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1.6 Who am I, First Experience With Race & Sense of Self Brainstorm

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1.6 Who am I, First Experience With Race & Sense of Self Brainstorm

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Theme 1: Who Am I Activity?

Who am I?

I am Paige D, a 17-year-old African-American girl in California.

Who do I pretend to be?
As of recently, I haven't pretended to be anyone. I'm learning to be more adamant about my feelings and not turn into a "people-pleaser".

Who do people think I am?
People believe I am a quirky introverted girl with an energetic side once I warm up to them.

Who do I wish I could be?
I wish to be someone who doesn't care about how others view and look at me.

How has race or ethnic identity played a role in any of these responses?
During my time in elementary through high school, I was around people who did not accept me for who I was. With my own people, I was considered to be too "white-washed". Obviously, I wasn't white, so it was hard (or I felt disinterested) in the subjects my white peers would be discussing.

Theme 2: First Experience With Race Activity

What was your first experience with race?

I can't exactly remember my first experience regarding race, but I remember while in middle school and high school, I was unable to fit in with my black peers due to being "too white" or "whitewashed." Specifically, I was being bullied for it.

How old were you?

At the time (middle school), I would be around 11-12 years old.

What emotions do you associate with the experience?
I felt resentment during these times, and questioned what it meant to be "black".

Have you ever talked about the experience?
I've expressed my distaste for being associated with the term "white-washed".

How have your early experiences with race shaped your worldview?
Such experiences made me feel as if I was an outcast in my school. Was I really black? Or am I just a "white girl in a black girl's body." It made me feel resentment towards black people in my school, so I would stay away from them.

Theme 3: Positive Sense of Self Brainstorm

After contemplating the first two prompts and our unit content, what connections can be made between having a positive sense of self and our experiences with identity and race? Brainstorm regarding your thoughts on how these concepts are connected. For example, do you think someone who has a negative view of their sense of self can have a positive sense of ethnic identity? Would you assume that a person who identifies positively with African American Psychology might have a stronger or weaker sense of self or ethnic identity? Please explain why.

Having a positive connection to yourself and your identity can help you embrace who you truly are as a person. I believe it is possible for someone who has a negative viewpoint of their own self of sense while retain a positive sense of ethnic identity. That wasn't the case for me. I didn't necessarily have a negative viewpoint of my ethnic identity, as I am passionate about making presentations and essays regarding social justice issues black people have had to face in history. However, for my ethnic identity, being considered too white made me think, "Are black people supposed to be ignorant? Are black people supposed to be people who fall under every stereotype the white man has categorized us in?"

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 2.4 Ubuntu, Afrocentricity and Nguzo Saba

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 2.4 Ubuntu, Afrocentricity and Nguzo Saba

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THEME 1: Ubuntu

1. The concept of Ubuntu is uniquely African. After reading the assigned reading and analyzing the short video by Dr. Nelson Mandela, do you think that the spirit of Ubuntu is alive and well today in African-American culture? Explain your answer and give an example as to why you have chosen your position.

I do believe that the spirit of Ubuntu is alive and active. For instance, once George Floyd was murdered, our community formed together and formed protests, reviving the BLM protests. There are also workshops for people of color (specifically black people) to help them learn about engineering, how to write college essays and general life skills we may have not been taught in school. There are people out there who are kind-hearted and help out the community.

2. Compare and contrast in detail and provide examples of any parallels/similarities that you have been able to identify between African cultures and African American culture. Has this concept of Ubuntu changed your worldview at all? Explain.

From what I've viewed, African culture seems to be somewhat similar to African American culture. Both cultures tend to be spiritual/religious as well as host family events in order to spend time with one another. There have also been times when both cultures unite as one to face various social issues. This can be how Ubuntu is still somewhat relevant. However, there is a disconnect between the two, as there are stereotypes of Africans being "better" than African Americans.

THEME 2: 7 Concepts of Afrocentric Psychology

Review the 7 concepts of Afrocentric Psychology below.

Choose and define the concept that you feel is most present in the African-American community. Provide an example of how you have witnessed the concept you have chosen.
Based on my own experiences, I believe that Maafa is the most common concept I have seen on this list. I state this as black people (specifically teenagers) embrace how being ignorant and speaking in a certain way is considered being black, whilst holding yourself to a more educated manner is not. Unfortunately, I have also seen my classmates romanticize gang violence, wanting to act as if they are tough individuals. We were already oppressed thanks to slavery and racism (which in many ways, is still going on to this day.) However, we can tend to enslave ourselves with this stereotypical mindset.
Then, define and provide an example of the concept that you feel is least present in the African-American community. Also, provide an example.

Inclusive Metaphysical Epistemology is easily the least discussed concept in the community. As I've previously stated in my past posts, mental health is never taken seriously and is treated as if it's something that can easily be fixed. I've been gaslighted by my own family members into thinking with this mindset, but such a mindset is the main reason why we are so broken today. It is a huge issue that will unlikely get better anytime soon. (Sorry if I sound too harsh in this post, I am sort of passionate about this topic.)

THEME 3: 7 Principles of Nguzo Saba

Choose one of the 7 Principles of Nguzo Saba and define it on your Padlet. Then explain why it resonates with you and how you feel you have seen this value in action in the African American community. Provide an example.

