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from Educational Leadership

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Vol. 70

No. 1

Abstract

What Is Feedback, Anyway?

Feedback Essentials

Progress Toward a Goal

"But There's No Time!"

Advice, evaluation, grades-none of these provide the descriptive information that students need to reach their goals. What is true feedback-and how can it improve learning?

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Abstract

What Is Feedback, Anyway?

Feedback Essentials

Progress Toward a Goal

"But There's No Time!"

Who would dispute the idea that feedback is a good thing? Both common sense and research make it clear: Formative assessment, consisting of lots of feedback and opportunities to use that feedback, enhances performance and achievement.

Yet even John Hattie (2008), whose decades of research revealed that feedback was among the most powerful influences on achievement, acknowledges that he has "struggled to understand the concept" (p. 173). And many writings on the subject don't even attempt to define the term. To improve formative assessment practices among both teachers and assessment designers, we need to look more closely at just what feedback is-and isn't.

What Is Feedback, Anyway?

The term feedback is often used to describe all kinds of comments made after the fact, including advice, praise, and evaluation. But none of these are feedback, strictly speaking.

Basically, feedback is information about how we are doing in our efforts to reach a goal. I hit a tennis ball with the goal of keeping it in the court, and I see where it lands-in or out. I tell a joke with the goal of making people laugh, and I observe the audience's reaction-they laugh loudly or barely snicker. I teach a lesson with the goal of engaging students, and I see that some students have their eyes riveted on me while others are nodding off.

Here are some other examples of feedback:

A friend tells me, "You know, when you put it that way and speak in that softer tone of voice, it makes me feel better."

A reader comments on my short story, "The first few paragraphs kept my full attention. The scene painted was vivid and interesting. But then the dialogue became hard to follow; as a reader, I was confused about who was talking, and the sequence of actions was puzzling, so I became less engaged."

A baseball coach tells me, "Each time you swung and missed, you raised your head as you swung so you didn't really have your eye on the ball. On the one you hit hard, you kept your head down and saw the ball."

Note the difference between these three examples and the first three I cited-the tennis stroke, the joke, and the student responses to teaching. In the first group, I only had to take note of the tangible effect of my actions, keeping my goals in mind. No one volunteered feedback, but there was still plenty of feedback to get and use. The second group of examples all involved the deliberate, explicit giving of feedback by other people.

Whether the feedback was in the observable effects or from other people, in every case the information received was not advice, nor was the performance evaluated. No one told me as a performer what to do differently or how "good" or "bad" my results were. (You might think that the reader of my writing was judging my work, but look at the words used again: She simply played back the effect my writing had on her as a reader.) Nor did any of the three people tell me what to do (which is what many people erroneously think feedback is-advice). Guidance would be premature; I first need to receive feedback on what I did or didn't do that would warrant such advice.

In all six cases, information was conveyed about the effects of my actions as related to a goal. The information did not include value judgments or recommendations on how to improve. (For examples of information that is often falsely viewed as feedback, see "Feedback vs. Advice" above and "Feedback vs. Evaluation and Grades" on p. 15.)

Decades of education research support the idea that by teaching less and providing more feedback, we can produce greater learning (see Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Hattie, 2008; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Compare the typical lecture-driven course, which often produces less-than-optimal learning, with the peer instruction model developed by Eric Mazur (2009) at Harvard. He hardly lectures at all to his 200 introductory physics students; instead, he gives them problems to think about individually and then discuss in small groups. This system, he writes, "provides frequent and continuous feedback (to both the students and the instructor) about the level of understanding of the subject being discussed" (p. 51), producing gains in both conceptual understanding of the subject and problem-solving skills. Less "teaching," more feedback equals better results.

Feedback Essentials

Whether feedback is just there to be grasped or is provided by another person, helpful feedback is goal-referenced; tangible and transparent; actionable; user-friendly (specific and personalized); timely; ongoing; and consistent.

1. Goal-Referenced

Effective feedback requires that a person has a goal, takes action to achieve the goal, and receives goal-related information about his or her actions. I told a joke-why? To make people laugh. I wrote a story to engage the reader with vivid language and believable dialogue that captures the characters' feelings. I went up to bat to get a hit. If I am not clear on my goals or if I fail to pay attention to them, I cannot get helpful feedback (nor am I likely to achieve my goals).

Information becomes feedback if, and only if, I am trying to cause something and the information tells me whether I am on track or need to change course. If some joke or aspect of my writing isn't working -a revealing, nonjudgmental phrase-I need to know.

Note that in everyday situations, goals are often implicit, although fairly obvious to everyone. I don't need to announce when telling the joke that my aim is to make you laugh. But in school, learners are often unclear about the specific goal of a task or lesson, so it is crucial to remind them about the goal and the criteria by which they should self-assess. For example, a teacher might say,

The point of this writing task is for you to make readers laugh. So, when rereading your draft or getting feedback from peers, ask, How funny is this? Where might it be funnier?

As you prepare a table poster to display the findings of your science project, remember that the aim is to interest people in your work as well as to describe the facts you discovered through your experiment. Self-assess your work against those two criteria using these rubrics. The science fair judges will do likewise.

2. Tangible and Transparent

Any useful feedback system involves not only a clear goal, but also tangible results related to the goal. People laugh, chuckle, or don't laugh at each joke; students are highly attentive, somewhat attentive, or inattentive to my teaching.

Even as little children, we learn from such tangible feedback. That's how we learn to walk; to hold a spoon; and to understand that certain words magically yield food, drink, or a change of clothes from big people. The best feedback is so tangible that anyone who has a goal can learn from it.

Alas, far too much instructional feedback is opaque, as revealed in a true story a teacher told me years ago. A student came up to her at year's end and said, "Miss Jones, you kept writing this same word on my English papers all year, and I still don't know what it means." "What's the word? " she asked. "Vag-oo," he said. (The word was vague!)

Sometimes, even when the information is tangible and transparent, the performers don't obtain it-either because they don't look for it or because they are too busy performing to focus on the effects. In sports, novice tennis players or batters often don't realize that they're taking their eyes off the ball; they often protest, in fact, when that feedback is given. (Constantly yelling "Keep your eye on the ball!" rarely works.) And we have all seen how new teachers are sometimes so busy concentrating on "teaching" that they fail to notice that few students are listening or learning.

That's why, in addition to feedback from coaches or other able observers, video or audio recordings can help us perceive things that we may not perceive as we perform; and by extension, such recordings help us learn to look for difficult-to-perceive but vital information. I recommend that all teachers videotape their own classes at least once a month. It was a transformative experience for me when I did it as a beginning teacher. Concepts that had been crystal clear to me when I was teaching seemed opaque and downright confusing on tape-captured also in the many quizzical looks of my students, which I had missed in the moment.

3. Actionable

Effective feedback is concrete, specific, and useful; it provides actionable information. Thus, "Good job!" and "You did that wrong" and B+ are not feedback at all. We can easily imagine the learners asking themselves in response to these comments, What specifically should I do more or less of next time, based on this information? No idea. They don't know what was "good" or "wrong" about what they did.

Actionable feedback must also be accepted by the performer. Many so-called feedback situations lead to arguments because the givers are not sufficiently descriptive; they jump to an inference from the data instead of simply presenting the data. For example, a supervisor may make the unfortunate but common mistake of stating that "many students were bored in class." That's a judgment, not an observation. It would have been far more useful and less debatable had the supervisor said something like, "I counted ongoing inattentive behaviors in 12 of the 25 students once the lecture was underway. The behaviors included texting under desks, passing notes, and making eye contact with other students. However, after the small-group exercise began, I saw such behavior in only one student."

Such care in offering neutral, goal-related facts is the whole point of the clinical supervision of teaching and of good coaching more generally. Effective supervisors and coaches work hard to carefully observe and comment on what they observed, based on a clear statement of goals. That's why I always ask when visiting a class, "What would you like me to look for and perhaps count?" In my experience as a teacher of teachers, I have always found such pure feedback to be accepted and welcomed. Effective coaches also know that in complex performance situations, actionable feedback about what went right is as important as feedback about what didn't work.

