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- took on a solemn tone, common themes were loss of innocence, time lost, vanity of human ambition, emptiness of human relationships, sin and despair overcoming the world, negative emotions
- À la recherche du temps perdu (1913-1927) by Marcel Proust set the tone for all other lit

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcel-Proust/Legacy
https://www.britannica.com/place/France/The-arts

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Proust projected his own homosexuality upon his characters, treating this, as well as snobbism, vanity, and cruelty, as a major symbol of original sin. His insight into women and the love of men for women (which he himself experienced for the many female originals of his heroines) remained unimpaired, and he is among the greatest novelists in the fields of both heterosexual and homosexual love.

The entire climate of the 20th-century novel was affected by À la recherche du temps perdu, which is one of the supreme achievements of modern fiction. Taking as raw material the author's past life, À la recherche is ostensibly about the irrecoverability of time lost, about the forfeiture of innocence through experience, the emptiness of love and friendship, the vanity of human endeavour, and the triumph of sin and despair; but Proust's conclusion is that the life of every day is supremely important, full of moral joy and beauty, which, though they may be lost through faults inherent in human nature, are indestructible and recoverable. Proust's style is one of the most original in all literature and is unique in its union of speed and protraction, precision and iridescence, force and enchantment, classicism and symbolism.
George Duncan Painter The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Proust projected his own homosexuality upon his characters, treating this, as well as snobbism, vanity, and cruelty, as a major symbol of original sin. His insight into women and the love of men for women (which he himself experienced for the many female originals of his heroines) remained unimpaired, and he is among the greatest novelists in the fields of both heterosexual and homosexual love.

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The major aims of French foreign policy in this period were:

To regain the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (Revanche) lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian war. This idea was never very far from the minds of French policy makers during this period.

To end her isolation in international affairs after the Franco-Prussian war.

To expand her colonial empire and regain some of her prestige lost after the Franco-Prussian War.

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Following World War II, most European nations lacked the resources and political support required to quell distant uprisings. In addition, they encountered opposition from the newly emerging superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, both of which had declared their opposition to colonialism (britannica).

Colonial nationalism, politics and ethnic movements, and international pressure play the main role in the transformation to decolonization.

Newly independent countries: Korea from Japan (1945), Philippines from the US (1946), India from Britain (1947), Palestine from Britain (1948), Egypt from Britain (1956), Hong Kong from Britain (1997), Vietnam from France (1954), Angola and Cape Verde from Portugal (1970s) (britannica)

British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan contributed to the start of decolonization of British colonized countries (Gov).

There were some areas that were calm and organized. In numerous other countries, independence was only attained following a protracted revolution. Some newly independent nations almost immediately established stable governments; other nations endured protracted civil wars or decades-long dictatorships (Gov).

Due to entrenched economic problems and disparities between the northern and southern globe, the political system instability of decolonized countries was one of the outcomes of decolonization, in which countries after independence often struggle with constant civil riots and economic inability. (Beihami)

Shifted power balances of newly developed countries within the United Nations. The new member of states shared commonalities in that the, they were non-white, beginning to develop economies, internal  structuring problems from their past (Gov).

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As countries previously colonized by European powers regained an independent identity, the questions they faced as an autonomous body reflect some of the same questions that existentialist writers ask about personal existence. I can imagine that in a time when a former colony is figuring out how to exist on its own in the world, defining their identity as a country and community outside of the confines of imperial rule, that this would intensify cultural through about what it means to exist on a personal level. Also, with the structures around  them shifting, failing, and regrouping, I can imagine that existentialist thinkers would be forced to contemplate the implications that these power/government structures have on the existence of individual members of the community. Many of the thinkers we have studied have been interested in defining what it means to be autonomous and authentic, which would be heightened during a time when the leaders of their countries were asking the very same questions.

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Law of separation of Church and State was passed in 1905: ended the Concordat of 1801 and ended all ties between Church and State.

State salaries for priests and Bishops were ended and in theory all Church property was now controlled by the State.

