors were turning the population from Berber speakers into Arabic speakers, with a consequent loss of original identities. From the 16th century onward the process continued in the absence of Berber dynasties, which were replaced in Morocco by Arabs claiming descent from the Prophet and elsewhere by Turks at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.

When the French conquered Algeria in the 19th century and Morocco in the 20th, they seized on the distinction between the Arab majority and the Berbers of the mountains. On the strength of Ibn Khaldūn's history, the latter were once again classified as a people under their modern name of Berbers. The identification and description of their language, the anthropological study of their society, and their geographical isolation all gave grounds for their separate administration as a people going back before the time of Islam to a pagan and Christian past. Those colonial studies and policies have determined much of the history of the Berbers down to the present but meanwhile have left a record of their manners and customs before the advent of modernity.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Berber world had been reduced to enclaves of varying size. In Tripolitania and southern Tunisia those were chiefly formed by the hills of the Nafūsah Plateau and the island of Jerba, in eastern Algeria by the mountains of the Aurès and Kabylie, and in Morocco by the ranges of the Rif, the Middle and High Atlas, the Anti-Atlas, and the Saharan Atlas. In southern Morocco they consisted of the oases of the Drâa valley, and in the northern Sahara mainly those of the Mʾzab with those of Ghadames, Touggourt, and Gourara. In the central and southern Sahara was the vast area of the Ahaggar mountains and the desert to the south.

The economy was largely subsistence agriculture and pastoralism practiced by farmers, transhumants, and nomads, coupled with weaving, pottery, metalwork, and leatherwork, and local and some long-distance trade. Dwellings varied from caves to pitched-roof houses to flat-roofed "castles" to tents. Whatever the dwelling, its construction was designed to create an interior ruled by the women of the family. Outside the home, women would gather at the fountain or well and at the tomb of the local saint, whereas men would meet at the mosque or in the street and square. In the case of the nomadic and matrilineal Tuareg of the central Sahara, the camp was largely controlled by the women, who chose their husbands and, with their songs, were central to social gatherings.

The dwelling was home to the nuclear, usually patrilineal family, which was the basic unit of a tribal group going under the name of a common ancestor, whose Ait, or people, they claimed to be. In principle all families and clans were equal, governed by codes of honour likely to give rise to feuds but also by a council of elders, the jamāʿah, who kept the peace by adjudication, rulings on compensation, and determination of punishments. In fact the various societies were not egalitarian. The village and the clan regularly admitted newcomers as inferiors, and the ruling elders came from leading families. If villages or clans went to war, as they frequently did, a chief might be chosen who on the strength of his prowess might attract clients, form his own army, and-like the lords of the High Atlas about 1900-establish his own dominion. The Tuareg of the Ahaggar and southern Sahara, also called Blue Men because of their indigo-dyed robes and face veils, were aristocratic nomads ruling over vassals, serfs, and slaves who cultivated the oases on their behalf; they in turn recognized supreme chiefs or kings, who were called amenukals. They had preserved a form of the old Libyan consonantal script under the name of Tifinagh, though most writing was in Arabic, by a class of Muslim scholars. Such saintly scholars were everywhere figures of authority, and among the Ibadi Berbers of the Mʾzab they ruled the community.

While many of those features of Berber society have survived, they have been greatly modified by the economic and political pressures and opportunities that have built up since the early years of the 20th century. Beginning with the Kabyle of Algeria, emigration from the mountains in search of employment created permanent Berber communities in the cities of the Maghrib as well as in France and the rest of western Europe. That emigration in turn has conveyed modern material and popular culture back into the homelands. The independence of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania, Mali, and Niger meanwhile created a new political situation in which Berber nationalism made its appearance. That circumstance was largely a reaction to the policies of the new governments, which have frowned on a separate Berber identity as a relic of colonialism incompatible with national unity. In Morocco the monarchy felt threatened, first by the French use of Berbers to dethrone the sultan in 1953 and second by the role of Berber officers in the attempted assassinations of the king in 1971-72. In Algeria the rebellion in Kabylie in 1963-64 was further justification for a policy of Arabization, resented by Berbers not least because many had been educated in French. Berber studies were forbidden or repressed in both Morocco and Algeria, but in Algeria in 1980-81 the cancellation of a lecture on Berber poetry touched off a "Berber Spring" of demonstrations in Kabylie that were energized by popular Berber songs and singers.

