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Women between the ages of 20 and 35 who find it difficult to balance work, family, and personal responsibilities are welcome to join our private therapy group. Stress from life changes like beginning a profession, managing money, navigating relationships, or having children can affect one's physical and mental health. In order to improve resilience and general health, this group offers a secure environment for sharing experiences, learning coping strategies, and picking up scientifically supported stress-reduction tactics. Included in the attached PDF is the Module 3 Small Group Action Plan, which outlines the group's objectives, organization, and methods of implementation.

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Brooke Pozzi Group Couneling Avtion Plan

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This session will focus on helping participants cultivate specific mindsets and behaviors that support well-being and personal development. Participants in the program will exhibit greater empathy and self-awareness toward others and themselves. In addition to developing social skills that foster more robust support networks, they will experience and implement coping mechanisms that enable them to handle stressors in healthier ways. And lastly, participants will learn how to make choices that promote health, balance, and resilience in many facets of life. These results show important life skills that participants can apply outside of the group setting in their everyday lives. (Neff & Germer, 2017).

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Multiple methods will be used to spread the word about the Balanced Women organization to guarantee awareness and involvement. While email alerts will be sent to prospective participants, flyers and posters will be distributed in community centers, workplaces, and health programs. Women who match the qualifying requirements may also get personal invitations, and group information will be included in staff meetings and newspapers. The program's multi-channel strategy guarantees that women who stand to gain from it are informed about the opportunity and know how to get involved.

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Before joining, participants will receive information about the group's goals, standards, and confidentiality policies. Individual interviews, which will include inquiries about present stressors, coping mechanisms, and attendance commitment, will evaluate participants' preparedness, willingness, and fit for the group. Pre-group screening keeps the group dynamic coherent and encouraging while guaranteeing that every participant can get the most out of the program.

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Before the group begins, each participant will be asked for their informed consent. A formal consent document outlining the group's goals, procedures, and activities, as well as any restrictions on confidentiality and the freedom to leave at any moment without consequence, will be given to each participant. Parental consent is not necessary because all participants are adults between the ages of 20 and 35. Getting informed consent helps participants understand their rights and duties within the group, assures ethical practice, and fosters transparency. For reference, a copy of the consent form will be included.

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To ensure that everyone may participate in a courteous and safe environment, ground rules will be set. Predetermined guidelines include being on time, participating fully, respecting the experiences of other members, and keeping confidentiality within the bounds of the law. Members will also work together to create other guidelines, such as respecting different viewpoints, giving constructive criticism, and actively listening. Throughout the group meetings, these rules promote safety, trust, and meaningful participation.

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The group will go through three stages of development. Establishing standards and fostering trust are the main goals of stage 1, which also includes limiting secrecy and introducing activities that promote interaction. Stage 2 has a strong emphasis on cohesive functioning, where participants use stress-reduction tactics, coping mechanisms, and peer support to meet learning objectives. In Stage 3, participants are given the opportunity to evaluate their progress, strengthen their abilities, and make plans for their continued wellness outside of the group. At every step, facilitators will keep an eye on participation, offer direction, and reaffirm mutual support and confidentiality.

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Instead of using directive control, the group will employ a collaborative and supportive leadership style that prioritizes empathy, active listening, and direction. This method promotes independence, group problem-solving, and peer assistance. To create an atmosphere where participants are encouraged to share experiences, acquire useful coping mechanisms, and successfully implement them in their everyday lives, the facilitator will find a balance between structure and flexibility.

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Note: This site is moving to KnowledgeJump.com. Please reset your bookmark.

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. As seen by the employees, it includes the total pattern of explicit and implicit actions performed by their leader (Newstrom, Davis, 1993).

The first major study of leadership styles was performed in 1939 by Kurt Lewin who led a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership (Lewin, Lippit, White, 1939). This early study has remained quite influential as it established the three major leadership styles: (U.S. Army, 1973):

authoritarian or autocratic - the leader tells his or her employees what to do and how to do it, without getting their advice

participative or democratic - the leader includes one or more employees in the decision making process, but the leader normally maintains the final decision making authority

delegative or laissez-fair (free-rein) - the leader allows the employees to make the decisions, however, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made

Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style, normally autocratic.