Two people were killed and many injured when Catholics staged sit-ins to prevent the state from assessing Church property. In some remote regions bears were chained to church doors.

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Central/Eastern Europe - lack of workers for industrial labor (CEPR)

Large expulsion of ethnic Germans (Holocaust aftermath)

Upper-middle class move to other places

Fell behind not because of socialism, but more so because of lack of reconstruction dyamics

Western Europe - labor halted by destruction of transport infrastructure (CEPR)

Extremely resilient, was able to return back to pre-war era economy

Institutional/geopolitical factors were the things that halted economic growth

American aid - money help, but in exchange wanted trade liberation

Germany - an absolute mess

Holocaust destroyed economy

Marshall plan aimed to make Germany the main industrial site for European reconstruction

https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/recovery-and-reconstruction-europe-after-wwii

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This column is a lead commentary in the VoxEU Debate "The Economics of the Second World War: Eighty Years On"
The world war that began 80 years ago when the German armoured divisions crossed the Oder - and ended with a surrender act aboard a warship in Tokyo Bay - was the worst of all wars, 'the War of the World' that brought the 'descent of the West' (Ferguson 2006).

The struggle of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan for global supremacy exhausted the human and economic resources of much of Europe as well as East and Southeast Asia (Boldorf and Okazaki 2015). The six years of carnage incinerated 60 million souls, among them 6 million Jews. The majority of the military casualties were citizens of the Soviet Union, China, Germany, and Japan, but the dead were mourned the world over (Weinberg 2005). Tens of millions more were displaced and haunted by the oppressions of war, men wearing the scars of battle and women scarred by the humiliation of abuse at the hands of the enemy or their own husbands returning from the torments of frontline service. After the war had ended in Europe, 12 million Germans were held as Allied prisoners of war, 2 million of them never to return home. Millions of children across the continent would grow up without a father.

The enormous firepower of industrial warfare and aerial bombardment "brought physical destruction that few could have imagined and few imagined could be overcome in their lifetime" (Vonyó 2018). That a Europe more prosperous than ever would emerge from this apocalypse astonished the world. Most economies shattered by war returned to pre-war levels of output within five years. The quarter-century that followed would be engraved in collective memory as the most remarkable era of macroeconomic stability and social progress in the history of the western world (Milward 1992) and as the 'golden age of economic growth' in Europe, both East and West (Crafts 2018).

Western Europe: Foundations of recovery

There is consensus in the more recent historiography of post-war Europe that the foundations of economic life remained strong. Across Western Europe, the casualties of war were more than offset by natural population growth and post-war mass migration. Despite the scale of material damage, industrial equipment and plants survived the war remarkably intact. Even in Germany and Italy, the two main targets of Allied strategic bombing, industrial fixed capital grew by 20% and 30%, respectively, between 1936 and 1945. Power-generating capacity was also enlarged and needed little repair.

Industrial production had been brought to a halt by the demolition of the transport infrastructure, in particular bridges and railway hubs. But the maintenance of wartime command-economy controls and warlike labour mobilisation swiftly eliminated these bottlenecks and avoided the acute shortages that might have fuelled social unrest and runaway inflation, as Europe had experienced at the end of WWI (Boltho 2001). By 1947, industrial production was back at pre-war levels in at least the victorious powers and the non-belligerent economies.

Continued revival and the resumption of economic growth were held back by institutional and geopolitical factors rather than the lack of productive capacity. The reconstruction of Western Europe required the abolition of the command economy and the liberalisation of prices and wages; the elimination of the dollar shortage to enable countries ravaged by war to import the capital goods necessary to rebuild their infrastructure and restock their factories; the restoration of the European division of labour; and international cooperation to resolve the German question and remobilise German industry (Milward 1987, Eichengreen 2007).