Berberism under the name of Imazighenity (from the Berber Amazigh, plural Imazighen, adopted as the proper term for the people) was meanwhile formulated academically by Berbers in Paris who founded the journal Awal in 1985. Berber languages have been revived as a written language called Tamazight (the name of one of the three Moroccan Berber languages) with a modified Latin script as well as Tifinagh, and the people and their culture have been fleshed out in print through UNESCO's ongoing publication of the French-language Encyclopédie Berbère (1984- ).

Growing demands for the recognition of Berbers-in theory as the original inhabitants of North Africa and in practice as distinct components of its society-have met with some success. Tamazight is studied in Algeria and since 2002 has been recognized as a national, but not official, language; despite popular unrest in Kabylie, Berbers have yet to achieve a strong political identity in an Algerian democracy. Berberism in Morocco has led to the creation of a Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture, to schoolteaching in Tamazight, and finally, since 2011, to the recognition of Tamazight as an official language, all in the interest of national unity under the monarchy. Meanwhile, Berber culture provides the invaluable tourist industry with much of its cachet: its distinctive architecture, crafts, and costumes set in a romantic landscape that is specifically Moroccan. In Libya the overthrow of Muammar al-Qaddafi opened the way for the Berbers of the Nefūsah Plateau to demand a recognized position in the new order, but the Tuareg from abroad whom Qaddafi had recruited into his army were driven out of the country. The Algerian Tuareg of the Ahaggar were turned into cultivators, their nomadism surviving only as a tourist attraction. But the Tuareg soldiers returned to the southern Sahara to reignite, in concert with Islamic militants, a long-standing conflict of their people with the governments of Mali and Niger over Berber minority status and to make yet another demand for separate status. Although the outcomes of contemporary conflicts remain uncertain, Berberism is sufficiently established as an ideology and as a cultural and political program to provide the scattered communities of Berbers with a new national identity in place of the old anthropological one.

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Berber | Definition, People, Languages, & Facts

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Berber, any of the descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa. The Berbers live in scattered communities across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Niger, and Mauritania. They speak various Amazigh languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic family related to ancient Egyptian.

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Štirovača is a nature reserve located in the southern part of Northern Velebit National Park in Croatia, situated at an elevation of approximately 1,100 meters above sea level. The reserve spans about 48 hectares.

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• The forest at Štirovača is special because it has plants that date back to the Ice Age, which means they survived from a time when the climate was much colder.

• This forest is unique because of its sinkholes, bays, and gorges—natural features in the landscape that create small, different environments or microclimates.

• These microclimates help certain types of trees, like fir and spruce, grow in this area

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• Štirovača is notable for having a water spring and several creeks that nourish the surrounding wet grasslands, contributing to the area’s rich biodiversity.

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https://virginforests.eu/stirovaca/

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In its southern reaches, the Northern Velebit National Park includes a section of Štirovača – a vast valley lying at around 1100 m above sea level, known for its far-stretching pristine coniferous forests. Štirovača is one of the few localities in the Park that has a water spring and several creeks that feed the surrounding wet grasslands.

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The extraction of rubber and coltan in the Congo Basin has caused significant environmental damage, including deforestation and loss of biodiversity

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• Rubber collection, especially from wild vines like Landolphia owariensis, historically caused deforestation and exploitation in the region.

•Today, industrial-scale rubber plantations continue to threaten the rainforest, with thousands of square kilometers being cleared for plantations

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• Coltan mining, essential for electronics, leads to soil erosion, water pollution, and habitat destruction, notably affecting wildlife like mountain gorillas.