Authoritarian or Autocratic Leadership

I want both of you to. . .

This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the appropriate conditions to use this style is when you have all the information to solve the problem, you are short on time, and/or your employees are well motivated.

Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning language, and leading by threats. This is not the authoritarian style, rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called "bossing people around." It has absolutely no place in a leader's repertoire.

The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have the time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees, then you should use the participative style.

Participative or Democratic Leadership

Let's work together to solve this. . .

This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have other parts. A leader is not expected to know everything-this is why you employ knowledgeable and skilled people. Using this style is of mutual benefit as it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions.

Even if you have all the answers, gaining different perspectives and diversity of opinions normally provide greater creativity than insularity. As Katherine Phillips wrote,

So as you think about diversity and its effects in organizations during this tough economic time, recognize that the most robust practical value of diversity is that it challenges everyone in an organization. We are more thoughtful, and we recognize and utilize more of the information that we have at our disposal, when diversity is present. That is diversity's true value.

Delegative or Laissez-faire Leadership

You two take care of the problem while I go. . .

In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything! You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks.

This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when things go wrong, rather this is a style to be used when you fully trust and have confidence in the people below you. Do not be afraid to use it, however, use it wisely!

NOTE: Laissez-faire (or lais·ser faire) is the noninterference in the affairs of others. [French : laissez, second person pl. imperative of laisser, to let, allow + faire, to do.]

Forces

A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:

Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.

Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their jobs. The leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team.

Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you do. You cannot do and know everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job! In addition, this allows you to be more productive.

Using all three styles: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative).

Forces that influence the style to be used include:

Amount of time available

Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?

Who has the information-you, the employees, or both?

How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task

Internal conflicts

Stress levels.

Type of task, such as structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?

Laws or established procedures, such as OSHA or training plans

Continuum of Leader Behavior

In 1958 Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973) expanded on Lewin, Lippit, and White's three leadership styles by extending them to seven styles and placing them on a continuum as shown in the diagram below:

Notice that as you go from left to right, it moves from manager-oriented decision making to team or subordinate oriented decision making, thus the team's freedom increases while the manager's authority decreases. Depending upon the present level of your team's experience and skills, you select a starting point and as the team grows and develops, you move from on to the next one:

1. Manager makes decision and announces it - The team has no role in the decision-making role. Coercion may or may not be used or implied.

2. Manager "Sells" decision - Rather than just tell, the manager needs to sell the decision, as there is a possibility of some resistance from team members.

3. Manager presents ideas and invites questions - This allows the team to get a fuller explanation so they can gain a better understanding of what the manager is trying to accomplish.

4. Manager presents a tentative decision that is subject to change - This action invites the team to have some influence regarding the decision; thus, it can be changed based on the team's input.

5. Manager presents the problem, gets suggestions, and then makes the decision - Up to this point the manager has always presented the decision, although the last style allows it to change based upon the team's input. Now the team is free to come up with options, however, the manager still has the final say on those options.

6. Manager defines limits, and requests the team to make a decision - The manager delegates the decision making to the team; but instills specific limits on the team's solution.

7. Manager allows team to function within limits - Now the team does the decision making, however, the manager's superior may have placed certain limits on the options they can make. If the manager sits in on the decision making, he or she attempts to do so with no more authority than the other members do.

Basically, the first two styles or behaviors are similar to the authoritarian style, the next three are similar to the participative style, while the last two are similar to the delegative style. This approach gives the leader more options that can be refined to specific situations or environments.

5+2 Major Behavior Patterns of Leaders

This page describes seven behavior patterns or styles of leaders, to include Social Leadership as described by Howell and Costley (2001).