These prerequisites were impossible to achieve without constructive American involvement in the rebuilding of the post-war order (Maier 1981). Recent scholarship has found the positive impact of the Marshall Plan not so much in the scale of material assistance, but rather in the political strings attached to it (Eichengreen 2007). Dollar aid enabled recipient nations to eliminate raw material shortages and invest in bottleneck industries, but only in exchange for trade liberalisation. The resources afforded by the counterpart funds allowed governments to finance public investment projects without the need to cut back on welfare spending, but they were compelled to reintroduce free markets and lift wartime controls and rationing, despite fierce opposition from labour unions.

Perhaps most crucially, the Marshall Plan, passed in 1948, underpinned post-war political stability by marginalising communist parties and supporting centrist governments, by forging a western alliance to contain Soviet expansionism, and by rehabilitating West Germany on the international stage. Indeed, it demonstrated a dramatic shift in Allied policy towards German economic recovery, which until 1947 was inhibiting, and it offered sufficient compensation for the leading claimants on German reparations: France and the Benelux states.

The centrality of Germany

Germany was defeated and divided, but the rebuilding of Germany was necessary for the economic revival of Europe. West Germany alone remained the largest market and the prime exporter of capital goods on the continent. It was the precise aim of the Marshall Plan to mobilise German industrial might for European reconstruction.

It was the most momentous task, for the war and the post-war settlement had dislocated the German economy in more ways than one. The air war destroyed much of the urban housing stock. This left millions trapped in the rural hinterlands without prospects of finding employment and left urban industry with a crashing labour shortage (Vonyó 2012). The miserable living conditions and the rigidities of Allied occupation prevented the return to normal economic life.

Price controls began to ease and markets revive following the currency reform of 1948 but restrictions on imports remained in place for another year and on production in strategic industries and the merchant navy for even longer. The division of Germany untied input-output links between western and eastern industrial districts and left severe structural imbalances in manufacturing capacity on both sides of the Iron Curtain.

These dislocating forces were primarily responsible for the disappointing productivity performance of German industry and also for the falling behind of the East German economy in the post-war years (Ritschl and Vonyó 2014). East Germany inherited highly specialised industrial districts, which were now cut off from both their major suppliers of intermediary inputs and their largest market. What followed was an exodus of both skilled labour and thousands of small and medium-sized firms. Economic reconstruction in West Germany lasted throughout the 1950s and propelled the Wirtschaftswunder (Vonyó 2018), while the damage the division on Germany had caused in the East was irreparable.

Reconstruction was a driving force behind the growth miracles of post-war Europe, including the other defeated powers, Austria and Italy, as well as Greece and Spain, both ravaged by civil war. The role of reconstruction growth in the early post-war period was confirmed econometrically by Dumke (1990) and Temin (2002), but more recent investigations demonstrated that its impact did not vanish until the end of the golden age (Vonyó 2008, 2017).

These novel findings also revealed that the falling behind of Eastern Europe in the post-war era was not so much the consequence of socialism as the result of comparatively modest levels of investment and weak reconstruction dynamics (Vonyó 2017). Both, in turn, can be best explained by the differential impact of the war and the post-war settlement on population growth, which deprived Eastern Europe of the flexible labour supply that has long been recognised as instrumental in western reconstruction and structural modernisation (Kindleberger 1967).

Eastern Europe: A demographic disaster

The brutality of the Eastern Front was apocalyptic and brought unprecedented destruction. The most devastating campaigns in global military history were fought over the 'bloodlands' stretching between Berlin and Stalingrad (Snyder 2012). Thousands of towns and villages were removed from the face of the earth; tens of millions were made homeless.

The human toll was incomparable to any other region of the world. Forty million Eastern Europeans died in the carnage, including more than five of the six million European Jews who perished in the Holocaust. From the invasion of the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany waged a war of extermination. The thirst for vengeance among the oppressed revealed itself in early 1945, when the Red Army rank and file ran amok in the eastern provinces of Germany, although Soviet soldiers often behaved similarly towards the 'liberated', too.