• Mining operations, often controlled by armed groups, contribute to conflict and human rights abuses.

• Despite efforts to certify conflict-free minerals, corruption and inefficiency allow minerals from conflict zones to enter global markets.

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltan

https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48533964.amp

https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-1119?p=emailAirGBycTABWQg&d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-1119

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The Dark Side of Technology: Coltan Mining in the DRC and its Human Rights and Environmental Impacts - Global Forest Coalition

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The Global Forest Coalition (GFC) is an international coalition of NGOs and Indigenous Peoples’ Organizations defending social justice and the rights of forest peoples in forest policies.

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The taiga is the largest land biome on Earth. It covers large parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. The taiga is located just below the Arctic Circle. It lies between two other biomes: to the north is the tundra, a cold, treeless area, and to the south is the temperate forest, a more moderate climate zone with a variety of trees

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The climate of the taiga is cold and harsh.

• Winter: Winters are long and very cold, with temperatures often dropping well below freezing. Snowfall is heavy, and the region experiences little sunlight for extended periods.

• Summer: Summers are short and can be warm, but not for long. The days are long, with plenty of daylight, but the warmth doesn’t last.

• Precipitation: The taiga gets around 25 to 75 of precipitation each year. Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter, and rain falls in the summer.

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• The taiga is mainly made up of coniferous trees like pines, spruces, and firs. These trees are well-adapted to the cold climate.

• The soil in the taiga is usually thin, acidic, and low in nutrients, which limits the variety of plants that can grow there.

• You’ll also find some shrubs, mosses, and lichens that can survive in the cold, harsh conditions.

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• The taiga is home to various animals that can withstand the cold temperatures.

• Common animals include moose, bears, wolves, lynx, and squirrels. These animals are adapted to survive in the freezing temperatures and snowy winters.

• Many animals in the taiga have thick fur or feathers for insulation, and some, like the snowshoe hare and caribou, have special adaptations to move through the snow

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The environmental significance of the taiga is very important because it helps regulate the Earth’s climate.

• Carbon Sink: The taiga acts as a carbon sink, meaning it absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. This helps reduce the amount of CO2, a greenhouse gas, in the air, which can help combat climate change.

• Biodiversity: The taiga supports a wide range of species, and its forests play a crucial role in maintaining global biodiversity by providing habitats for animals and plants.

• Water Cycle: The taiga also influences the water cycle, helping to regulate the flow of water through rivers and lakes and affecting precipitation patterns.

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taiga, also called boreal forest, biome (major life zone) of vegetation composed primarily of cone-bearing needle-leaved or scale-leaved evergreen trees, found in northern circumpolar forested regions characterized by long winters and moderate to high annual precipitation. The taiga, "land of the little sticks" in Russian, takes its name from the collective term for the northern forests of Russia, especially Siberia.

The taiga, which is also known as the boreal (meaning northern) forest region, occupies about 17 percent of Earth's land surface area in a circumpolar belt of the far Northern Hemisphere. Northward beyond this limit, the taiga merges into the circumpolar tundra. The taiga is characterized predominantly by a limited number of conifer species-i.e., pine ( Pinus), spruce ( Picea), larch ( Larix), fir ( Abies)-and to a lesser degree by some deciduous genera such as birch ( Betula) and poplar ( Populus). These trees reach the highest latitudes of any trees on Earth. Plants and animals in the taiga are adapted to short growing seasons of long days that vary from cool to warm. Winters are long and very cold, the days are short, and a persistent snowpack is the norm. The taiga biomes of North America and Eurasia display a number of similarities, even sharing some plant and animal species.