4. User-Friendly

Even if feedback is specific and accurate in the eyes of experts or bystanders, it is not of much value if the user cannot understand it or is overwhelmed by it. Highly technical feedback will seem odd and confusing to a novice. Describing a baseball swing to a 6-year-old in terms of torque and other physics concepts will not likely yield a better hitter. Too much feedback is also counterproductive; better to help the performer concentrate on only one or two key elements of performance than to create a buzz of information coming in from all sides.

Expert coaches uniformly avoid overloading performers with too much or too technical information. They tell the performers one important thing they noticed that, if changed, will likely yield immediate and noticeable improvement ("I was confused about who was talking in the dialogue you wrote in this paragraph"). They don't offer advice until they make sure the performer understands the importance of what they saw.

5. Timely

In most cases, the sooner I get feedback, the better. I don't want to wait for hours or days to find out whether my students were attentive and whether they learned, or which part of my written story works and which part doesn't. I say "in most cases" to allow for situations like playing a piano piece in a recital. I don't want my teacher or the audience barking out feedback as I perform. That's why it is more precise to say that good feedback is "timely" rather than "immediate."

A great problem in education, however, is untimely feedback. Vital feedback on key performances often comes days, weeks, or even months after the performance-think of writing and handing in papers or getting back results on standardized tests. As educators, we should work overtime to figure out ways to ensure that students get more timely feedback and opportunities to use it while the attempt and effects are still fresh in their minds.

Before you say that this is impossible, remember that feedback does not need to come only from the teacher, or even from people at all. Technology is one powerful tool-part of the power of computer-assisted learning is unlimited, timely feedback and opportunities to use it. Peer review is another strategy for managing the load to ensure lots of timely feedback; it's essential, however, to train students to do small-group peer review to high standards, without immature criticisms or unhelpful praise.

6. Ongoing

Adjusting our performance depends on not only receiving feedback but also having opportunities to use it. What makes any assessment in education formative is not merely that it precedes summative assessments, but that the performer has opportunities, if results are less than optimal, to reshape the performance to better achieve the goal. In summative assessment, the feedback comes too late; the performance is over.

Thus, the more feedback I can receive in real time, the better my ultimate performance will be. This is how all highly successful computer games work. If you play Angry Birds, Halo, Guitar Hero, or Tetris, you know that the key to substantial improvement is that the feedback is both timely and ongoing. When you fail, you can immediately start over-sometimes even right where you left off-to get another opportunity to receive and learn from the feedback. (This powerful feedback loop is also user-friendly. Games are built to reflect and adapt to our changing need, pace, and ability to process information.)

It is telling, too, that performers are often judged on their ability to adjust in light of feedback. The ability to quickly adapt one's performance is a mark of all great achievers and problem solvers in a wide array of fields. Or, as many little league coaches say, "The problem is not making errors; you will all miss many balls in the field, and that's part of learning. The problem is when you don't learn from the errors."

7. Consistent

To be useful, feedback must be consistent. Clearly, performers can only adjust their performance successfully if the information fed back to them is stable, accurate, and trustworthy. In education, that means teachers have to be on the same page about what high-quality work is. Teachers need to look at student work together, becoming more consistent over time and formalizing their judgments in highly descriptive rubrics supported by anchor products and performances. By extension, if we want student-to-student feedback to be more helpful, students have to be trained to be consistent the same way we train teachers, using the same exemplars and rubrics.

Progress Toward a Goal

In light of these key characteristics of helpful feedback, how can schools most effectively use feedback as part of a system of formative assessment? The key is to gear feedback to long-term goals.

Let's look at how this works in sports. My daughter runs the mile in track. At the end of each lap in races and practice races, the coaches yell out split times (the times for each lap) and bits of feedback ("You're not swinging your arms!" "You're on pace for 5:15"), followed by advice ("Pick it up-you need to take two seconds off this next lap to get in under 5:10!").

My daughter and her teammates are getting feedback (and advice) about how they are performing now compared with their final desired time. My daughter's goal is to run a 5:00 mile. She has already run 5:09. Her coach is telling her that at the pace she just ran in the first lap, she is unlikely even to meet her best time so far this season, never mind her long-term goal. Then, he tells her something descriptive about her current performance (she's not swinging her arms) and gives her a brief piece of concrete advice (take two seconds off the next lap) to make achievement of the goal more likely.

The ability to improve one's result depends on the ability to adjust one's pace in light of ongoing feedback that measures performance against a concrete, long-term goal. But this isn't what most school district "pacing guides" and grades on "formative" tests tell you. They yield a grade against recent objectives taught, not useful feedback against the final performance standards. Instead of informing teachers and students at an interim date whether they are on track to achieve a desired level of student performance by the end of the school year, the guide and the test grade just provide a schedule for the teacher to follow in delivering content and a grade on that content. It's as if at the end of the first lap of the mile race, My daughter's coach simply yelled out, " B+ on that lap!"

The advice for how to change this sad situation should be clear: Score student work in the fall and winter against spring standards, use more pre-and post-assessments to measure progress toward these standards, and do the item analysis to note what each student needs to work on for better future performance.

"But There's No Time!"

Although the universal teacher lament that there's no time for such feedback is understandable, remember that "no time to give and use feedback" actually means "no time to cause learning." As we have seen, research shows that less teaching plus more feedback is the key to achieving greater learning. And there are numerous ways-through technology, peers, and other teachers-that students can get the feedback they need.

So try it out. Less teaching, more feedback. Less feedback that comes only from you, and more tangible feedback designed into the performance itself. And, of course, send me some feedback on this article at gwiggins@authenticeducation.org.

Feedback vs. Advice

› You need more examples in your report.

› You might want to use a lighter baseball bat.

› You should have included some Essential Questions in your unit plan.

These three statements are not feedback; they're advice. Such advice out of the blue seems at best tangential and at worst unhelpful and annoying. Unless it is preceded by descriptive feedback, the natural response of the performer is to wonder, "Why are you suggesting this?"

As coaches, teachers, and parents, we too often jump right to advice without first ensuring that the learner has sought, grasped, and tentatively accepted the feedback on which the advice is based. By doing so, we often unwittingly end up unnerving learners. Students become increasingly insecure about their own judgment and dependent on the advice of experts-and therefore in a panic about what to do when varied advice comes from different people or no advice is available at all.

If your ratio of advice to feedback is too high, try asking the learner, "Given the feedback, do you have some ideas about how to improve?" This approach will build greater autonomy and confidence over the long haul. Once they are no longer rank novices, performers can often self-advise if asked to.

Feedback vs. Evaluation and Grades

› This is a weak paper.

› You got a C on your presentation.

› I'm so pleased by your poster!

These comments make a value judgment. They rate, evaluate, praise, or criticize what was done. There is little or no feedback here-no actionable information about what occurred. As performers, we only know that someone else placed a high or low value on what we did.

How might we recast these comments to be useful feedback? Tip: Always add a mental colon after each statement of value. For example,

"Good work: Your use of words was more precise in this paper than in the last one, and I saw the scenes clearly in my mind's eye."

"This is a weak paper: Almost from the first sentence, I was confused as to your initial thesis and the evidence you provide for it. In the second paragraph you propose a different thesis, and in the third paragraph you don't offer evidence, just beliefs."

You'll soon find that you can drop the evaluative language; it serves no useful function.

The most ubiquitous form of evaluation, grading, is so much a part of the school landscape that we easily overlook its utter uselessness as actionable feedback. Grades are here to stay, no doubt-but that doesn't mean we should rely on them as a major source of feedback.

References

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York: Routledge.

Mazur, E. (2009, January 2). Farewell, lecture? Science, 323, 50-51.

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Advice, evaluation, grades-none of these provide the descriptive information that students need to reach their goals. What is true feedback-and how can it improve learning?

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Feedback in the classroom by John Hattie and Greg Yates

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John Hattie and Greg Yates have co-authored another hands-on text about effective feedback in the classroom. Quick overview and free download.

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Screencastify for Recording Video Feedback

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Screencastify for Recording Video Feedback

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Screencastify is Chrome's simplest free screen recorder and video-creation platform, empowering anyone to become a better communicator by recording, editing, sharing, and assessing videos in seconds.