Despite my previous points on mentioning why we as a community can be heavily divided, there are numerous instances where we reunite as a community. That is why Umoja resonates with me most. There are churches, workshops, and other events started by black people who want to see the improvement and development in the Black community. Such instances bring me hope that we can unionize as one and not bring each other down.

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Unit 3.1 - 3.5  Three Self-Assessments, Racial Identity Development and Identity Resource

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Unit 3.1 - 3.5  Three Self-Assessments, Racial Identity Development and Identity Resource

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3.1 Multidimensions of Ethnic Self-Identification

I identify with the following ethnic self-identity measures:

1.  State your selections under the category of Natal Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

I don't identify with any of the following Natal Measures, as I feel as if my family is quite dysfunctional. If I had to choose one, then maybe I would identify with extended family, as I consider my friends to be family.

2. State your selections under the category of Behavioral Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

Under the category of Behavioral Measures, I identify with friendship and acquaintance affiliative patterns. as I love and cherish my friends dearly. I also identify with music and food, as they tend to be the things I go for whenever I am in need of comfort. Finally, I identify with clothing, as it is my form of self-expression.

3. State your selections under the category of Subjective Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

Under the category of Subjective Measures, I identify with role models and preferred reference groups, as I prefer to be around those who have similar mindsets to me and would motivate me to do my best.

4. State your selections under the category of Situation-Contextual Measure and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

Under the category of Situation-Contextual Measure, I do not identify with any as of yet. None really stand out to me.

3.2 The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure

1. My Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure score is 31

2. To me, this score means that I am beginning to resonate with my ethnic background.

3. I think that this means that I have a stronger bond with African Americans than I had before after I found more African-American peers who were like me and had similar mindsets.

4. Explain anything that surprised you about this analysis.

Slightly! I thought it would be a bit lower, considering the events I went through in the past. But I'm glad it's a higher score. :)

3.3 Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale

1. State your score after taking the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale.

I received a 17/30.

2. State what your score means to you and your understanding of your self-esteem.

The following score means I have average self-esteem.

3. State why you believe your score is the number that it is. Provide examples.

It actually has improved drastically from the time I was in middle school to being a sophomore in high school. Now, I'm learning to love and accept myself for who I am, and I've been on a pretty good track so far. :)

3.4: RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT PADLET POST

1. State your stage of Racial Identity Development (they are in bold on the summary document provided). Please do not state that you are in the "People of Color" stage because that is not a stage. Please watch the video above for clarification.

I believe that I am currently in the Immersion stage.

2. State why you think that you are in the stage that you identified.

I believe I am at the stage currently as I am seeking out who I am. I've seen how racist white people can be, and it deeply disturbs me that such events still occur to this present day.

3. Provide an example of how you know that you have passed through the previous stages.

After going through the racist events by my own peers and not feeling like I belonged to white people, it began to sink in that I was a black girl, no matter what.

4. State one thing that you learned from this process.

I've learned how accurate these stages can be, meaning that my people have had similar experiences compared to my own.

3.5: FIND YOUR RACIAL IDENTITY RESOURCE

This is the article I have chosen. I chose this article as it's spoken by someone who has gone through similar racial discrimination. https://vtcynic.com/features/students-of-color-discuss-microaggressions-on-campus-whitewashing/

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Students of Color discuss microaggressions on campus: whitewashing

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A recurring microaggression I have faced is being called “whitewashed.” Mocking me by calling me a byproduct of a white environment due to the circumstances that I am forced to adapt to because of white mishaps, is a class in hypocrisy. The definition of the word “whitewashed” is: “to portray (the…

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1. From the reading, what do you think makes the Black family unique? Please provide descriptive examples.

Based on the reading, black families have evolved drastically over the years despite the amount of oppression they've faced. Especially on Slide 8, where black people were unable to marry due to being classified as slaves, black people had created their own version of marriage. Instead of a ring, black people would jump over a broom to symbolize taking a step into their relationship. Our traditions are what make us unique.

2. What do you think are the strengths and challenges of the Black family? Please state why you think so and provide examples.

Strengths:

Black families tend to be more family-oriented! We typically grow up with our families and have various events such as family functions/reunions. I view my black friend's families as my own families, and this feeling is reciprocated.

We tend to be a lot more resilient about racial profiling or any injustice. This is probably due to a factor of the racial injustices we have to face that won't be ending anywhere soon in the future, as well as mental trauma that could occur in the household due to the various methods of discipline.

Drawbacks:

Discipline towards black children, specifically to black daughters tends to be significantly harsher compared to other races. This is what typically causes mental issues to spiral out of control when growing up, and this is a huge problem. Just today, I witnessed a black father cutting his daughter's hair and humiliating her to his YouTube audience as a form of discipline. It was a disgusting thing to witness and is an uncommon occurrence in black families.

There are stereotypes regarding black children being raised in single-parent households. This stereotype is unfortunately accurate, to the point it is a joke on social media.

3. How do concepts such as racial socialization affect parents and children in Black families? Please explain.

Racial socialization can affect black families in both of positive as well as a negative manner. Being black, you'd probably have your parents inform you of the injustices and oppression black people have to face in society. By parents informing their children of such injustices, they'll be able to prepare themselves for what the world has to offer. However, this can cause black children to grow up feeling less self-esteem compared to their peers.