Millions more fled west, either running from the advancing Soviet troops or defecting when the communist parties rose to power in the Eastern regions. The expulsion of ethnic Germans from Central and Eastern Europe after 1945 and forced population exchanges enhanced this exodus. In accordance with Article XIII of the Potsdam Agreement, 15 million Germans were driven from their historical settlements east of the rivers Oder and Neisse, of which approximately 9 million had lived in the eastern provinces of Prussia in 1939. One million were deported to the Soviet Union, with another 700,000 forcefully resettled from the European to the Asian territories of the USSR and 13 million expelled to post-war Germany and Austria. Two million were killed or went missing in the course of these deportations (Vonyó 2018).

While these population movements featured prominently in German historiography, their impact was largely ignored in the economic history of Eastern Europe. The effect of war casualties, including those physically or psychologically disabled, combined with the post-war settlement, was devastating. The populations of Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia stagnated between 1939 and 1950. Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Soviet Union each suffered population declines of 10-20% over the same period. Czechoslovakia and Poland did not recover from this demographic shock until the 1960s. The shortage of labour, and especially of skills, was crushing. The eastern provinces of Prussia, ceded to Poland and the USSR in 1945, and the Sudetenland were temporarily depopulated and their industrial districts lost most of the pre-war labour force.

Across Central and Eastern Europe, the war left behind a distorted demographic structure with a crippling shortage of able-bodied young men, who had traditionally constituted the backbone of the industrial workforce. The Holocaust and the expulsion of ethnic Germans, together with the mass voluntary exodus of the bourgeois middle class, bequeathed upon the tormented region a plethora of industrial and commercial enterprises without their original owners and the necessary skills and managerial know-how required to operate them.

The economic performance of the eastern half of Europe after 1945 can only be evaluated in light of these inauspicious beginnings. While communism and the command economy played their part, they are not the whole story. The initial conditions of economic recovery in Eastern Europe were also far less favourable than in the West.

References

Boldorf, M, and T Okazaki, eds. (2015), Economies under occupation: The hegemony of Nazi Germany and imperial Japan in World War II, London: Routledge.

Boltho, A (2001), "Reconstruction after two world wars: Why a difference", Journal of European Economic History 30: 429-58.

Crafts, N F R (2018), "The Golden Age of European economic growth: A cliometric perspective", in C Diebolt and M Haupert (eds.), Handbook of Cliometrics, Springer-Verlag.

Dumke, R (1990), "Reassessing the Wirtschaftswunder: Reconstruction and postwar growth in West Germany in an international context", Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 52: 451-91.

Eichengreen, B (2007), The European economy since 1945: Coordinated capitalism and beyond, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ferguson, N (2006), The war of the world: Twentieth-century conflict and the descent of the West, London: Penguin Random House.

Kindleberger, C P (1967), Europe's postwar growth: The role of labour supply, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

Maier, C S (1981), "The two postwar eras and the conditions for stability in twentieth-century Western Europe", American Historical Review 86: 327-52.

Milward, A S (1992), The European rescue of the nation-state, assisted by G Brennan and F Romero, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Milward, A S (1987), Reconstruction in Western Europe, 1945-1951, London: Methuen.

Ritschl, A O, and Vonyó, T (2014), "The roots of economic failure: What explains East Germany's falling behind between 1945 and 1950?", European Review of Economic History 18: 166-84.

Snyder, T (2012), Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin, London: Penguin.

Temin, P (2002), "The Golden Age of European growth reconsidered", European Review of Economic History 6: 3-22.

Vonyó, T (2018), The economic consequences of the war: West Germany's growth miracle after 1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Vonyó, T (2017), "War and socialism: Why Eastern Europe fell behind between 1950 and 1989", Economic History Review 70: 248-74.

Vonyó, T (2012), "The bombing of Germany: The economic geography of war-induced dislocation in West German industry", European Review of Economic History 16: 97-118.

Vonyó, T (2008), "Post-war reconstruction and the Golden Age of economic growth", European Review of Economic History 12: 221-41.