Origin

During the final period of maximum cold temperatures (23,000 to 16,500 years ago) in the latter part of the Pleistocene Ice Age (which ended 11,700 years ago), species that now constitute the taiga were displaced as far south as 30° N latitude by the continental glaciers of Europe, Asia, and North America and by the hyperarid and extremely cold environments of unglaciated Asia and North America. As the glaciers began to retreat gradually about 18,000 years ago, species of the taiga began to move northward in Europe and North America. In eastern and central North America the northward movement of the forest was relatively steady and gradual. An exception to this progression occurred about 9,000 years ago in western Canada, when white spruce spread rapidly northward across 2,000 km (1,240 miles) of newly deglaciated land in only 1,000 years. This rapid migration resulted from seed dispersal facilitated by strong northward winds caused by clockwise atmospheric circulation around the remnant ice cap of northern Quebec and the western part of Hudson Bay.

Because so much of Earth's water was bound up in ice at this time, sea levels were lower than they are today, and this allowed migrations of various terrestrial species to occur. Many areas that are now islands were then connected to the nearby mainland; e.g., the British Isles were linked to Europe. As the climate warmed during the last stages of the glacial period, but before the sea level rose to its current position, some plants and animals of the mainland European taiga ecosystem migrated to Britain. This biota exists today as part of the taiga in the Highlands of Scotland. The areas of lowland central Alaska, the central Yukon territory, and the Far East region of Russia, which had climates too arid to permit the formation of ice sheets, were connected by the Bering Land Bridge, across which many species migrated. As a result, today across Alaska a gradient in plant characteristics can be observed, ranging from typical North American forms in the east to those with Eurasian characteristics in the west.

Distribution

The taiga regions of North America and Eurasia are broad belts of vegetation that span their respective continents from Atlantic to Pacific coasts. In North America the taiga occupies much of Canada and Alaska. Although related transition forest types are present in the northern tier of the lower 48 United States, true taiga stops just north of the southern Canadian border. The vast taiga of Asia extends across Russia and southward into northeastern China and Mongolia. In Europe most of Finland, Sweden, and Norway are covered with taiga. A small, isolated area of boreal forest in the Scottish Highlands lacks some continental species but does contain the most widespread conifer of the Eurasian taiga, Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris).

The position of the taiga generally is controlled by the degree of warmth experienced during the growing season, the temperature of the soil, and the extreme minimum winter temperature. The taiga biome consists of three roughly parallel zones: closed-canopy forest, lichen woodland or sparse taiga, and forest-tundra. The closed-canopy forest is the southernmost portion of the taiga. It contains the greatest richness of species, the warmest soils, the highest productivity, and the longest growing season within the boreal zone. North of the closed-canopy forest is the lichen woodland-a smaller parallel zone of sparse forest or woodland in which tree crowns do not form a closed canopy. Lichen mats and tundralike vegetation make up a significant portion of the ground cover. To the north of the lichen woodland lies forest-tundra, which occurs along the northern edge of tree growth (tree line). Patches of trees consisting of only a few species dot restricted portions of the landscape, forming a complex mosaic with tundra. Many trees in the forest-tundra zone have never been known to produce viable seeds or have done so only sporadically. These trees were established during warmer climatic episodes from a few hundred to a few thousand years ago and have persisted since, usually by vegetative (asexual) reproduction. Forest fires in this zone remove trees, and, because of the lack of reproduction, only unburned patches of trees remain.

The closed-canopy forest, or southern taiga zone, on both continents is not distributed along a strictly east-west axis. At the western margin of Europe, the warming influence of the Gulf Stream allows the closed-canopy forest to grow at its northernmost location, generally between about 60° and 70° N. In western North America the Kuroshio and North Pacific currents likewise warm the climate and cause the northward deflection of the forest into Alaska and Yukon in Canada. On the eastern margin of the continents, the taiga is deflected southward to between about 50° and 60° N by the cold polar air masses that flow south along these coasts. This is the southernmost limit of the taiga, to the south of which, in humid eastern North America and Europe, lies a northern deciduous broad-leaved transition forest. In this forest small stands of boreal conifers are distributed on cooler or less-productive sites such as peaty wetlands. In the arid centre of both continents, the closed-canopy boreal forest is bordered to the south by a forest parkland of trees and grassland.