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The leading screen recorder for Chrome. Capture, edit and share videos in seconds.

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Build Curriculum Standard Progression and Microprogressions Using AI

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Build Curriculum Standard Progression and Microprogressions Using AI

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This process takes less than 5 minutes. You'll have progressions and microprogressions to analyze and consider in your lesson planning.

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Build the language and expectations students need to give high quality feedback. Test in RIGHT THEN in the middle of your lesson. Then, it's not just feedback for feedback's sake.

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Two ways to think about skill building with your students. Customizable templates.

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Easy steps to unpacking a curriculum standard

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Easy steps to unpacking a curriculum standard

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A few steps to unpack a standard with the aim of building progressions and microprogressions.

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Want to give targeted feedback to individuals during class? Explore 3 different management scenarios.

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1 on 1 Conference: A Quick Note from Hattie

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1 on 1 Conference: A Quick Note from Hattie

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The Ten Mindframes for Teachers and Students

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The Ten Mindframes for Teachers and Students

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What mindframes are we cultivate in ourselves and in our students as we give feedback to one another?

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What if we paired our learning targets with a mindframe target? How will that support students in understanding how they need to show up in your classroom?

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This is a great way to highlight student strengths AND create mentor examples for students by students.

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Feedback is Crucial to Success in School Systems

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Feedback is Crucial to Success in School Systems

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I remember the day quite clearly: the door to my portable classroom opened and my principal walked in. My heart skipped a beat - it was my first year teaching and the first time any school leader had come into my room. I was immediately worried about the clipboard in her hand and the uncapped pen. I was convinced that whatever I was doing would be wrong, that the moment would be off, that my students unengaged or the lesson would go off the rails. I was nervous about receiving feedback, but I now know that I needed it.

She smiled and it made me gulp; she wasn't a smiler by nature so I expected the worst. She walked toward me slowly and with great surprise I noticed the evaluation form attached to the clipboard had already been completed. "Sign here," she said, not noticing my confusion. I scanned the form and noticed I had mostly good marks; marks and ratings I knew were fictional, since it had been filled out before she had even come in to observe me. I signed it. I sighed. I didn't feel any better.

That experience was typical in my school, and not receiving feedback made it hard for any of us to learn. I spent my entire first year teaching with minimal feedback and as a result I had little insight into how to improve my teaching practice. The importance of feedback in school systems is undisputed. John Hattie's research on the topic for over a decade, and particularly his idea that it not just how you give it, but how feedback is received that matters, has shaped the experiences of students and of teachers.

Author Paul Bambrick-Santoyo talks about how to move from the scoreboard approach of teacher evaluation to an observation and feedback one, where the goal is for observers to give feedback that helps teachers improve versus simply pitting them against each other. The way feedback is delivered, and the type of feedback given, matters a lot if you want to drive to stronger student outcomes.

Feedback is no less important, nor is it less difficult, in organizations outside of the education space. It turns out it is hard to do it well, and very easy to do it poorly. If the feedback is not given in a way that is constructive, and not delivered in a way that the person receiving it feels open and cared for, it is likely to be ineffective at best, and harmful at worst. Which is perhaps why the ideas behind Radical Candor resonated with me so strongly, and why I see so much potential for applying them within school systems.

When I first heard Kim Scott, author of Radical Candor: Be a Kick-Ass Boss Without Losing Your Humanity speak, I was sitting in an event held at AltSchools, surrounded by the leaders of other start-ups in and out of the edtech space. The people in the room had so many questions (which I appreciated) and so much skepticism around whether these concepts would actually work for them (which I found hard to understand). It took some explaining and lots of stories to get everyone on board but honestly, it all just clicked for me when she spoke.

All the helpful feedback I had received came flooding back, as well as the times it was less helpful. I immediately thought of the manager who gave a me a book with tabs in it for the pages he wanted me to focus on and a note that I was doing a great job on a project but that he knew I had the potential to be an even stronger leader. That felt a bit alarming at first (I needed to read a whole book?) and then terrific as I reflected later because he cared enough to make me better.

I was able to easily think of the people I had coached and supported by being in that upper right quadrant, as well as examples of time when I didn't care enough, or when I took caring to mean I should not be critical or constructive. And most of the room got there; most of the room believed we should all strive for Radical Candor - it's just everyone was wondering how. And I imagine you might be too. So here are four ways to bring more Radical Candor to your school system.
1. If You Are A Teacher
There are two great opportunities here for you. The first is maybe obvious - give good feedback to your students, show them you care for them by getting to know them, help them grow by challenging them and providing them with concrete ideas about areas to improve. For example, change "Rewrite this paragraph" to "In previous paragraphs you do an excellent job at providing examples to your reader whereas here you don't offer enough examples to help the reader understand your argument. Try again and then see me." The second is the feedback you give to other teachers. Step one is taking the time to observe your peers. Step two is giving them real actual feedback that they can make actionable. Just saying "good job" doesn't help anyone get better.
2. If You Are A Coach
You have opportunities with your teachers nearly every day. You see a lot of them so remember to take the time to get to know them - understand their strengths, challenges and what makes them tick before you jump in with feedback. You have a great chance with principals and district leaders too. Help them understand what is happening in classrooms and don't be afraid to challenge them to make improvements.
3. If You Are A Principal
As a leader, your job is to give and receive feedback. In order to do this effectively you must be clear that you are open to receiving feedback before giving it. Build strong relationships with your teachers by coming in to observe but also through interactions in your office, the teachers' lounge etc. Take the time to show them that you Care Personally. You want to remove the fear teachers have about you coming in and get them to a place when they can't wait for you to come because when you do they know they will learn something too. Remember to leave a positive note behind or send one later, but don't stop there. Take the time to also reflect on opportunities for improvement for each teacher and share those too.
4. If You Are A District Leader Or Superintendent
Start by remembering that many teachers and principals can't even imagine what your daily job and how your days look different from theirs. Help them understand some of the big picture things you are thinking about and how those impact the schools and students. Investing in not only asking them about themselves, but also telling them about you, helps show them that you Care Personally about them as human beings. Take time to listen to them too, before you provide feedback. You may find yourselves observing people you don't know well, sometimes about content you're not familiar with. Asking questions is a great way to show you care.
The Bottom Line
Overall, no matter who you are, you need to be the change you want to see. There are some easy steps you can take to make this more of a habit in your organization. Before you start giving feedback, show that you are interested in receiving it. Ask others for feedback and make sure they give it to you. Use questions like "Is there anything I can do or not do to make it easier for us to work together?" And then, after you "get it" you can start to "give it."

Start with the positive first but don't forget the honesty too. Now that the feedback is flowing, encourage it by praising it. Call people out for being good at getting and giving. Radical Candor may be tricky at first but it pays off in dividends. While receiving feedback made me nervous in my early days of teaching, what concerns me now is the lack of it. When we get feedback we grow. And if we want to be the best we can be for our students, we all need to keep growing.
Amy Jenkins is the chief operating officer of Education Elements. Following a meandering path of teaching in Oakland, running an after-school program, working at NewSchools Venture Fund and being a strategy consultant she is thrilled to now focus on supporting districts to in their efforts to become more dynamic, responsive and outcomes-oriented. Amy splits her time at work between coaching district leaders and ensuring the health and happiness of everyone at Education Elements through creating an environment where everyone can thrive and grow. On the weekends she can be found chasing her kids around.

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Feedback Is Crucial To Success In School Systems

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I remember the day quite clearly: the door to my portable classroom opened and my principal walked in. My heart skipped a beat - it was my first year teaching and the first time any school leader had come into my room. I was immediately worried about the clipboard in her hand and the uncapped pen.

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Timing of Learning and Feedback Strategies

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Timing of Learning and Feedback Strategies

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What strategies work the best in your teaching cycle? Starting a unit, surface learning, or deep understanding?