4. Based on our reading, what factors do you think have impacted Black families the most since slavery and why?

There have been a variety of factors that affected how black families function due to slavery. The main notable factor is generational wealth. As slavery tore black people down, we didn't have any sort of wealth to pass down to our future generations, which severely impacted us. Not to mention, black children as disciplined much harsher compared to other children as a way to prepare them for society and how difficult it'll be for them.

5. Search and find one academic resource that helps you understand this topic better and post it to your Padlet. State three main points from the resource and how it helps you understand this topic.
1 - The following article above goes into depth regarding valuing kinship in families, specifically people of color.

2 - To add on, the following source was written by someone who had gone through the foster care system. This can give you an idea on how the foster care system truly is.

3 - In conclusion, the source ends the article with how kinship care is necessary to preserve racial equity.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading, or audio material in this unit. State its significance.

Something I'd learn is the "Jumping the Broom" tradition. Its significant as it is a part of history that is never (or rarely) mentioned in history classes. They do not teach you such traditions in schools.

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Valuing and pursuing kinship care arrangements promotes racial equity and is essential to ensuring permanency for children and youth and their communities.

Kinship care must be sought more frequently and be a top priority for Black and Native families and other communities in the child welfare system that have been historically disenfranchised, ripped apart, and devalued throughout American history. The child welfare system must prioritize the kinship care model to ensure the care of children, promote equity among families, sustain family/familial relationships, and to protect, and preserve the culture and history of these communities.

Supporting kinship care is a protective factor for children and communities, allows families to feel a sense of belonging and identity, and allows communities to carry on traditions and preserve their histories. The use of kinship has increased in the United States child welfare system; however, it is not yet pursued with the same urgency and at the scale necessary to meet the needs of children and their families. This is so even when the research is clear that placement with kin shows increased rates of stability and permanency for children. During my own time in foster care, kinship care was not pursued. As a woman with both Black and Native American heritage, I do not believe the system valued or supported my biological and familial relationships. This was true despite the fact that several family members were ready and willing to care for me. My sister and I spent eight years seeing our siblings every two weeks at family visits and for weekend visits. We celebrated our sister owning her own home at the age of 19, and our 21-year-old brother played an active role as our father. Yet no one ever pursued kinship care. Instead, for 8 years we were placed 3 hours away from family and our community. Even now at age 31, I still feel a sense of grief for the lost time, missed memories growing up with siblings, and still find disappointment in not knowing some biological family members after so much time apart.

Kinship care has historically been used in communities of color to care for children and family members. For decades, many communities developed and used extended family and community members in the upbringing of children and still do today. This informal "kinship" care has been a strength for many cultures, including communities of color, throughout history. In Native American culture, kinship is broadly defined so that everyone within the band, clan, and tribe is considered a relative and plays a supportive role in caring for community members. For Black families, child rearing by relatives has been a long-standing tradition and protective factor that was especially beneficial for Black families during slavery and often elderly relatives cared for children whose parents were sold into slavery. This method of informal "kinship" continues to exist within the Black community, and before the 1980's many Black children were cared for by kin outside of the child welfare system. Keeping Native and Black communities together so they can continue to care for each other and develop solutions for healing the family recognizes, respects, and builds on the strengths of these communities and their cultures. Having the opportunity to continue kinship within these communities supports the growth and well-being of the child (or children) by decreasing the amount of trauma caused by severed ties when children enter into the child welfare system and ensures that the entire familial community maintains connections that would have otherwise been lost.

Using kinship care preserves cultural identity, traditions, and allows children to continue to feel connected and a sense of belonging to not only their families, but their community and culture. Ensuring that Black and Native children remain within their family of origin, including fictive kin, can provide long term positive effects, as kinship ensures children continue to maintain strong bonds with other family members, like siblings, and grandparents. This allows children to continue, to feel a sense of belonging and community, fosters their cultural identity, and allows them to heal from trauma, and build a network of support as they grow up.

The child welfare system has an opportunity to use the kinship care model to maintain the culture and preservation of Native American, and Black people, so their children can carry on their heritage and have the benefit of the protective factors that family support bring to children. Racial equity is promoted by ensuring these families have the support necessary to continue these bonds. It upholds the preservation of Black and Native American culture and allows families to continue their spiritual and cultural traditions, while maintaining and building their communities, and strengthening and repairing family bonds that may have otherwise been broken by system involvement. In its most basic form, kinship care allows families to continue to care for, love and support the children.

Zealously pursuing kinship care in policy and practice is a key strategy for promoting racial equity and family reunification in the child welfare system. To do this we must value families of color and when children first enter care, identify kin and/or fictive kin for children and youth, and continue this throughout a youth's time in care. Children must be actively involved in this process, and we must also utilize tools like mining a youth's case file, and family finding technology to identify family who can provide permanent housing and family who can provide other emotional support and resources. We must help these individuals be in position to care for the child even if that means providing financial and other service supports. To promote equity and care for children, these practices must be in laws and policies so all youth experience their benefit.