Weinberg, G L (2005), The world at arms: A global history of World War II, 2/e, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Recovery and reconstruction: Europe after WWII

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The year 1945 marked the end of the worst military conflict in history, which brought unprecedented destruction and loss of life. However, the quarter-century that followed is known as the most remarkable period of economic growth and social progress in Europe.

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Return of all Nazi annexations

Reduction of German territory and expulsion of German living outside new border in Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary

Recognition of the Soviet-controlled Polish government

Europe split into two superpowers: U.S, along with British and French, as the Western Europe, and Soviet Union as the Easter Europe.

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The President was the head of state and had little political power:

He had the right to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies with the support of the Senate.

He had the right to nominate the new head of government

He played an important role in foreign affairs.

The Senate was elected by mayors and councillors in departments (counties) throughout France.

It was nicknamed the “Chamber of Agriculture” because the countryside was over represented.

Senators were elected every nine years.

Conservative, rural interests dominated in the senate and were thereby able to block progressive legislation in the areas of women’s rights and worker’s rights.

The Chamber of Deputies was chosen every four years.

It contained 600 members elected by universal male suffrage.

It chose the government or ministry. There was no organized party system although there were four main political groupings in the Chamber:

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During post-war France, there were many difficulties with reintegrating soldiers into society, and many people were grieving as well. After soldiers were dismissed, they struggled with employment and also felt as if they were not truly represented in society. France also lost 3.5% of its post-war population, and so most people had lost family or friends, causing the population to be grieving for a long time. They were unable to keep up with a quickening modern society. This may have impacted existentialism because people felt differently about their relationships between other people as well as within society.

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Jean-Paul Sartre

Born June 21, 1905, in Paris France.

His father passed when he was a young boy and he was raised by his grandfather

When he was young he believed that the world had rejected him but his imagination kept him company

Settled partnership with Simone De Beauvoir

AFTER WORLD WAR II

Showed great concern for the poor

EMPHASIZED the importance of community and collective responsibility !!

Interested in French political movements

Admired the Soviet Union and believed marxism = good

In his late years he did very little writing, he believed “commitment is an act, not a word,” He partook in rioting, left wing literature, and encourage revolution

Link: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Paul-Sartre/Political-activities

STATEMENT: Jean-Paul is one of the many existentialists of the time. His work was clearly influenced by his concern after World War II, where his concern and emphasis on community is depicted in his writing. Later on he was influenced by the societ union and marxism.

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future security against German attack
financial crisis - needed to pay for the war largely by domestic and foreign borrowing and inflation in adition to the cost of rebuilding
industrial crisis - worsened the shortage of coal for industralization

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Entente Cordiale (French and Britain concluded their ancient rivalry): Frane gave up  opposition to British rule in Egypt and Britain recognized French rights in Morocco

Led to the isolation of France

An alliance between France and Russia — French loans to rebuild Russia's shattered armed forces

Triple Entente (France, Britain and Russia)

France = continental security apparatus

government of a progressive mix of centrists and socialists

(guaranteed freedom of religion and the complete separation of church and state; decreed free and compulsory education for all French children; introduced a progressive income tax)

https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/france/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Militarism-and-pacifism-before-1914

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For France before World War I, the 19th century, as elsewhere, was a period of economic modernisation and growing national unity - but it was also a century of political turmoil, public dissatisfaction and military embarrassment.

The tumultuous 19th century

After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, France shook off decades of revolution, dictatorship and war. The Bourbon monarchy was restored - a move that did not please everyone but provided some stability and breathing space for recovery.

In 1848 another revolution implemented another republic; Louis-Napoleon, one of Bonaparte's nephews, returned from exile to be decisively elected as French president. Within four years he had seized autocratic powers, then had them endorsed by a referendum that was most likely rigged. In December 1852, Louis-Napoleon had himself crowned as Emperor Napoleon III and France again had an absolutist monarch.

Napoleon III's chief interest was the French empire and how to expand it. As a consequence, he was soon influencing or dictating foreign policy. This often had poor outcomes for the nation and the French people.