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Feedback from the perspective of the learner

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Feedback from the perspective of the learner

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Author links open overlay panel Luke Mandouit , John Hattie

Show more

Feedback can be defined as information provided to a learner relating to their skills or understanding as demonstrated on a task or in the completion of a task; usually after instruction (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Feedback aims to support students to develop actual understanding towards task mastery (Sadler, 1989). However, whilst feedback can stimulate significant growth, it is also an intervention with significant variance in its effect on achievement. Considering these challenges Hattie & Timperley published "The Power of Feedback" (2007), and within it proposed a model to enhance the influence of feedback on learning, thus shaping contemporary educators thinking around feedback practices in the classroom.

The influence of feedback on student achievement is well established, with the potential to lead to significant learning gains (Hattie, 2009; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Shute, 2008). Hattie's (2009) meta-analyses of feedback indicate effect sizes of almost double the rate of learning compared to the 0.40 growth expected from a standard year's schooling. However, this does not necessarily mean more feedback is needed. Some studies suggest that close to one-third of all feedback has a negative influence on learning (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Within the various forms of feedback, there is significant variance in its effectiveness, with praise, rewards, and punishment often having zero to negative effect sizes, and cues and video/audio assisted feedback bringing significant learning gains (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).

More recent research into feedback effectiveness further validates its potential to enhance learning. Wisniewski et al. (2020) refined the methods previously used by Hattie (2009) focusing only on studies that occurred in an educational context (kindergarten, primary, secondary, or university) and reported an average effect size of 0.48. Their study reinforced both the potential for feedback to have a positive influence on learning, as well as highlighting the significant variability of different feedback interventions. Like those before them, Wisniewski et al. (2020) found that feedback effectiveness was mitigated by the amount of information provided to the learner regarding what they need to do to close the gaps in knowledge. To be most effective, this involved feedback to the learner that not only identified what mistakes were made, but what errors led to these mistakes along with what the learner needs to do to avoid these errors.

Hattie and Timperley's (2007) feedback model (Fig. 1) takes into consideration the potential impact of feedback on student learning, as well as the complexities encountered due to the wide variance in the effect of various feedback interventions. The model considers Hattie's previous synthesis of meta-analyses into feedback, peer-reviewed empirical studies in the literature, and previous feedback models. Underpinning this model is the assumption that the purpose of feedback is to drive student achievement, thus supporting the learner in reaching their learning goal. The varying effectiveness of different feedback interventions in supporting the learner to achieve this goal is acknowledged, with the model designed to reduce this inconsistency.

In presenting this model Hattie and Timperley (2007) proposed that effective feedback must answer three key questions: "Where am I going?" (Feed-up), "How am I going?" (Feed-back), and "Where to next?" (Feed-forward). The first feedback question, "Where am I going?", is also known as "feed-up" and relates specifically to the learning goals of the task (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Learning goals are important because if the student does not understand the learning goal, then they may be successful in understanding the purpose of the feedback and how it can help move closely to the goal. Learning goals can be communicated in several ways, both orally or written, through modeling, or the use of exemplars.

The second feedback question, "How am I going?", is also known as "feed-back". This relates to how the learner is progressing towards their learning goal, is often tied to assessment tasks, and aims to provide an indication of the learner's progress (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). To be useful, feed-back should be specific, presented in a timely manner, and related to the learning goals of the lesson (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).

Hattie and Timperley's (2007) third and final question, "Where to next?", is also known as "feed-forward". If the purpose of feedback is to move students from their current level of understanding towards task mastery (Sadler, 1989), it is this information that specifically optimizes and leads to those learning gains. In a formative evaluation context (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hornby, 2003), this will allow students to apply the feedback information in subsequent learning tasks. In addressing this question and leveraging the powerful elements of feedback, effective teachers will set clear and challenging learning goals for the next steps, as well as provide cues, prompts to guide self-regulation, and strategies to improve task performance (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).

The feedback delivered by the teacher in answering these key questions works at four levels: Self (i.e., non-specific comments directed at the learner, and not the task); Task (i.e., was the work correct or incorrect?); Process (i.e., what process related steps were used or not used?); and Self-regulation (i.e., what cues and hints can students be given to self-correct?). As with feedback interventions more broadly, these levels all vary in their influence on student outcomes. Self-level feedback is considered the least effective, in that it directs information (e.g., praise) towards the learner and not performance on the task. Task-level feedback is useful in flagging errors and identifying areas for improvement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007), however gives little information about what a student needs to do to improve. Process-level feedback creates opportunities for teachers to work with students to provide feedback information about the use of more effective learning strategies, engage in error detection, and make relations between the task-ideas, and self-regulation feedback privileges student-initiated consideration of their work, its quality, and next steps and can lead to increased engagement and student efficacy.

There is a range of factors and practicalities to contemplate when considering the application of Hattie and Timperley's (2007) feedback model in classrooms. Firstly, it must be noted that the focus of Hattie's previous synthesis of meta-analyses that informed this model were related to the influence of feedback on achievement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). It did not consider factors or the effects of feedback on motivation, efficacy, and engagement. The model is also very teacher-oriented, focusing more on what teachers need to do when providing feedback to students. Based on these factors, several researchers have used this model as a framework to learn more about feedback practices in schools.

Harris and Brown (2013) reported the need for further clarification of the four feedback levels, the application of these levels in the classroom, and their influence on learners. They also reported that the feedback level of self needs to be considered further. One limitation presented is that the model does not acknowledge the social or pastoral influence such feedback may have in building and maintaining student-teacher relationships, and thus influencing student outcomes (Harris & Brown, 2013). Whilst researchers have generally concurred that praise does not significantly enhance student performance, many have discussed its potential capacity to motivate and encourage learners (Harris et al., 2014; Knight, 2003; Pajares & Graham, 1998; Rattan et al., 2012; Torrance & Pryor, 1998). Harris and Brown (2013) suggested that social factors in the classroom relating to peer-to-peer feedback and classroom culture need to be considered when applying this model in practice.

Considering the application of this model in practice, Brooks, et al. (2019) investigated the prevalence of Hattie and Timperley's (2007) three feedback questions and four levels in verbal feedback in a year seven English classroom in Brisbane, Australia. In doing so, they recorded and transcribed 12 h of classroom audio and coded data using Hattie and Timperley's (2007) model as a framework. Results indicated that of the three feedback questions, "How am I going?" (Feed-back) was by far the most prominent, accounting for 50% of total feedback words. This was followed by "Where am I going?" (Feed-up) (31%) and "Where to next?" (Feed-forward) (19%). When considering the focus of verbal feedback using Hattie and Timperley's (2007) levels of feedback, Brooks, et al. (2019) found that task-level feedback was the most often used, with 79% of feedback aimed at the task level. Process-level feedback accounted for 16% of verbal feedback, whilst self-regulation feedback was by far the least prevalent, with less than 1% of feedback aimed at this level.

Hattie et al. (2021) investigated the relative value of feedback to students of the three feedback questions. They used 3,204 university students who submitted essays for feedback and then in light of their interpretations of the feedback resubmitted the essays. Teachers and AI computer algorithms provided, on average, 14 comments per essay, with the most about "Where to next?", and probes, then style feedback (referencing, unclear comments, grammar, etc.). The best predictors of subsequent performance were the "Where to next?" comments (either specific or general feedback), and the lowest effects were praise, probes, grammar, referencing, and comments that stated "Unclear". They showed, when comparing Praise, "Where to next?", and a combination of the two, that Praise did dilute any improvements, and it was optimal to only have "Where to next?" feedback. The "Where to next?" feedback characterized by identifying the next steps in learning, relating to what to do differently a subsequent draft or similar tasks relating to student behaviour, actions, processes, or learning strategies. They did note that any "Where to next?" feedback may need to be scaffolded or supported on feedback about "Where am I going?" and "How am I going?".

As a result of their research, Harris et al. (2013) identified processing of, and affective reaction to, feedback as an area for future research. Researchers agree that developing an understanding of student perceptions and processing is key to feedback being used effectively to enhance achievement and understanding. Despite these gaps, there is a body of work emerging in the assessment and feedback literature that is beginning to address these questions.