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Family Preservation Matters: Why Kinship Care for Black Families, Native American Families, and Other Families of Color is Critical to Preserve Culture and Restore Family Bonds | Juvenile Law Center

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Valuing and pursuing kinship care arrangements promotes racial equity and is essential to ensuring permanency for children and youth and their communities. Kinship care must be sought more frequently and be a top priority for Black and Native families and other communities in the child welfare system that have been historically disenfranchised, ripped apart, and devalued throughout American history.

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https://vtcynic.com/features/students-of-color-discuss-microaggressions-on-campus-whitewashing/

I wanted to use this source again as it emphasizes the experience of getting labeled such a harmful term.

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Please post a response to the Google slide above. What types racism from slide 2 have you seen in the world? What examples from slide 3 have you seen in the world?

If it counts, I have witnessed all the types of racism listed on the Google slide on social media. Especially Institutional racism. Not too long ago, there was a controversy on Twitter where a voice recast had occurred on a popular anime, Bleach. A black female voice actor known as Anairis Quiñones was voicing a black character (originally voiced by Wendee Lee, an iconic white voice actor) which had started a lot of racist backlash against Anairis. Recently, Anairis lost the role and it was recast to Wendee. Anairis expressed her disappointment in a professional manner, where she was comforted by other voice actors.

However, Wendee Lee did not like this, as she started to have a tantrum and began to harass and send rude messages to the voice actors who comforted Anairis, even going as far as to say Anairis's casting was a mistake and she'd be "fine".

Wendee later formed an apology, (which was ingeniune, as she still liked tweets of people in support of Wendee, claiming she had done nothing wrong.)

Today, Studiopolis (Voice production) released a statement claiming Anairis's role as the character was a mistake despite Anairis having 24 episodes worth of voiced lines. This instance may not be the most racist situation. However, I wanted to comment on if Anairis had sent any sort of message expressing how she truly felt, (even against Wendee, she was professional.) she would have been labeled as the aggressor.

From the chapter reading, do you think that we live in a post-racial society? Please state why or why not.

Based on the chapter reading, I believe that we do not live in a post-racial society. Racism is still relevant to this day and I highly doubt racism will end anytime soon. It is not as bad as in previous years, however, events still occur here and then. For instance, police brutality is still relevant, black kids are still getting punished for having protective styles such as locs since they are considered "unprofessional." Having a "black" name makes it harder to find employment, this list can go on.

What is your personal definition of race and do you think

that race is a social construct, a biological construct or something else? Please explain your reasoning.

Personally, I believe race can be both a social construct as well as a biological construct. Naturally, your race is judged based on your DNA and what ethnicity your parents are. However, I believe nowadays, race also has to do with being a social construct because you are judged based on how you present yourself. We are all divided into various groups, and we are not equal.

Search and find one resource regarding race being a social or biological concept and post it to your Padlet. State its significance and if you agree or disagree with the resource based on your definition of race.
Abandon “Race.” Focus on Racism (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8452910/)

The following source is from the National Library of Medicine and was published by Paula Braveman and Tyan Parker Dominguez. I agree with the following source as it properly dissects what "race" is considered in today's society.

State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading, or audio material in this unit. State its significance.

Something that I found intriguing was how race and ethnicity have similar yet different definitions. Another thing I found intriguing was how black people were classified in the previous years, and it hasn't been so long since these terms have been used. I had never heard a few of the terms presented before, so it was something new that I had learned.

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Abstract

The concept of "race" emerged in the 1600s with the trans-Atlantic slave trade, justifying slavery; it has been used to justify exploitation, denigration and decimation. Since then, despite contrary scientific evidence, a deeply-rooted belief has taken hold that "race," indicated by, e.g., skin color or facial features, reflects fundamental biological differences. We propose that the term "race" be abandoned, substituting "ethnic group" while retaining "racism," with the goal of dismantling it. Despite scientific consensus that "race" is a social construct, in official U.S. classifications, "Hispanic"/"Latino" is an "ethnicity" while African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian/Pacific Islander, and European American/White are "races." There is no scientific basis for this. Each grouping reflects ancestry in a particular continent/region and shared history, e.g., the genocide and expropriation of Indigenous peoples, African Americans' enslavement, oppression and ongoing disenfranchisement, Latin America's Indigenous roots and colonization. Given migrations over millennia, each group reflects extensive genetic admixture across and within continents/regions. "Ethnicity" evokes social characteristics such as history, language, beliefs, customs. "Race" reinforces notions of inherent biological differences based on physical appearance. While not useful as a biological category, geographic ancestry is a key social category for monitoring and addressing health inequities because of racism's profound influence on health and well-being. We must continue to collect and analyze data on the population groups that have been racialized into socially constructed categories called "races." We must not, however, continue to use that term; it is not the only obstacle to dismantling racism, but it is a significant one.

Keywords: racism, race, racialization, racial classification, racial/ethnic classification, public health monitoring, public health research

Introduction and Overview

Racism is a public health crisis requiring bold action on many fronts. One of those fronts, perhaps surprisingly, is semantic and conceptual in nature; this does not, however, mean that the issue is unimportant or abstract. Language has power. Words can matter. Words have meaning that can inspire, promote, condone, justify, or inhibit actions. Words are tools we use to build or reinforce a shared understanding. Take the word "race," for example. The concept of "race" emerged in the late seventeenth century, with the rise of the Transatlantic slave trade, and was used to justify slavery by regarding Africans as innately and biologically inferior ( 1- 7). "Race," as construed since then and now, refers to the classification of humans based on phenotype-observable physical differences-which are assumed to reflect inherent biological differences. "Race" has been used to justify the exploitation, denigration, and decimation of groups of people throughout our history. Even when those using the term underscore the distinction between phenotype and genotype (underlying genetic makeup), "race" still is and will continue to be implicitly conceptualized as biological. This paper's aim is to initiate discussion of what will undoubtedly be a controversial proposal: to abandon the term "race" as a way of categorizing humans, while retaining the term "racism" as a necessary tool for dismantling it.