The central portions of Eurasia and North America are regions of flat or gently rolling topography. There, the northern and southern boundaries of the taiga are broad and gradual; they have fluctuated by as much as 200 km (125 miles) during the past few thousand years. A well-defined but complex boundary is formed between taiga and alpine tundra on the mountains of the Pacific edge in western North America and the Far East region of Russia. Generally, the taiga does not come into contact with the humid temperate or subpolar rainforest of coastal Alaska and British Columbia because of high mountain barriers, but some low-elevation regions have a transition zone often characterized by trees that are a hybrid of Sitka spruce ( Picea sitchensis) and white spruce ( P. glauca). In Norway and Scotland a variant form of the taiga occupies extremely humid environments.

Practically all the large river systems of the taiga of Siberia, including the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena rivers, are northward-flowing. The Ob in western Siberia forms a great lowland basin with a considerable percentage of the land surface covered with poorly drained peaty wetlands. In such situations within the taiga a closed-canopy forest is generally absent.

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Taiga | Plants, Animals, Climate, Location, & Facts

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Taiga, biome composed mainly of cone-bearing needle-leaved or scale-leaved evergreen trees, found in northern circumpolar regions typified by long winters and moderate to high annual precipitation. Taiga, 'land of the little sticks' in Russian, is named for the term for Russia's northern forests, especially Siberia.

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The tundra is a vast, treeless biome found in the coldest regions of the world, primarily just below the Arctic Circle. It spans parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. The word “tundra” comes from the Finnish word tunturi, meaning treeless plain

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• Temperature: The tundra is the coldest of all biomes, with temperatures frequently dropping below freezing.

• Precipitation: It receives low amounts of precipitation, making it similar to a desert.

• Growing Season: The growing season is short, limiting the types of vegetation that can survive.

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• Wildlife: The tundra supports a meagre but unique variety of animals, including caribou, polar bears, and arctic foxes.

• Adaptations: Animals have special adaptations to survive the extreme cold, such as thick fur or fat layers for insulation.

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• Carbon Storage: The tundra has historically acted as a carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

• Climate Change Impact: However, due to rising global temperatures, thawing permafrost is releasing stored carbon, turning the tundra into a net carbon emitter.

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https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biotundra.php#:~:text=Description,Europe%2C%20and%20Siberia%20in%20Asia.

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/tundra-biome/

https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/tundra.php

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tundra, a major zone of treeless level or rolling ground found in cold regions, mostly north of the Arctic Circle ( Arctic tundra) or above the timberline on high mountains (alpine tundra). Tundra is known for large stretches of bare ground and rock and for patchy mantles of low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, herbs, and small shrubs. This surface supports a meagre but unique variety of animals. The Finns called their treeless northern reaches the tunturi, but the concept of a vast frozen plain as a special ecological realm called tundra was developed by the Russians.

One constant factor shaping the tundra is alternate freezing and thawing of the ground. Along with the factors mentioned above, this freeze-thaw cycle sets the tundra apart from two ecosystems frequently found adjacent to it-the icy polar barrens on the one hand and the evergreen taiga on the other. Permafrost -perennially frozen ground-is a significant feature of the Arctic tundra; however, it does not typically occur in alpine regions.

Distribution

The global extent of the tundra biome is considerable, accounting for roughly 10 percent of Earth's surface. The southern limit of Arctic tundra follows the northern edge of the coniferous forest belt. In North America this line lies above latitude 60° N, while in Eurasia most of it occurs north of 70° N-except in eastern Siberia, where it extends southward to 60° N in Kamchatka. The northward bulge of forest in Eurasia is a result of the warmer summers that occur over that large contiguous landmass.

Alpine tundra covers approximately 3 percent of Earth's land surface, and it is mostly found in the Northern Hemisphere. This habitat can be found in mountainous areas worldwide, occurring at high elevations where temperatures are too low and winds are too strong for the growth of trees. The average elevation where alpine tundra occurs is generally higher near the Equator than at the poles.