When considering student perceptions of feedback, previous research has provided the following insights. First, several studies have indicated the need for feedback to be specific and useful in progressing learning (Gamlem & Smith, 2013; Pajares & Graham, 1998). Second, there is evidence that indicates that students want feedback that relates to the criteria or standards they are assessed against (Brown, Irving, & Peterson, 2009, August; Beaumont et al., 2011). Third, students communicate the need for feedback to be timely and delivered during the formative stages of learning (Gamlem & Smith, 2013; Peterson & Irving, 2008; Smith & Lipnevich, 2009). Boud (1995) argued that rather than focusing on the delivery of feedback, we need to consider the effect of the feedback provided, and Carless and Boud (2018) have developed the notion of student feedback literacy. Thus, the perspective of the learner is important to consider if we are to maximize learning gains, as students can only respond to the feedback they understand and are capable of acting on (Price et al., 2010). These preferences may vary based on the characteristics of each learner (Williams, 2010).

With these issues in mind, Dawson et al. (2019) completed a large-scale study at two Australian Universities with 4,514 students and 406 staff, and coded open-ended responses relating to what constituted effective feedback. In considering what makes feedback effective, and what qualities of feedback contribute to effect feedback practices, there was significant variation between student and staff perceptions. When indicating what elements of the feedback process were effective, 53% of staff responded that it was the feedback design (i.e. design of task and assessment tools) compared to only 17% of students. In contrast, the vast majority (84%) of students responded that it was the quality of the feedback provided to them in teacher comments that would lead to improvements in performance (Dawson et al., 2019). Student participants were also clear in identifying that effective feedback needed to be useable and related to skills and knowledge (49% of respondents), detailed, specific, and thorough (20%), precise and direct (8%), and positive and constructive (8%). Whilst Dawson's (2019) study provides insights into student opinion on effective feedback practices, like much other research in this area it was undertaken with adult learners, with studies at secondary students lacking.

The studies and meta-analyses discussed above give researchers and educators an insight into the importance of feedback and how effective feedback may look. However, as noted, there has been limited research into the impact of feedback on students based on their individual characteristics and how it may influence their future behaviors (Harris et al., 2013; Hattie & Gan, 2011). There is a body of work evidencing the strong emotional connection students associate with the delivery and reception of feedback (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Brown et al., 2009, August; Harris et al., 2014), along with the need to further understand how students perceive and make sense of feedback maximize learning gains (Hattie et al., 2016, 2021; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006; Shute, 2008). Student emotions in response to feedback can either enhance or interfere with the learning process (Hargreaves, 2013).

The learner brings a range of characteristics that make them more or less likely to engage in the feedback process. Lipnevich et al. (2016) suggested that some students are more receptive to feedback than others, with this related to the student understanding the purpose of feedback, as well as their own ability and prior performance. Jonsson and Panadero (2018) argued that students with high levels of efficacy, achievement, self-confidence, and self-regulation are more likely to engage with feedback. Recent research by Lipnevich et al. (2021) further supports the influence feedback can have on emotions, but demonstrated that in some cases experiencing negative emotions can increase student motivation to improve performance.

This study aims to develop a deeper understanding of how students receive, interpret, and respond to teacher feedback. Specifically, the study sought to find out secondary student perceptions of usefulness when feedback is aligned with each of these levels and based on this, what characteristics of feedback do students identify as effective?

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E. Hargreaves
Inquiring into children's experiences of teacher feedback: Reconceptualising assessment for learning

J. Hattie
Visible learning: A synthesis of 800+ meta-analyses on achievement

Instruction based on feedback

Instruction based on feedback

View more references

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Revisiting "The Power of Feedback" from the perspective of the learner

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Author links open overlay panel Luke Mandouit , John Hattie Show more Feedback can be defined as information provided to a learner relating to their skills or understanding as demonstrated on a task or in the completion of a task; usually after instruction (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).

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Listen to my interview with Joe Hirsch (transcript):
Sponsored by Kiddom and Pear Deck

As teachers, we pretty much give feedback all day long. We tell students how they can improve on assignments, we praise them for things they're doing well, we correct their incorrect responses, and we redirect them when they behave in ways that aren't helpful to learning.

And that's just the students. We also give feedback to our colleagues, although in most cases, these exchanges don't happen as often or as freely as they probably should. We receive plenty of feedback as well, from our students, their parents, our administrators, and our peers. And we encourage our students to give feedback to each other, albeit with pretty uneven results. Really, the experience of school could be described as one long feedback session, where every day, people show up with the goal of improving, while other people tell them how to do it.

And it doesn't always go well. As we give and receive feedback, people get defensive. Feelings get hurt. Too often, the improvements we're going for don't happen, because the feedback isn't given in a way that the receiver can embrace.

It turns out there's a different way to give feedback that works a lot better, a way of flipping its focus from the past to the future. It's a concept called "feedforward," which was originally developed by a management expert named Marshall Goldsmith. As far as I can tell, not a lot of educators are familiar with the practice of feedforward, and I really think if we learned how to do it and started using it more consistently, it could make a huge difference in how our students grow and how we grow as professionals.

In this week's podcast, I interview Joe Hirsch, author of The Feedback Fix: Dump the Past, Embrace the Future, and Lead the Way to Change. ( Bookshop.org | Amazon). In the book, Joe digs deep into the practice of feedforward and shows us how and why it works. You can listen to our full conversation in the player above, read the full transcript, or stay right here-I'll give you a quick overview.

What's Wrong with the Way We Give Feedback?

When we give feedback to our students, or when our co-workers or administrators give feedback to us, the focus is on the past. "People can't control what they can't change, and we can't change the past," says Hirsch. "And that happens to be the focus of most of the feedback that we give or receive."

More specifically, backward-looking feedback doesn't often get good results for three reasons:

It shuts down our mental dashboards. "When we get negative feedback about something that we can't change or control," Hirsch says, "our brains flood with stress-inducing hormones, cortisol, that trigger our threat awareness and put us on the defensive. The parts that are responsible for executive function, for creativity, the parts that allow us to sort of set our agendas and make rational decisions, essentially we are in a state of mental paralysis."

It focuses primarily on ratings, not on development. Most of feedback's time and energy is spent on looking back and rating (or grading) performance that's already over, rather than focusing on what can be done from now on. "When feedback consists of an impersonal set of performance standards, we're overlooking the essential goal of feedback, and that's to create positive and lasting improvement."

It reinforces negative behaviors. "When we hear about flaws that we can't fix anymore-because they're in a past that we can't change-it creates a feeling of learned helplessness, the feeling that we are unable to do anything about our future. Instead of committing ourselves to improvement, which is what we would hope would happen, we hold onto this debilitating view of who we are instead of focusing on who we are becoming."

What is Feedforward?

When we give feedforward, instead of rating and judging a person's performance in the past, we focus on their development in the future.

Suppose my student is writing an essay. Instead of waiting until she is finished, then marking up all the errors and giving it a grade, I would read parts of the essay while she is writing it, point out things I'm noticing, and ask her questions to get her thinking about how she might improve it.

In his book, Hirsch takes this broad concept of feedforward and defines six components of it, six specific characteristics of feedforward that make it so effective. He refers to these by the acronym REPAIR (regenerates, expands, particular, authentic, impact, refines).

So let's take a look at each of these. If you want to implement feedforward well, it should have these attributes:

It REGENERATES talent.

The most effective kind of feedforward helps people see opportunities for growth-ways they could take on new opportunities and roles. "At the simplest level," Hirsch writes in his book, "it leads to the unmistakable feeling that we're moving forward in our professional and personal lives. Getting positive feedback about our performance may feel good, but it doesn't break new ground. It merely confirms what we already know about ourselves and our talents, essentially holding our growth in check. But when feedback gets us thinking about how to spread that talent to others, it has a multiplying effect."

So when we notice that a student is developing a strength or an interest in an area, instead of just pointing that out, we might give the student an opportunity to enter their work in some kind of competition, publish it in some way, or share it with others in a presentation, rather than simply keeping it to themselves. This helps students see themselves in a new light and gets them thinking about ways they could grow.

It EXPANDS possibilities.