Instead of "race" we propose that "ethnic group" or "ethnicity" be used to encompass what are now commonly referred to as "racial or ethnic groups," an approach that has prevailed in much of Europe for decades. We propose continued use of the terms African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian American, European American/White, Latino/Hispanic, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, but explicitly denoting them as ethnic groups, reflecting geographic origin and ancestry, not "races," which intrinsically connotes biological differences. All of these terms denote geographic ancestry in a particular continent or other large region of the world and the shared history and language, beliefs, and/or customs that often accompany geographic ancestry. The concept of ethnic group or ethnicity has been criticized at times as too ill-defined and broad to be useful, given the diversity within each group;( 8, 9), ideally we would monitor and study much smaller ethnic groupings according to clear, explicit criteria. These large geographic ancestry groupings are, however, at a minimum, critically important to continue to monitor and study, principally because of racism, which holds profound, which holds profound implications for health and well-being. These groupings reflect-albeit very roughly-how people are perceived and treated.

Using "ethnic groups" to encompass not only those groups that have traditionally been referred to as such, but also those now called "races" or "racial groups" is more consistent with science than the current approach. The scientific consensus about "race" today is that it is a fundamentally social rather than biological construct. The differences in superficial secondary characteristics such as skin color and hair texture across different "racial" groups do not correlate with underlying fundamental biological differences ( 10- 13). Given human migrations over tens of thousands of years, each group defined by geographic ancestry reflects extensive genetic admixture across and within continents/regions. For example, Baharian et al. ( 14) estimated that African Americans today have approximately 16.7% European ancestry; Solovieff et al. ( 15) concluded that African Americans have "from 20 to 30% admixture with Europeans."

Despite this knowledge, in official U.S. public health classifications, "Hispanic" or "Latino" is regarded as an ethnic group, whose members can be of any "race," while African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, and European American/White are classified as "races." There is no scientific basis for considering African Americans, Indigenous peoples, Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders, and European Americans to be "races," not ethnic groups, while viewing Hispanics/Latinos as an ethnic group but not a "race." All of these groupings reflect geographic ancestry. The continued distinction between "race" and "ethnicity" only serves to underscore the implication that "race" reflects biological differences.

The continued use of the term "race" is by no means the only or even the principal obstacle to addressing racism. It is, however, a significant obstacle because it is irremediably imbued with scientifically unfounded but nevertheless tenacious notions of biological differences and hierarchy which have long served to justify exploitation and oppression. The use of "race," even by those who abhor racism, tends to reinforce those notions. Reflecting commonly held beliefs, ethnicity is consistently defined as a social or cultural characteristic, while race is defined as biological and/or based on physical traits (which implicitly reflecting biological differences) ( 16- 21).

We are not the first to propose abandoning use of the word "race" for classifying humans and substituting "ethnicity." Ashley Montagu proposed substituting ethnicity for race in the field of physical anthropology in the 1940s ( 22). Bradby ( 9) argued that in the face of the dangers of using "race," "the most helpful strategy is to reject the term "race," but to retain the words 'racism' and 'racialization' and to use the term 'ethnicity'." Furthermore, as noted earlier, in much of Europe today the words "race" or "racial" rarely appear and official statistics do not report on "race." The term "ethnicity" is used to encompass characteristics that in the United States would span both "race" and ethnicity ( 8, 23, 24). This well-established approach that has prevailed across multiple decades-abandoning the term "race" and substituting ethnicity-was adopted in Europe after World War II, in horrified reaction to the genocide of 6 million Jews, who the Nazis regarded as a "race" ( 25, 26). Unfortunately, when they ceased using the term "race," a positive action, the Europeans also ceased any official collection of routine data on the groups formerly called "races;" they now lack crucial evidence for routine monitoring of racism and its social and health effects ( 27). This is an error we must not commit.

While not useful as a biological category, "race" as currently categorized-African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, European American/White, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, along with Latino/Hispanic "ethnicity"-is a vitally important social category for monitoring, understanding, and intervening on differences in health ( 28). This is true because of racism's profound influence on health and well-being. Each of these geographic groupings reflects ancestral origin in a particular continent or other large region of the globe. These geographic groupings are of great social-and therefore health-meaning and significance principally because they reflect differences in how people are perceived and treated both currently and historically. They reflect experiences of racism. They reflect shared history, e.g., the genocide and expropriation of the lands of Indigenous peoples; African Americans' enslavement, oppression and disenfranchisement under Jim Crow laws and ongoing violations of civil rights; and Latin America's Indigenous roots and colonization by Spain and Portugal.