Wars with Russia and Prussia

The emperor's meddling initiated the Crimean War with Russia in 1853, then conflict with Austria in 1859. These wars, followed by an economic recession in the 1860s, saw the emperor's public support plummet. In 1870 Napoleon III was provoked into a risky war with Prussia, which at the time boasted Europe's most professional military force. It was a disastrous decision: within six months France was defeated and Napoleon had been captured.

The French people responded by abolishing the monarchy, the third time they had done so in the previous 80 years. In the subsequent peace negotiations, Paris surrendered to Prussia the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The French would agonise over these lost territories for the next four decades. The popular view - that they must one day be reclaimed for France - was a considerable source of anti-German nationalism.

Industrial growth

The 19th century also saw France's transition from a nation of peasants to a modern and diverse economy. Industrialisation, which had occurred much later in France than in Britain, was nevertheless well underway by the mid-1800s. Thousands of French farmers left their rural villages and relocated to towns and cities, causing rapid urbanisation and its connected problems.

By the 1870s, almost one-quarter of French workers were employed in factories and heavy industry. Railway construction was expanded rapidly, furthering internal trade and exports.

The Belle Epoque

The late 1800s saw the beginning of what the French call the Belle Epoque, or 'beautiful era'. France and its people began to enjoy the benefits of industrialisation and modernisation: cheap resources, technological developments, new inventions like the telegraph, automobile and mass-produced consumer goods. Living standards improved generally, though France, like its fellow European nations, was still plagued by class disparity and poverty.

The Belle Epoque was accompanied by a cultural boom, with new artistic movements and entertainment forms like cinema, cabaret and the infamous can-can.

As elsewhere in Europe, the working classes were often the last to benefit from industrialisation - if they benefited at all. This led to dissatisfaction, grievances about working conditions and demands for political representation.

French radicalism

French workplaces and communities were fertile ground for socialists and other radicals, many of whom enjoyed considerable support. By the early 1900s, France had one of the most left-wing governments in Europe: a progressive mix of centrists and socialists. It passed laws guaranteeing freedom of religion and the complete separation of church and state; government funding of churches was abolished and all religious buildings were nationalised.

A series of laws decreed free and compulsory education for all French children, both boys and girls. The government also introduced a progressive income tax, with higher rates for higher earners - a radical innovation for its time.

Abroad, the French consolidated their empire and sought to expand it. They competed with Britain for new territories in Africa and strengthened their control of French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia).

In early 1913, Raymond Poincare became president of the French Republic. Poincare - who was conservative, nationalist and anti-German - was a foreign policy interventionist who was determined to bolster France's position in Europe. During 1913-14 Poincare made some outspoken criticisms of Germany and the Kaiser. He also conducted negotiations and foreign visits to strengthen France's existing alliances, drawing it closer to both Russia and Britain.

1. France endured a turbulent first half of the 19th century, divided and disrupted by war, revolution and political instability.

2. In 1870 the French ruler Napoleon III entered into a dangerous war against Prussia, which produced an embarrassing defeat.

3. The loss of significant provinces like Alsace and Lorraine was a source of tension and nationalism for the next 40 years.

4. French industrialisation grew steadily in the later 1800s. New affluence gave rise to a period of urban, cultural and artistic growth called the Belle Epoque.

5. The French rulers were also occupied with the 'race for empire' and for securing France's position in Europe, particularly against a rapidly industrialising and militarising German empire.

Title: "France before World War I"
Authors: Jennifer Llewellyn, Steve Thompson
Publisher: Alpha History
URL: https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/germany/
Date published: August 6, 2017
Date accessed: October 22, 2022
Copyright: The content on this page may not be republished without our express permission. For more information on usage, please refer to our Terms of Use.

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For France before World War I, the 19th century, as elsewhere, was a period of economic modernisation and growing national unity - but it was also a century of political turmoil, public dissatisfaction and military embarrassment. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, France shook off decades of revolution, dictatorship and war.