Effective feedback starts with what is and helps add to it, expanding what's possible, rather than simply pointing out problems. In his book, Hirsch describes a concept used by Pixar studios called "plussing." When Pixar's creators get together to review a day's work, they are expected to give each other feedback to improve the work. What makes these sessions so effective is one important rule: Participants can't point out a problem without proposing an alternative, saying "What if?" to a problem.

This concept of "plussing" could work wonders in staff or committee meetings: When we are discussing possible solutions to an issue, rather than shooting down ideas that might not work, we could add to them by making small tweaks. "That's an interesting idea. What if we made this small change and tried that?" This technique would also work beautifully with project-based learning tasks, when students may need to come up with several ideas for solving a problem before arriving at the best solution.

It is PARTICULAR.

Far too often, feedback is given in an "information dump," with lots of criteria being measured and reported on at the same time. This can be a pretty ineffective way to help people grow. "There's a limit to how much we can absorb and operationalize in any given time," Hirsch says. "Feedforward is really about picking your battlegrounds strategically and selectively." He advises us to make feedback an ongoing process that is embedded in the day-to-day work, and to only focus on a few things at a time.

So rather than wait until an assignment is done to point out all the ways a student can improve, find ways to give them specific pointers while they work, and only one thing at a time, so students can process and act on it right away.

It is AUTHENTIC.

No one particularly likes giving criticism. "We see problems, we see pitfalls in other people, and we know it's a problem," Hirsch says, "but we don't want to be mean, right? We don't want to crush them. So the tendency is to either avoid giving feedback altogether or to disguise it as a praise sandwich, where we basically slip one piece of criticism in between two very, very surface level gauzy praises."

The problem with that approach, Hirsch explains, is what's called the recency effect: People remember most the thing they heard last. So when you tack on some praise after delivering constructive feedback, the person doesn't really absorb the critical part as well as they would if you'd just given it to them more directly.

Hirsch recommends a more direct approach: Describe what's happening, explain why it's a problem, then prompt the person for a solution. "When delivered this way," Hirsch explains, "it puts people at ease, it takes them off the defensive. It is clear, it is concise, it's locating the problem, it's looking for solutions together. People don't want a praise sandwich. People want the truth."

This approach could work with academic situations or classroom management problems: If you're dealing with a student who is disrupting class, describe the behavior you're seeing, explain why it's a problem, then ask the student for ideas on how to solve it. It sounds really simple, but if what you're doing right now isn't giving you the results you want, it's worth a try.

It has IMPACT.

One of the reasons people don't make progress after receiving feedback is that they don't necessarily know what to do with it. "If you want feedback to make an impact," Hirsch notes, "you have to put it in terms that people can operationalize." In his book, he cites studies showing that regular feedback doesn't typically result in a transfer of new skills or habits, but when that feedback is combined with coaching, the transfer skyrockets to 95 percent.

So if a student regularly forgets to bring materials to class, rather than simply telling him to change, help him make a specific plan for improvement. Ideally, that plan should have lots of small steps to make it achievable, and the student should take the lead in developing that plan.

It REFINES group dynamics.

"Feedback is a team sport," Hirsch says. "It is not just something that happens one to one. It happens in groups and across and within organizations. And when we dump that command and control nature of traditional feedback, we make room for something much more collaborative and shared."

So rather than give feedback in a top-down, hierarchical model, open up more pathways for people to get feedback from their peers, even those whose jobs might on the surface have little in common with our own. In his book, Hirsch borrows a term from management circles known as "creative abrasion," which is what happens when people with opposing views work on the same task together. Although it can result in more conflict, the contributions from different points of view usually produce a higher-quality product in the end.

This idea can play out in a lot of educational settings: Instead of just having our department head observe our teaching, why not get feedback from someone who teaches a completely different subject? When students go to the same peers for feedback on their work, have them seek out the opinion of someone new, or consider getting the input of a group of students from a different class or grade level entirely.

There's nothing simple or straightforward about telling people how to improve. So it's no surprise that we're still figuring it out and finding new ways to refine it. If the feedback you're giving to your students, your coworkers, and even the people at home isn't having quite the effect you intend, try shifting to a feedforward approach. Doing so can help us, as Hirsch says, stop seeing ourselves just as who we are, but who we are becoming. ♦

Learn more about Joe Hirsch on his website or visit his LinkedIn page. Teachers who read The Feedback Fix should also grab this free Discussion Guide for Teachers to help apply the book's principles to your own work.

Come back for more.
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Instead of rating and judging a person's performance in the past, feedforward focuses on their development in the future.

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Quality communication—between and among people at all levels and every department and division—is the glue that holds organizations together

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David Yeager, Ph.D. - 10 to 25: The Science of Motivating Young People

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Google Classroom + Meaningful Feedback = Winning Combination!

In this post, we will explore ways to give meaningful feedback in Google Classroom.

Feedback is an essential piece of the learning process that often gets overlooked or watered down.

As teachers, it can be difficult to find ways to not only give feedback to every student, but to make it meaningful to students and something that is actionable.

Susan M. Brookhart, author of How to Give Effective Feedback to Your Students, says, "Good feedback contains information a student can use. That means, first, that the student has to be able to hear and understand it. A student can't hear something that's beyond his comprehension, nor can a student hear something if she's not listening or if she feels like it's useless to listen.

The most useful feedback focuses on the qualities of student work or the processes or strategies used to do the work. Feedback that draws students' attention to their self-regulation strategies or their abilities as learners is potent if students hear it in a way that makes them realize they will get results by expending effort and attention."

Let that sink in for a moment.

This is not just about finding errors for students but using feedback as a strategy for learning.

Feedback should be a loop, not a one-and-done task. It's a conversation between you and your students.

QUICK TIP: Getting students to read and take action on feedback can be a challenge. Try this, delay the final grade until they have responded or made revisions based on feedback.

Get the details on this, "Delay the Grade," strategy in this post from Cult of Pedagogy.

G Suite tools give us many opportunities to communicate with students, guide them toward the learning targets, and give meaningful feedback.

Google Classroom in particular offers many ways for teachers and students to continue the feedback loop.

I asked members of the Shake Up Learning Community to share their favorite ways to use Google Classroom for meaningful feedback and here's what they shared.

Below are some ideas to help you learn how to take advantage of the functionality of Google Classroom to give meaningful feedback to your students.

4 Ways to Give Meaningful Feedback in Google Classroom

To be clear, for the purposes of this post, we are going to focus on the Google Classroom application and not on other G Suite tools that also offer ways to leave feedback and comments.

1. Private Comments

Private comments is one of the best features of Google Classroom.

Since these are private, they are only viewable by you and the individual student. Consider this a private conversation between you and your students.

To learn more about the different types of comments in Classroom, see this previous post: Google Classroom Comments: All You Need to Know!

To add a private comment from the Student Work page:

1. From the Classwork tab, click on the assignment for which you would like to give feedback.

2. Click on "View Assignment."

3. Select the Student from the roster on the left.

4. Toward the bottom of the right-hand panel, you will see "Add Private Comment."

5. Click to type and add your private comment for your student.

Note: you can also leave private comments in the grading workflow which is covered in number two.

2. The Google Classroom Grading Tool

The Google Classroom Grading Tool gives teachers a workflow for evaluating student work, leaving feedback, grading, and returning student work.

To access the grading tool,

1. From the Classwork page, select the assignment and click on "View Assignment."

2. Click on the student's name in the left-hand roster.

3. Click on the file a student submitted and you should see the grading tool similar to what you see in the image below.

Here you can toggle through multiple student's work, leave frequently used comments from your comment bank, as well as leave private comments.

To learn more about the grading tool and other features, watch the FREE webinar: 5 Things to Know About the New Google Classroom, where I go into depth with the newer features of Google Classroom.

3. Canned Comments from Your Personal Comment Bank

Another great feature of the grading tool mentioned above is the ability to create your own comment bank of frequently used comments and feedback for students.

1. Click on "Comment Bank," from the right-hand sidebar.

2. Enter the comment you wish to save and click, "Add."

The comments you save will be saved to your account and accessible through the Google Classroom grading tool to use with any assignment.

4. Annotate Using Google Classroom on Mobile (iOS or Android)

Many users don't know that there are some additional Google Classroom features that only work on mobile (for now at least).