Positive and Negative Approaches

Leaders approach their employees in different ways. Positive leaders use rewards, such as education, new experiences, and independence, to motivate employees, while negative employers emphasize penalties (Newstrom, Davis, 1993). The negative approach has a place in a leader's repertoire of tools in certain situations; however, it must be used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.

Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way to get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay, reprimanding employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased by frightening everyone into higher levels of productivity. Yet, what normally happens when this approach is used is that morale falls, which leads to lower productivity.

Most leaders do not strictly use one or another, but are somewhere on a continuum ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative. People who continuously work out of the negative are bosses, while those who primarily work out of the positive are considered great leaders.

A similar theory is McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y.

Use of Consideration and Structure

Two other approaches that leaders use are (Stogdill, 1974):

Consideration (employee orientation) - leaders are concerned about the human needs of their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems, and provide psychological support.

Structure (task orientation) - leaders believe that they get results by consistently keeping people busy and urging them to produce.

There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are higher performers and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim, 1982).

Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they should not be viewed on a continuum (Stogdill, 1974). For example, a leader who is more considerate does not necessarily mean that she is less structured.

Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid is a good example of a leadership model based upon the concept of consideration and structure.

Paternalism

Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Most definitions of leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of influencing. For example, the U.S. Army (1983) uses the following definition:

Leadership is influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization.

The Army further goes on by defining influence as:

A means of getting people to do what you want them to do. It is the means or method to achieve two ends: operating and improving. But there is more to influencing than simply passing along orders. The example you set is just as important as the words you speak. And you set an example-good or bad-with every action you take and word you utter, on or off duty. Through your words and example, you must communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.

P aternalism is defined as (Webster Dictionary):

A system under which an authority undertakes to supply needs or regulate conduct of those under its control in matters affecting them as individuals as well as in their relationships to authority and to each other.

Thus, paternalism supplies needs for those under its protection or control, while leadership gets things done. The first is directed inwards, while the latter is directed outwards.

Geert Hofstede (1997) studied culture within organizations. Part of his study was on the dependence relationship or Power Difference -the extent to which the less powerful members of an organization expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. Hofstede gave this story to illustrate the concept of Power Difference:

The last revolution in Sweden disposed of King Gustav IV, whom they considered incompetent, and surprising invited Jean Baptise Bernadotte, a French general who served under Napoleon, to become their new King. He accepted and became King Charles XIV. Soon afterward he needed to address the Swedish Parliament. Wanting to be accepted, he tried to do the speech in their language. His broken language amused the Swedes so much that they roared with laughter. The Frenchman was so upset that he never tried to speak Swedish again.

Bernadotte was a victim of culture shock-never in his French upbringing and military career had he experienced subordinates who laughed at the mistakes of their superior. This story has a happy ending as he was considered very good and ruled the country as a highly respected constitutional monarch until 1844. (His descendants still occupy the Swedish throne.)

Sweden differs from France in the way its society handles inequality (those in charge and the followers). To measure inequality or Power Difference, Hofstede studied three survey questions from a larger survey that both factored and carried the same weight:

Frequency of employees being afraid to express disagreement with their managers

Subordinates' perception of their boss's actual decision making style (paternalistic style was one choice)

Subordinates' preference for their boss's decision-making style (again, paternalistic style was one choice)

He developed a Power Difference Index (PDI) for the 53 countries that took the survey. Their scores range from 11 to 104. The higher the number a country received, the more autocratic and/or paternalistic the leadership, which of course relates to employees being more afraid or unwilling to disagree with their bosses. While lower numbers mean a more consultative style of leadership is used, which translates to employees who are not as afraid of their bosses.

For example, Malaysia has the highest PDI score, being 104, while Austria has the lowest with 11. And of course, as the story above illustrates, Sweden has a relative low score of 31, while France has a PDI of 68. The United States' score is 40. Note that these scores are relative, not absolute, in that relativism affirms that one culture has no absolute criteria for judging activities of another culture as "low" or "noble".