Because nearly all of Antarctica is covered with ice, it lacks a well-developed tundra, though lichens, mosses, and at least three species of flowering plants occur in more favourable habitats there.

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Tundra | Definition, Climate, Animals, & Facts

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Tundra, a cold region of treeless level or rolling ground found mostly north of the Arctic Circle or above the timberline on mountains. Tundra is known for large stretches of bare ground and rock and for patchy mantles of low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, herbs, and small shrubs.

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The Arctic is the northernmost region of Earth, centered around the North Pole. It encompasses parts of several countries, including Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Alaska)

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The Arctic region is experiencing significant changes due to melting ice, leading to a range of environmental, social, and geopolitical challenges

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• Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers and ice sheets contribute to rising sea levels, which can lead to coastal erosion and increased flooding risks.

• Ecosystem Disruption: Loss of sea ice affects Arctic ecosystems, impacting species that depend on ice-covered regions for habitat and hunting, such as polar bears and seals.

• Ocean Circulation Changes: Introduction of freshwater from melting ice alters the salinity and density of seawater, disrupting ocean currents that regulate global climate patterns

• Increased Storm Activity: Loss of ice contributes to more frequent and intense coastal storms, elevating storm surges and coastal erosion.

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• Threats to Indigenous Communities: Melting ice affects traditional ways of life for Indigenous peoples, including hunting and travel, and increases the risk of flooding from glacial lakes.

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• Resource Accessibility: Melting ice opens new shipping routes and exposes previously inaccessible natural resources, leading to geopolitical interest and potential conflicts over resource control.

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https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/why-are-glaciers-and-sea-ice-melting#:~:text=Human%20activities%20are%20at%20the,sea%20and%20retreating%20on%20land.

https://nsidc.org/learn/ask-scientist/what-are-impacts-arctic-sea-ice-loss

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/how-melting-ice-affects-people-and-planet#:~:text=For%20some%20areas%2C%20melting%20ice,crumbling%20infrastructure%20will%20pile%20up.

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Geology

The Arctic lands have developed geologically around four nuclei of ancient crystalline rocks. The largest of these, the Canadian Shield, underlies all the Canadian Arctic except for part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands. It is separated by Baffin Bay from a similar shield area that underlies most of Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat). The Baltic (or Scandinavian) Shield, centred on Finland, includes all of northern Scandinavia (except the Norwegian coast) and the northwestern corner of Russia. The two other blocks are smaller. The Angaran Shield is exposed between the Khatanga and Lena rivers in north-central Siberia and the Aldan Shield is exposed in eastern Siberia.

In the sectors between the shields, there have been long periods of marine sedimentation, and consequently the shields are partly buried. In some areas thick sediments were subsequently folded, thus producing mountains, many of which have since been destroyed by erosion. Two main orogenies (mountain-building periods) have been recognized in the Arctic. In Paleozoic times (about 542 million to 251 million years ago) there developed a complex mountain system that includes both Caledonian and Hercynian elements. It extends from the Queen Elizabeth Islands through Peary Land and along the east coast of Greenland. Mountain building occurred during the same period in Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya, the northern Urals, the Taymyr Peninsula, and Severnaya Zemlya. There is considerable speculation as to how these mountains are linked beneath the sea. The second orogeny occurred during the Mesozoic (251 million to 65.5 million years ago) and Cenozoic (the past 65.5 million years) eras. These mountains survive in northeastern Siberia and Alaska. Horizontal or lightly warped sedimentary rocks cover part of the shield in northern Canada, where they are preserved in basins and troughs. Sedimentary rocks are even more extensive in northern Russia and in western and central Siberia, where they range in age from early Paleozoic to Quaternary (the past 2.6 million years).