One such feature is the ability to draw and annotate on documents.

In the mobile version of Google Classroom, you can annotate on assignments, meaning you can draw, markup, create, etc.

That annotation is then saved and can be turned in, or sent to the student as feedback. Of course, now add the power of the stylus to this application and you've got yourself a winning combination.

Click here to learn how this works in the mobile app.

This is a great way to give students feedback on all kinds of assignments!

How do you give meaningful feedback for your students? Please share in the comments below!

Ready to Learn More About Google Classroom?

Learn all about the new updates to Google Classroom and take your skills to the next level. This course will give you everything you need to get started using Google Classroom and best practices to help you make the most of this tool.

Perfect for beginner to intermediate skill levels! Consider this your video guide to Google Classroom!
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4 Ways to Give Meaningful Feedback with Google Classroom

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Google Classroom + Meaningful Feedback = Winning Combination! In this post, we will explore ways to give meaningful feedback in Google Classroom. Feedback is an essential piece of the learning process that often gets overlooked or watered down.

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This page is a quick Mote guide to Using motebook to reuse voice feedback

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6 Teacher-Approved Tips for Faster, More Effective Feedback

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Brutal Honesty And Radical Candor: 6 Ways You’re Getting Radical Candor Wrong And 5 Ways To Get It Right | Radical Candor

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Radical Candor is not the same as brutal honesty or front-stabbing and it’s not a license to be a jerk. It means Caring Personally and Challenging Directly.

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The Leadership Laboratory - Team + Leadership Development Workshops

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Interested in workshops on this topic for you and your team? Visit the Leadership + Management page for recommended interactive learning experiences from The Leadership Laboratory for emerging and established leaders in your organization.

Research from The Harvard Negotiation project resulted in a deeper understanding on our perceptions to the feedback we receive. In their book Thanks for the Feedback, Bruce Patton and Sheila Heen argue that there are three common reasons we respond negatively to feedback. These triggers, they argue, can be summarized into three categories: the Truth Trigger, the Relationship Trigger, and the Identity Trigger. As you read through each of the three triggers, think back to recent feedback conversations you have had. Which of these triggers have been activated for you? When you've provided feedback to others, have any of these been activated for them?

With the Truth Trigger, we acknowledge we each have different perspectives for a given situation. Our version of the truth is different from theirs. It is not about right or wrong, exactly, but rather about interpretation and judgement. Simply put, there are two different versions of the same truth, and as each perspective is valid and may not have the complete picture, both truths are "right". We say this because our version of the truth is due to the experiences we have had an the information we are privy to. Conversations where we feel our truths are not the same is often due, in part, to some missing information, and working to seek out this missing information by asking the feedback provider to share their perspective often helps to assuage our frustrations. Here, we must ask: What information am I missing? What is causing my version of the truth to be different from theirs?

In thinking about the Relationship Trigger, we refer to our perspective on the relationship we have with the feedback provider. Our thoughts and feelings of other person shape our perceptions of the actions they take. For a moment, think of someone you adore; your best friend. Imagine a scenario where you are due to meet each other for coffee at 8:00am. Five minutes go by...then ten...then fifteen. After twenty minutes, you think why were they late? When asked this question, groups typically respond with comments like 'Perhaps I mixed up the date' or 'Maybe they inadvertently went to a different location' or, for the highly anxious among us, jump to the conclusion that 'Maybe something happened to them on the way here; a car accident, or a bear attack!?!'. Now picture the same scenario with someone you dislike; your worst enemy. Here, groups often respond with 'They stood me up!' or 'They did this on purpose!' or even a sheepishly excited 'Maybe something bad happened!'. Notice that the situation for both groups is identical: we were supposed to meet at 8:00am for coffee, and the person we are meeting is twenty minutes late. It's our relationship with the individual that triggers completely different responses. The same is true for feedback - we are far more likely to accept feedback from people that we like and respect than from individuals with whom we do not have a solid relationship. Here we ask: how would my response to this feedback differ if my relationship with the other individual were stronger and positive? Would I feel differently if my best friend shared this information with me?

Lastly, Patton and Heen share about the Identity Trigger, which plays deeply into the views we have of ourselves. We view ourselves in a certain light, and when we receive feedback that is in opposition to that, it often results in a feeling of an attack on our identity as a whole. In their reports, they acknowledge a situation where a woman decides to approach her neighbor about their dog who is barking keeps her up at night. The neighbor might view themselves as a conscientious person and responsible pet owner, and this information serves in direct opposition to that. When receiving this feedback, we have to separate the feedback from the person as a whole. Does this feedback speak to who I am as a person? Or simply how I have showcased myself in one particular instance?

Think back to feedback conversations you have had in the past. Which of the three triggers has been activated the most for you? For your people? What can you do differently to ensure these feedback triggers can be avoided in the future?

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The Feedback Triggers: Why Some People Respond Negatively to Feedback — The Leadership Laboratory

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Research from The Harvard Negotiation project resulted in a deeper understanding on our perceptions to the feedback we receive. In their book Thanks for the Feedback, Bruce Patton and Sheila Heen argue that there are three common reasons we respond negatively to feedback.

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Ideas for Feedback Roles (teacher and students)

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Ideas for Feedback Roles (teacher and students)

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How to Give Effective Feedback—and Save Your Sanity

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Grading is a real pain point, but the good news is that giving students targeted feedback on their work is more effective for their learning and saves teachers time.

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1. Home

2. How People Learn

3. Worked Examples

What are worked examples?

Worked examples are step-by-step illustrations of the process required to complete a task or solve a problem. In a worked example, students are provided with the task or problem formulation, the procedure or the step-by-step process for solving the problem, and the solution. When using worked examples effectively, instructors engage students in self-explaining these procedures or solutions, encouraging them to reflect more deeply on the principles illustrated in the worked example. Worked examples can be designed to teach well-structured tasks, such as applying Newton's Second Law, as well as more ill-structured tasks, such as constructing an argument, modeling biological pathways, or devising a mathematical proof (Renkl, 2023).

Worked examples are useful in the initial acquisition of cognitive skills because they allow students to understand principles and their applications more deeply before applying them on their own (Renkl, 2014b). Worked examples have shown to be particularly effective for novice learners, who may experience high levels of cognitive load when learning new concepts and procedures simultaneously (Renkl, 2014a). In fact, worked examples tend to be more efficient and effective for initial skill acquisition compared to problem solving (Renkl, 2014a). If designed well, worked examples can provide models for learners to follow when tackling similar problems, allowing them to transfer knowledge from one task to another (see Caveats section below).

Worked examples can be applied to a wide range of disciplines and contexts beyond STEM.

Worked examples can be created for any procedural task. For instance, in the field of law, worked examples have been used to teach students how to reason through legal cases and construct legal arguments (Nievelstein et al., 2013; Schworm & Renkl, 2007), while worked examples have similarly been used to assist learners in understanding negotiation strategies (Gentner et al., 2003). In language and literature, worked examples can be used to help students write essays or understand different writing styles (Kyun et al., 2013), while in the arts, worked examples have been used to teach students to differentiate between artistic styles (Rourke & Sweller, 2009).

Furthermore, worked examples can be used inside and outside of class time and for a variety of class types. For instance, during class, instructors can either demonstrate a worked example interactively or provide students with a written worked example for students to work on individually and/or in groups. Outside of class, worked examples can be provided for students to study on their own time (see Caveats section for what to avoid when implementing worked examples). In lab-based courses, for example, instructors can convert any demonstration, which is often performed when modeling a procedure, into an effective worked example by asking students to reflect on specific and important aspects of the demonstration (e.g., Why would you do X instead of Y first? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using this type of protocol for isolating X?).

Why are worked examples important?