Because of the profound impact of racism on health and well-being, we must continue to collect data on these socially constructed categories that have been called "races." We should not, however, continue to unintentionally or intentionally racialize people -i.e., to regard people as if they represent fundamentally distinct groups-by using that term. In the next section, we further examine the concept of "race," how it has been used, and the implications.

The Concept of Race

Is there just one race-the human race? Or are there intrinsically different groups of humans who are biologically distinct from each other? Despite extensive scientific evidence to the contrary, there has been a long-standing, widely held, deeply rooted, and unfounded belief that "race," as reflected by skin color, hair texture, facial features and other superficial secondary physical characteristics, reflects fundamental biological differences. That is a convenient idea to hold if one wants to justify treating some people as undeserving of equal rights, autonomy, and respect.

In colonial America, the notion of race arose and not coincidentally co-evolved with the emerging trans-Atlantic slave trade in the late 1600s; it was used to justify the enslavement and brutal treatment of Africans ( 1- 7). Globally, the separation of groups into fundamentally different, "superior" and "inferior" races has been foundational to justify both slavery and genocide ( 29). These notions also have been used to justify discriminatory laws, policies, and practices that deny equal rights and opportunities based on "race." These discriminatory structures include the "Jim Crow" laws in formerly Confederate states that prevailed for almost 100 years after legal slavery officially ended ( 1, 30). They also include the lesser-known but also long-standing "Black Laws" denying the rights of Black people in Northern states, which predated and served as a model for Jim Crow laws ( 31). Pro-slavery doctors used pseudoscience to explain Black-White differences in anatomy and disease as innate and evidence of Black inferiority. Pro-slavery politicians amplified this pseudoscience to argue against abolition ( 4, 32).

Reflecting the belief in an underlying biological basis for "race," official birth and death records and other health data in the United States have long been reported separately by age, sex, and "race." Because age and sex do indeed reflect fundamental biological differences, this reporting practice implicitly tends to reinforce the erroneous notion of "race" as a biological construct. While changing "race" to "ethnic group" would not eliminate this conceptual problem, it may be a small but important step in helping us to reconceptualize superficial physical difference as reflective of social and cultural diversity rather than biology.

If race were biologically based, one might expect to find consistency in classification and consensus about some standard set of mutually exclusive racial groups. The concept of race has been very fluid, however, and operationalized in different ways at different times, which in itself suggests its fundamentally socially constructed nature. For example, the Nazi movement in twentieth century Germany regarded Jewish people as a "race;" the rationale for their mass extermination was that they were an inferior "race" that should be eliminated to avoid contaminating the superior race, Aryans ( 29). In the United States during the late nineteenth/early twentieth centuries, many economically struggling White people felt threatened by an influx of immigrants willing to work for lower wages. Immigrants from Ireland, Italy, and Poland were widely regarded as being from "races" distinct from and inferior to "Whites," i.e., the more established European immigrants ( 33, 34). The more established immigrants asserted their group's superiority, beginning to express political power through various institutions (e.g., labor unions) and actions (e.g., race riots). Over time, the ethnic identities of the more recently arrived European immigrants were subsumed into "Whiteness," and members of these groups came to benefit from the legal, political, and social advantages enjoyed by White people in the United States ( 33, 34).

Reflecting changing social, economic, and political forces over time in the United States, "races" have been officially categorized in various ways. The earliest U.S. Census surveys distinguished only Whites, all other free persons, and slaves. Later Census racial categories included White (European ancestry), Black (African ancestry), or Mulatto (mixed), and, only in the 1890 Census, "Quadroon" and "Octoroon," classifying people by their percentage of African ancestry. Census racial categories have changed and expanded to reflect emancipation, immigration, social movements, and political pressure ( 35, 36). Currently, the established "racial" categories for reporting federal statistics in the U.S. are African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and European American/White. Each of these groupings corresponds to ancestry in a continent or other large geographic region ( 37).

Since 1980, the U.S. Census and vital statistics have collected data on a separate field in addition to "race," to specify whether a person is of "Hispanic origin." This information is officially referred to as a measure of Hispanic ethnicity and not of race ( 38, 39). This implies that while African Americans, Asian Americans, European Americans (Whites), and Indigenous Americans each constitute a separate race, Latinos or Hispanics do not, they are an "ethnic group." This classification implicitly reinforces a notion of race as biological, in contrast to ethnicity, which is social. Based on recognition that these two categories are not distinct, the term "race/ethnicity" is often used instead of either term alone. In practice, health research and reporting frequently classify people into five mutually exclusive categories referred to as "racial/ethnic" groups, based on the continent or other large geographic region of their ancestry. This is often done by creating a category for Latinos/Hispanics regardless of "race" and restricting each of the "racial" groups to non-Latinos/Hispanics in each of those groups. This widespread practice reflects the lack of conceptual coherence of the distinction between "race" and "ethnic group. "Latino/Hispanic" denotes Latin American origin/ancestry ("Latino" is arguably a more appropriate term than "Hispanic," given that many Latin Americans-for example, those from Brazil, Latin America's largest country-are not Spanish-speaking, and people from Spain-who one would expect to be included as "Hispanics"-are Europeans).