Keeping the above in mind, it seems that some picture paternalistic behavior as almost a barbaric way of getting things accomplished. Yet, leadership is all about getting things done for the organization. And in some situations, a paternalistic style of decision-making might be required; indeed, in some cultures and individuals, it may also be expected by not only those in charge, but also by the followers.

That is what makes leadership styles quite interesting-they basically run along the same continuum as Hofstede's PDI, ranging from paternalistic to consultative styles of decision making. This allows a wide range of individual behaviors to be dealt with, ranging from beginners to peak performers. In addition, it accounts for the fact that not everyone is the same.

However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the employees are ready for a more consultative type of leadership style, then it can becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization if change is not advanced.

Next Steps

Learning Activity: Leadership Style Survey

Next chapter: Character and Traits of Good Leaders

Related page: Path-Goal Theory
Main Leadership Menu
References

Hofstede, G. (1997). Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Howell, J.P., Costley D.L. (2001). Understanding Behaviours for Effective Leadership. NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Lewin, K., Lippit, R., White, R.K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.

Newstrom, J.W., Davis, K. (1993). Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schriesheim, C.A. (1982). The Great High Consideration: High Initiating Structure Leadership Myth: Evidence on its Generalizability. The Journal of Social Psychology, April, 116, 221-228.

Stogdill, R.M. (1974). Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research. New York: Free Press.

Tannenbaum, A.S., Schmidt, W.H. (1973). How to Choose a Leadership Pattern. Harvard Business Review Reprint, 36, May-June, 4-12.

U.S. Army. (1983). Military Leadership. Field Manual 22-100. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. As seen by the employees, it includes the total pattern of explicit and implicit actions of the leader.

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The structure and results of the group will be guided by Yalom's therapeutic variables. By acknowledging that others encounter comparable difficulties, participants will gain a sense of universality. They will also feel encouraged by witnessing their peers' advancements in stress management. Members will gain coping skills and resilience through knowledge sharing, compassion through helping other participants, and interpersonal learning through group interactions. Together, these elements foster emotional control, personal development, and self-assurance in handling pressures in life.

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This is a continuation of discussing group therapy (starting from the introduction).

Dr. Irvin D. Yalom is the guru of group therapy, specifically interpersonal, and is mentioned in many research books and articles. Although Dr. Yalom's textbooks read more like a novel, he makes group therapy and its purpose more relatable and fun in clinical practice than most resources. He was the first person to put a theoretical perspective on group work and believed that all groups had to go through specific phases.

Dr. Yalom is most known for his 11 therapeutic/curative factors that are mechanisms of effecting change in a person with group therapy. It's also important to know the stages of groups were created by psychologist Dr. Bruce Tuckman (1965):

5 Stages or Phases of the Group

In the pregroup phase, the leader will consider the direction and framework of the group:

Stage 1. Forming; the orientation phase. The leader is most active in this stage. Universal norms are discussed such as confidentiality, attendance, and rules of communication and participation are addressed. This is the stage that discusses the time frame/termination of the group.

Stage 2. Storming; the transition phase. Anxiety, ambiguity, and conflict become prevalent as group members test and act-out behaviors to define themselves and the group norms. This stage creates an interpersonal climate where members should feel free to disagree with each other.

Stage 3. Norming; the cohesiveness phase. Members develop group-specific standards (cohesiveness) and therapeutic alliance forms such as disapproving late-arriving members, or the level of anger/conflict that will be tolerated.

Stage 4. Working; the performing phase. During this stage, individual growth and team productivity, and effectiveness occur. Members experiment with new ideas or behaviors and egalitarianism develops.

Stage 5. Adjourning; the termination phase. The closure for the group as a whole or the individual that left. The primary task is to discuss and review actual outcomes and achievements, explore feelings of what worked (and what didn't), and any feelings of loss. Introducing new concerns or initiatives is not appropriate.

To remember the stages of groups, the best mnemonic I could think of was; I had to form a storm in the north (norm) and then work or adjourn. Another reason for knowing the group stages is for documentation and understanding how to gauge the group productivity plus strengths and weaknesses.