It is evident that the polar landmasses have been transported on lithospheric plates through geologic time and that their positions relative to each other and to the North Pole have changed, with significant modification to ocean circulation and to climate. Motion of plates in the Paleogene and Neogene periods (about 65.5 million to 2.6 million years ago) led to igneous activity in two regions. One was associated with mountain building around the North Pacific, and active volcanoes are still found in Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaska. The other area of igneous activity extended across the North Atlantic and included the whole of Iceland, Jan Mayen Island, and east Greenland south of Scoresby Sound; it was probably connected to west Greenland north of Disko Bay and to east Baffin Island. Volcanism continues in Iceland and on Jan Mayen, and hot springs are found in Greenland.

Continental ice sheets of the past

Little is known about the climate of the northern lands in early Cenozoic times; it is possible that the tree line was at least 1,000 miles farther north than at present. During the Cenozoic, however, the polar lands became cooler and permanent land ice formed, first in the Alaskan mountain ranges and subsequently, by the end of the Pliocene (2.6 million years ago), in Greenland. By the onset of the Quaternary Period, glaciers were widespread in northern latitudes. Throughout the Quaternary, continental-scale ice sheets expanded and decayed on at least eight occasions in response to major climatic oscillations in high latitudes. Detailed information available for the final glaciation (80,000 to 10,000 years ago) indicates that in North America the main ice sheet developed on Baffin Island and swept south and west across Canada, amalgamating with smaller glaciers to form the Laurentide Ice Sheet, covering much of the continent between the Atlantic Ocean and the Rocky Mountains and between the Arctic Ocean and the Ohio and Missouri river valleys. A smaller ice cap formed in the Western Cordillera. The northern margin of the ice lay along the Brooks Range (excluding the Yukon Basin) and across the southern islands of the Canadian Archipelago. To the north the Queen Elizabeth Islands supported small, probably thin, ice caps. Glacier ice from Greenland crossed Nares Strait to reach Ellesmere Island during maximum glaciation.

The Atlantic Arctic islands were covered with ice except where isolated mountain peaks ( nunataks) projected through the ice. In Europe the Scandinavian Ice Sheet covered most of northern Europe between Severnaya Zemlya in Russia and the British Isles. Northeastern Siberia escaped heavy glaciation, although, as in northern Canada, the ice sheet had been more extensive in an earlier glaciation.

As the ice sheets melted, unique landforms developed by the ice were revealed. Although not restricted to the present Arctic, they are often prominent there and, in the absence of forests, are clearly visible. In areas of crystalline rocks, including large parts of the northern Canadian Shield and Finland, the ice left disarranged drainage and innumerable lakes. In the lowlands deep glacial deposits filled eroded surfaces and produced a smoother landscape, often broken by low ridges and hills of glacial material, drumlins, rogen (ribbed) moraines, and eskers. In the uplands the characteristic glacial landforms are U-shaped valleys. Near the polar coasts these have been submerged to produce fjords, which are well developed in southern Alaska, along the east coast of Canada, around Greenland, in east and west Iceland, along the coast of Norway, and on many of the Arctic islands.

Because of their enormous weight, continental ice sheets depress Earth's crust. As the ice sheets melted at the close of the Pleistocene Epoch (11,700 years ago), the land slowly recovered its former altitude, but before this was completed the sea flooded the coastal areas. Subsequent emergence has elevated marine beaches and sediments to considerable heights in many parts of the Arctic, where their origin is easily recognized from the presence of marine shells, the skeletons of sea mammals, and driftwood. The highest strandlines are found 500 to 900 feet above contemporary sea level in many parts of the western and central Canadian Arctic and somewhat lower along the Baffin Bay and Labrador coasts. Comparable emergence is found on Svalbard, Greenland, the northern Urals, and on the Franz Josef Archipelago, where it reaches more than 1,500 feet. In many emerged lowlands, such as those south and west of Hudson Bay, the raised beaches are the most conspicuous features in the landscape, forming hundreds of low, dry, gravel ridges in the otherwise ill-drained plains. Emergence is still continuing, and in parts of northern Canada and northern Sweden uplift of two to three feet a century has occurred during the historical period. In contrast, a few Arctic coasts, notably around the Beaufort Sea, are experiencing submergence at the present time.