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- 1920s, French film became globally popular
- due to Poetic Realist movement: depict characters suffering in realistic situations eg. poverty + fruitlessly hoping for a better life
- ended in tragedy and inability to reach what they want
- significant directors: Abel Gance 1930, Marcel Pagnol 1940

https://indiefilmhustle.com/poetic-realism/
https://www.britannica.com/place/France/The-cinema

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What is Poetic Realism? (Definition and Examples) - Indie Film Hustle®

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Poetic Realism (1930-1939) The Poetic Realism film movement, which started in 1930 and extended through the end of the decade, was full of characters living on the fringe of society, whose lives, to be frank, sucked. They pined for the good life, but that life eluded them; they waxed nostalgic, but…

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Third Republic, French government from 1870 to 1940: A provisional government of national defense was set up in 1870 and took as its first task the continuation of the war against the invaders.
France during the Third Republic was politically very unstable. This instability was caused by rivalry between monarchists and republicans.

There were a number of scandals that threatened the existence of the Republic but it survived longer than any other regime since 1789. It was also a period of imperial expansion and scientific and artistic achievement.

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France was in ruins. Their economy was destroyed, with hyperinflation and a lot of their agriculture land was wrecked. There was also a loss in manpower due to all the deaths. WW1 also caused incredibly infrastructure damage to many cities in France.

However, by the late 1920s, France made great changes economically and socially. By 1926, France centralized their economy, which introduced a lot of new wealth.

Effects of World War I on France | SchoolWorkHelper

Historpedia - Post WWI France (Fall 2012) (google.com)

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France had the most casualty percentage of deaths comparing to all the other participants. The tough losses in people destroyed the entire generation of the Frenchmen.

There were about 1,697,800 total deaths and France felled behind Germany and England in population during the 19th century. Thus they weren't able to support wartime losses. It was horrible because of the number of young men who were killed in the battle.

Due to so many losses the country's birthrate dropped from the consecutive years including thousands of children that became orphans. Most of the wounded people became with psychological problems due to the horrifying moment at the war.

Infrastructural damage

France suffered incalculable property damage since a great deal of the war was on the western front took place on French land. Some areas in France we too badly damaged to even start rebuilding.

Economy

France's economy after World War 1 was ruined. The loss of manpower for production and also the wreck of agricultural land bought an increased need for imports from the other countries.

The state spent a huge amount of money to get medical care for the millions of wounded that had survived the war.

The war against Germany at the western front was fought mainly in France, which caused a drop in the economy. France experienced a dramatic decrease in manpower; infrastructure and agriculture were likewise damaged due to bombardments and trench warfare. These all contributed to the heavy decline in the economy.

Social

France received the worst blow out of all the powers. With a population of 40 million, half a million died and 700 thousand were disabled. Nearly every family has lost at least one member of the family. (Keiger)

Political

After the Treaty of Versailles was signed, it was agreed that Germany should take full responsibility for the war, and therefore had to pay reparations to France.

Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France and all German troops were removed from Rhineland, the land on both sides of the Rhine River which ran in between Germany and France. France limited the German military, which caused strong hate from Germany to arise, which later became a contributing factor to WW2.

Environmental

Mortar and artillery bombardments destroyed many houses and villages. They also destroyed wine orchards and agricultural areas, which caused damage economically. Because much of the war was fought in France, there were many discarded shells and mines underneath the ground which had to be dug up and disarmed before the land could be used.

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Decrease of population France had the most casualty percentage of deaths comparing to all the other participants. The tough losses in people destroyed the entire generation of the Frenchmen. There were about 1,697,800 total deaths and France felled behind Germany and England in population during the 19th century.

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Political and Social Life in France in the first half of the 20th century

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Political and Social Life in France in the first half of the 20th century

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France was the center of art. French artists, led by Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, pioneered paintings with the broad application of bright color and Cubist style arts.
Impressionism and Post-Impressionism that dominated French art at the end of the 19th century.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_French_art