Early research conducted by Sweller and Cooper (1985) showed that after an initial introduction to a series of algebraic problems, replacing practice problems with worked example counterparts resulted in higher learning gains. The worked example condition was also more efficient; learners given problems to solve took almost six times longer to complete the learning sequence and had more errors than those provided with worked examples to study from. Subsequent studies have supported the finding that if implemented well, studying worked examples is more effective in the initial stages of learning than learning primarily through problem solving (Figure 1 and Salden, Koedinger, Renkl, Aleven, & McLaren, 2010). Though students may usually be provided with examples or demonstrations in the initial stages of learning, the number of worked examples is typically low and insufficient for learning underlying principles. These demonstrations are also often done passively with little student engagement, which does not lead to deep learning and neutralizes the worked example effect. In fact, when implementing worked examples with features that get students to actively study the solutions (see the Caveats section for more), the worked example effect nearly doubles (Hattie, 2009).

Why are worked examples more effective for initial skill acquisition than practice?

When introducing a new task or skill, it may seem counterintuitive to provide students with worked examples to study instead of giving them practice time to solve or complete the task. When students are introduced to a new task, they often do not have a firm grasp of the material and principles being represented in the task and may resort to ineffective problem-solving strategies such as aimless trial-and-error or plug-and-chug (Renkl, A., 2023). Trial-and-error involves trying various solutions without a proper problem-solving strategy, while plug-and-chug involves looking for existing problems with similar surface-level features without considering if their underlying structure aligns with the current problem. For example, when faced with a mechanics problem presented in the context of an inclined plane, novice students may search for another "inclined plane problem" without considering whether the underlying concept is the same (Figure 2 and Chi et al., 1989).

These ineffective problem-solving strategies are taxing on cognitive load because they lead students down unproductive paths while already processing a lot of new information, including understanding newly introduced concepts and making sense of the problem being presented. Engaging prematurely in problem solving without fully understanding the task domain and procedure leaves little working memory capacity for learners to understand the validity of a particular solution or the ability to integrate new knowledge for future use (Sweller, 1988).

Providing step-by-step illustrations of a solution or procedure in worked examples reduces cognitive load by allowing students to focus their cognitive resources on understanding the principles illustrated in the solution. Therefore, providing worked examples for students to study can help them understand the principles and strategies needed to approach the task effectively, without overtaxing cognitive load (Clark & Mayer, 2011).

As learners become more proficient, educators can transition to more practice exercises and tasks to help students automate problem-solving strategies or procedures (see Caveats section below). In fact,when students have sufficient prior knowledge about the specific task or problem, asking students to study worked examples can decrease competencein performing said task (often called expertise reversal, Kalyuga & Renkl 2010). It is important for instructors to balance the use of worked examples with independent practice to maximize learning outcomes for students at different stages of proficiency within a learning sequence.

Examples

During recitations, students were provided with a handout containing worked examples. The teaching assistants (TAs) would lead the class through at least one of the worked examples, step by step, to ensure that students understood the problem-solving strategies illustrated in those worked examples. Then, students were given a set of slightly more complex but similar additional problems to solve independently. One or several students would then volunteer to guide the class through the steps they used to solve these additional problems. By incorporating both worked examples and problems to solve for a given concept, students had the opportunity to more deeply understand the concepts learned, and instructors could better monitor progress by observing what happened when the surface features and the complexity of the problems changed.

Students were provided with two examples of an informal interview protocol and informed which one was well constructed and which was not. After reading both worked examples, students were asked to annotate each example and provide suggestions for improvement. They were then able to review the instructor's own annotations and explanations for suggestions. By beginning with the knowledge of which examples demonstrated good or poor interview protocol (correct and incorrect worked examples), students could engage more meaningfully with the worked examples, reflecting on their annotations and exploring their reasoning for suggested improvements. Using incorrect worked examples, either alone or in combination with correct examples, has been shown to be more effective than using correct worked examples alone (Booth et al., 2013).

The instructors in this course also utilized worked examples of interview techniques by providing example videos of interviews. One video demonstrated good interview techniques (a correct worked example), while the other demonstrated poor interview techniques (an incorrect worked example). After watching these videos, students were asked to assess them for improvements regarding best practices in conversational interviewing. They were then able to compare their assessments with the instructor's explanations, designed to help reinforce their understanding of effective interview techniques.

Caveats (and how to address them)

Worked examples effectively teach new tasks or solve new problem types. However, the worked example effect can be negated if certain design features are not considered. Here are some concerns that instructors have often brought up about worked examples and strategies for ameliorating them:

Resources

For best practices for how to design effective worked examples see:
Renkl, A. (2014a). Learning from worked examples: How to prepare students for meaningful problem solving. In V. A. Benassi, C. E. Overson, & C. M. Hakala (Eds.), Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum (pp. 118-130). Society for the Teaching of Psychology. HTTP (downloaded PDF freely available)

For specific considerations when designing worked examples for ill-structured tasks see:
Renkl, A. (2023). Using Worked Examples for Ill-Structured Learning Content. In Overson, C. E., Hakala, C. M., Kordonowy, L.L., and Benassi, V. A. & (Eds.), In Their Own Words: What Scholars and Teachers Want You To Know About Why and How To Apply the Science of Learning in Your Academic Setting (pp. 207-224). Society for the Teaching of Psychology. HTTP (downloaded PDF freely available)

References

Booth, J. L., Lange, K. E., Koedinger, K. R., & Newton, K. J. (2013). Using example problems to improve student learning in algebra: Differentiating between correct and incorrect examples. Learning and Instruction, 25, 24-34. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.002

Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems. Cognitive Science, 13(2), 145-182. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1

Chi, M.T.H., Feltovich, P.J. and Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121-152. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2

Clark, R.C. & Mayer, R.E. (2011). Leveraging Examples in e-Learning. In e-Learning and the Science of Instruction (eds R.C. Clark and R.E. Mayer). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118255971.ch11

Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022- 0663.95.2.393

Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.

Kalyuga, S., & Renkl, A. (2010). Expertise reversal effect and its instructional implications: Introduction to the special issue. Instructional Science, 38(3), 209-215. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-009-9102-0

Kyun, S., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2013). The Effect of Worked Examples When Learning to Write Essays in English Literature. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81(3), 385-408. http://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2012.727884

Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2013). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(2), 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004

Paas, F. G. W. C., & van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1994). Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 122-133. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Renkl, A. (2014a). Learning from worked examples: How to prepare students for meaningful problem solving. In V. A. Benassi, C. E. Overson, & C. M. Hakala (Eds.), Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum (pp. 118-130). Society for the Teaching of Psychology.

Renkl, A. (2014b). Toward an instructionally oriented theory of example-based learning. Cognitive Science: a Multidisciplinary Journal, 38(1), 1-37. http://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12086

Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2010). Structuring the Transition From Example Study to Problem Solving in Cognitive Skill Acquisition: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychologist. http://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_3

Renkl, A. (2023). Using Worked Examples for Ill-Structured Learning Content. In Overson, C. E., Hakala, C. M., Kordonowy, L.L., and Benassi, V. A. & (Eds.), In Their Own Words: What Scholars and Teachers Want You To KNow About Why and How To Apply the Science of Learning in Your Academic Setting (pp. 207-224). Society for the Teaching of Psychology.

Rourke, A., & Sweller, J. (2009). The worked-example effect using ill-defined problems: Learning to recognise designers' styles. Learning and Instruction, 19(2), 185-199. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.006

Salden, R. J. C. M., Koedinger, K. R., Renkl, A., Aleven, V., & McLaren, B. M. (2010). Accounting for Beneficial Effects of Worked Examples in Tutored Problem Solving. Educational Psychology Review, 22(4), 379-392. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9143-6

Schworm, S., & Renkl, A. (2007). Learning argumentation skills through the use of prompts for self-explaining examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 285-296. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.285

Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning. Cognitive Science, 12: 257-285. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4

Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2(1), 59-89. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3

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Home How People Learn Worked Examples Worked examples are step-by-step illustrations of the process required to complete a task or solve a problem. In a worked example, students are provided with the task or problem formulation, the procedure or the step-by-step process for solving the problem, and the solution.

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Five Ways to use Worked Examples — Think Forward Educators

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Following on from last year’s successful series of blog articles on 5 ways to implement the science of reading, this year experts will be providing ready-to-use tips on the science of maths. Inspired by Tom Sherrington’s Five Ways Collection, the posts have been edited and curated by Brendan Lee an