Another example of the fundamentally social nature of "racial" classifications comes from a study examining the health advantage of Whiteness. Jones et al. ( 40) studied how self-reported health varied depending on whether it was examined in relation to survey respondents' "socially assigned race," meaning, the "race" that other people generally assumed them to be, or the respondents' self-identified "race." They found considerable differences in health based on self-identified vs. socially assigned "race." The investigators found that, among respondents who self-identified as Black, Hispanic, or multi-racial, the prevalence of excellent or good self-reported health was significantly higher among those who were perceived by others to be White than among those of the same self-identified "race" who were not perceived by others to be White; the same pattern was seen for American Indians but was not statistically significant. A 2020 review of 18 studies of associations between a range of health indicators and socially assigned "race" reported that most studies have found an association between socially assigned "race" and health ( 41). These research findings, along with a large body of other accumulated knowledge, support the realization that it is the social experience of living in bodies perceived to be of different "races," which society treats differently, rather than fundamental biological differences between people of different "races," that generally drives differential health outcomes.

Studies of human genetics have shown repeatedly that there is more genetic variation among people with the same geographic ancestry than there is between groups of people with different geographic ancestry ( 42). The scientific consensus about racial categories today is that they are fundamentally social rather than biological constructs ( 10- 13). Craig Venter, head of Celera, the private genetics company that partnered with the National Institutes of Health on the Human Genome Project, stated in a White House briefing on the Human Genome Project in June of 2000 (and note the use of the term "ethnicity" vs. "race"):

"The method used by Celera has determined the genetic code of five individuals. We have sequenced the genome of three females and two males, who have identified themselves as Hispanic, Asian, Caucasian or African American. We did this sampling not in an exclusionary way, but out of respect for the diversity that is America, and to help illustrate that the concept of race has no genetic or scientific basis. In the five Celera genomes, there is no way to tell one ethnicity from another."

This does not imply that there cannot be any genetic differences among people in groups with different geographic ancestry. Rather, it means that differences in superficial secondary physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, or hair texture do not define biologically distinct groups. Neither do differences in some gene frequencies, nor any of the isolated, highly specific genetic differences that have been found across different geographic ancestry groups define biologically distinct groups. The racialization of sickle cell disease is an instructive example. If a person inherits the sickle cell mutation from both parents, sickle-shaped (deformed) hemoglobin is produced, which, when exposed to low levels of oxygen, damages red blood cells, leading to "acute vasoocclusive events, hemolytic anemia, organ damage and failure, and an average lifespan reduction in developed countries of more than three decades" ( 15). While the mutation is most common among people with ancestry in three areas of West Africa, it is not common among people from other areas of Africa, furthermore, it is also seen among people with Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry, regions which, like West Africa had a high prevalence of malaria. The mutation came to be frequent in those regions because it was protective against malaria, giving an evolutionary advantage to carriers (people with only one affected gene). This highly specific genetic difference among African Americans from three areas of West Africa and people from the Mediterranean, Middle East, and India, compared to most Africans and Europeans arose because of evolutionary pressures. It does not occur among African Americans from most parts of Africa-only those from specific areas in West Africa, and it occurs among people with non-African ancestry. Despite these undisputed facts, sickle cell disease has been racialized; this isolated genetic difference does not define a "race." Another example is Tay-Sachs disease among Jewish people of Northern European ancestry, the greater frequency of the mutation that produces Tay-Sachs disease does not make Jewish people a biologically distinct group.

It should be noted, furthermore, that even when there are isolated genetic differences between groups of people with different geographic ancestry, those differences may not be expressed (i.e., the genes may not have their potential effects on the body) unless people are exposed to certain environmental influences, including stressors, which are shaped by social forces. Social experiences often control whether or not genetic differences are expressed or suppressed, this underscores the social nature of "racial" categories. The next section discusses how racism affects health.

Racism and Its Effects on Health

Racism is a fundamental social determinant of racial disparities in health ( 43). It is a system of "race"-based power, rooted in notions of inherent racial group superiority and inferiority, that systematically, pervasively, and unjustly privileges "Whites" and oppresses "non-Whites" ( 44). It manifests at multiple levels (internalized, interpersonal, institutional, and structural or systemic) and involves direct, indirect, individual, and group-based exposures across the life course ( 45, 46). Whether blatant, subtle, or ambiguous, racism is a particularly visceral threat to well-being because it denigrates a core aspect of a person's identity that is ever-visible and unchanging.

Racism produces racial discrimination, i.e., "race"-based unfair treatment. Although racial discrimination is no longer legal, socioeconomic, and health inequities along racial lines persist because of deeply rooted, unfair systems and structures that continue to operate to sustain the legacy of formerly overtly discriminatory practices, policies, laws, and beliefs. At times, these systems and structures operate unintentionally, but nevertheless effectively, to produce and sustain racial discrimination.

An extensive body of literature demonstrates large and pervasive disparities in health adversely affecting African Americans/Black people ( 47, 48), American Indians/Alaska Natives ( 49), Hispanics/Latinos ( 50), some Asian subgroups ( 51), Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders ( 52- 54), and immigrants compared to Whites ( 47, 48, 51, 55). These differences are seen for a wide range of health indicators and across the lifespan ( 56- 59). The largest and most consistent racial/ethnic health disparities generally have been observed when comparing Black people and (when data are available) American Indians with Whites, although Latinos and some Asian/Pacific Islander groups have worse health than Whites on some measures. What explains these pervasively and repeatedly observed differences in health across a wide array of health indicators?