Polar continental shelves in areas that escaped glaciation during the ice ages were exposed during periods of low sea level, especially in the Bering Strait and Sea (Beringia), which facilitated migration of people to North America from Asia, and in the Laptev and East Siberian seas.

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Arctic | Definition, Climate, People, & Facts

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Arctic, northernmost region of Earth, centered on the North Pole and characterized by distinctively polar conditions of climate, plant and animal life, and other physical features. The term is derived from the Greek word arktos ('bear'), referring to the northern constellation of the Bear.

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Transhumance is a traditional practice involving the seasonal movement of people and their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. This migratory pattern allows herders to exploit different grazing areas throughout the year, typically moving livestock from lowland valleys to higher mountain pastures during warmer months and returning to lower elevations as temperatures drop

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1. Vertical Transhumance: Common in mountainous regions, this involves moving livestock between elevations—higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter.

2. Horizontal Transhumance: Practiced in areas with minimal elevation change, this entails moving livestock between different geographic regions or climatic zones.

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• Seasonal Migration: Herders and their animals move cyclically between specific grazing locations, aligning with seasonal changes.

• Fixed Routes and Destinations: The paths and end points of transhumance are well-established, often passed down through generations.

• Dual Settlements: Herders typically maintain permanent homes in valleys and temporary dwellings, such as huts or tents, in the highlands during summer grazing periods.

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/transhumance

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The report on the implementation of the Convention, due by States Parties every 6 years, includes a section on the elements inscribed on the Representative List. Read more on periodic reports.

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UNESCO - Transhumance, the seasonal droving of livestock

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Transhumance refers to the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between geographical or climatic regions. Each year, in spring and autumn, men and women herders organise the movement of thousands of animals along traditional pastoral paths. They move on foot or horseback, leading with their dogs and sometimes accompanied by their families.

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The Sherpas are an indigenous ethnic group native to the mountainous regions of Nepal, India, and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. They are renowned for their exceptional mountaineering skills, cultural richness, and significant contributions to Himalayan expeditions

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• Ethnic Background: The Sherpas are of Tibetan descent and share linguistic and cultural ties with Tibetan communities.

• Language: They speak the Sherpa language, which is closely related to Tibetan and is primarily a spoken language, occasionally written in Tibetan or Devanagari script.

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• High Altitude Adaptation: Living in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas, Sherpas have developed remarkable endurance to low oxygen levels, making them invaluable assets to mountaineering expeditions.

• Guides and Porters: They traditionally serve as guides and porters, facilitating the ascent of climbers from around the world. Their intimate knowledge of the terrain and climbing expertise are crucial for the success of many expeditions.

• Cultural Significance: Beyond their physical prowess, Sherpas play a vital role in setting up essential infrastructure on expeditions, such as establishing ropes and ladders, ensuring the safety and success of climbers.

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• Recognition as Athletes: Despite their critical role in mountaineering, Sherpas have historically received limited recognition as elite athletes. Efforts are ongoing to change this narrative, highlighting their exceptional skills and achievements.

• Record-Breaking Feats: In October 2024, 18-year-old Nima Rinji Sherpa became the youngest person to summit all 14 of the world’s highest peaks. His accomplishments have brought global attention to the talents and potential of the Sherpa community.

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https://www.sherpaadventuregear.com/en-eu/blogs/journal/who-are-the-sherpa-people-of-nepal

https://www.montana.edu/everest/facts/sherpa.html

https://www.5thavenue.org/behind-the-curtain/2021/january/half-the-sky-sherpas-and-mt-everest/

https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/nepals-sherpas-deserve-more-says-teenager-who-scaled-worlds-14-tallest-peaks-2024-10-17/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sherpa-people

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Sherpa - Everest Education Expedition | Montana State University