Relating these processes/terms were overall very useful for remembering key points and measuring the group dynamics.

Dr. Yalom's Therapeutic Forces in Groups

1. Instillation of Hope: encouragement that recovery is possible by sharing stories and information.

2. Universality: recognition of a shared experience and knowing a person's problems are not unique.

3. Imparting of Information: teaching about problems and learning factual information about treatment options.

4. Altruism: helping and supporting others by experiencing the ability to help another person can build self-esteem. It helps to develop adaptive coping mechanisms.

5. Simulation of the primary family: identifying & changing the dysfunctional patterns or roles one played in the primary family.

6. Development of social skills: learning new ways to talk about feelings, observations, and concerns.

7. Imitative Behavior: modeling another's manners & recovery skills.

8. Interpersonal Learning (modeling, vicarious learning): finding out about themselves & others from the group. Yalom also describes 3 important concepts with interpersonal learning; 1. The importance of interpersonal relationships, 2. The corrective emotional experience, and 3. The group is a social microcosm.

9. Group Cohesiveness (belonging): the feeling of belonging to the group, and valuing the group.

10. Catharsis: the release of emotional tension i.e. a burst of crying. Express emotions in a safe environment.

11. Existential Factors (risk, responsibility): Learning to take responsibility for one's own actions.

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This is a continuation of discussing group therapy (starting from the introduction). Dr. Irvin D. Yalom is the guru of group therapy, specifically interpersonal, and is mentioned in many research books and articles. Although Dr. Yalom's textbooks read more like a novel, he makes group therapy and its purpose more relatable and fun in clinical practice than most resources.

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Counselors must adhere to ACA, ASCA, and ASGW ethical standards, as well as federal and state laws and organizational policies. Informed consent must be obtained, confidentiality must be maintained within legal bounds, and sessions must be properly documented. By taking these precautions, group counseling sessions are protected, and ethical and professional practice is guaranteed.

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Counselors are required by ethical standards to maintain ongoing professional development, exercise cultural competency, and create a safe, nondiscriminatory atmosphere. Counselors must maintain anonymity, make sure that processes are transparent, and step in if participants' well-being is in danger. Following these guidelines helps the counselor fulfill their responsibility to create a safe and productive group setting.

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American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA code of ethics. https://www.counseling.org/resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf

American Psychological Association. (2023). Stress in America 2023: A nation recovering, struggling, and changing. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2023/report

American School Counselor Association. (2014). Mindsets & behaviors for student success: K–12 college- and career-readiness standards for every student. https://schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/742bb3a9-0168-44c3-ba3c-91ec28c8c3c8/Mindsets-Behaviors.pdf

Association for Specialists in Group Work. (2018). ASGW ethical standards for group work. https://www.asgw.org/ethical-standards

Böckle, J., Sander, L. B., Ganster, D., Baumeister, H., Ebert, D. D., & Lehr, D. (2025). Effectiveness of a 7-week minimally guided and unguided stress management intervention delivered through a mobile app in university students: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 25(1), Article 23399. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-23399-4

Daltry, R. M. (2015). A case study: An ACT stress management group in a university counseling center. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 29(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/87568225.2015.976076

Murray, E., Ward, L., & Maguire, R. (2024). Peer-led relaxation training for nursing students: A feasibility and acceptability study. Journal of Professional Nursing, 49, 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2024.04.008

Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2017). Self-compassion and psychological well-being in young adults. Journal of College Counseling, 20(2), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocc.12036

PMHealthNP. (n.d.). Stages and Yalom's therapeutic forces. https://pmhealthnp.com/stages-and-yaloms-therapeutic-forces/

StudytheStars. (n.d.). Women supporting women [Poster]. Redbubble. https://www.redbubble.com/i/poster/Women-Supporting-Women-by-studythestars/39068071.LVTDI

Yalom, I. D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (4th ed.). Basic Books.