Racism can damage the health of people of color through many different causal pathways. An extensive and growing body of scientific research indicates how diverse experiences of racism likely play a fundamental role in producing racial/ethnic inequities in health by activating multiple causal pathways. Some of these pathways are complex and long, often playing out over lifetimes and even generations. The complexity and length of the causal pathways often makes it difficult to detect their origins, that is, the underlying but hidden fundamental causes. The term "embodiment" has been used by several scholars within and outside the health field to describe how racism in its myriad forms ultimately produces damages to health, which are then misinterpreted as signs of underlying biological differences among racialized groups ( 60, 61).

Although the focus here is on how racism can damage the health of people of color, it is important to note that racism is likely to damage the health and well-being of virtually the entire society in which it operates. The support for this hypothesis comes from research on social inequality in general rather than on racism specifically: A convincing case has been made that social inequality damages the health of societies overall ( 62, 63), largely by undermining social cohesion ( 64).

Based on the literature, the figure (above) depicts a series of sequential general steps through which racism is thought to produce racial disparities in health. These general steps represent the basic skeleton of innumerable specific pathways, which are indicated by the factors listed in each box as non-exhaustive) examples.

The first box on the left in Figure 1 represents the beginning of the general sequence. The common beginning or source of all the potential causal pathways is systemic or structural racism, the unjust systems or structures that systematically put people of color at a disadvantage in multiple domains. Systemic or structural racism reflect underlying differences in power and social values in a society. The relevant systems or structures include laws, policies (written and unwritten), entrenched institutional practices, and the pervasive, deeply rooted beliefs that condone, promote, and perpetuate the systems and structures. Examples of systemic or structural racism in the past include: slavery and the laws and beliefs that supported it; Jim Crow laws and the systematic use of terror to enforce them; and redlining and the discriminatory implementation of the G.I. Bill and low-interest FHA loans that enabled many White people of modest means to become homeowners but were given to very few Blacks ( 65, 66). These historical systems and structures set the stage, establishing the inequitable patterns and providing a firm basis for their perpetuation including: disenfranchisement via gerrymandering and voter suppression; racial residential segregation; unfair lending practices depriving people of color of the opportunity to own a home or to start or expand a business, thereby closing off opportunities to accumulate wealth; the dependence of schools on local property taxes, ensuring that schools in areas that lack wealth are under-resourced; and mass incarceration of men of color based on biased policing and sentencing.

The 2nd box from the left in Figure 1 represents the next general step in the sequence: the direct products of systemic or structural racism which are unfair treatment and differential access to resources and opportunities. Arguably, the borders between this 1st box on the left and the 2nd box should be depicted as porous, as many examples of systemic or structural racism not only produce but in themselves constitute unfair treatment and lack of access to resources and opportunities. Examples of unfair treatment and lack of access to resources and opportunities that are generally due to systemic or structural racism include: both interpersonal and internalized racism; less favorable treatment in hiring, retention, promotion, and pay; the socioeconomic disadvantage that results from being trapped in low-opportunity segregated areas with substandard schools, poor services, and scant hope of escaping unrelenting financial hardship; and the permanent stigmatization of people who have been incarcerated, permanently blocking ex-prisoners from employment opportunities, thus ensuring ongoing financial hardship for the ex-prisoners, their families, and communities.

As depicted in the third box from the left, the unfair treatment and differential access to resources and opportunities result not only in exposure to health-harming conditions (such as toxic environmental hazards and chronic stress), but also limited access to conditions that are health-promoting, such as good schools, a nutritious diet, green spaces, bicycle lanes, being able to afford a gym membership, and quality medical care.

These health-harming (or lack of health-promoting) exposures or experiences in turn trigger biological mechanisms that produce ill health (the fourth box). These biological mechanisms include, for example, inflammation and alterations in the functioning of the immune system that are known to lead to chronic diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. The biological mechanisms include neuroendocrine processes triggered by chronically stressful experiences (such as experiencing discrimination or persistent financial hardship). These neuroendocrine processes result in the body's production of hormones (like cortisol and other substances) that can, if present at persistently high levels over time, lead to inflammation and dysfunction of the immune system, both of which contribute to susceptibility to chronic disease and premature aging ( 67).

This section of the paper has sought to demonstrate that, although further research is needed, there is now considerable evidence of how racism sets in motion a range of phenomena that damage health in multiple domains. The damage is inflicted by unfair treatment and differential access to resources and opportunities, which produce health-harming exposures (and lack of health-promoting experiences), which in turn trigger an array of physiologic processes that directly produce ill health. Racial differences in health overwhelmingly reflect racism.

Concluding Remarks

The concept of "race" had its origins in the slave trade. It is time to abandon it. The concept was used to justify slavery by implying that those who were enslaved were fundamentally different and inferior beings. Today "race" continues to reinforce false and weaponized notions of inherent biological differences based on physical appearance. It should be used rarely and only inside quotation marks when necessary to make a point about its historical usage. "Ethnic group" or "ethnicity" should be substituted, consistent with the social characteristics that often accompany geographic ancestry. The feasibility of using "ethnic group" or "ethnicity" in place of "race" is suggested by the fact that this has been standard practice in Europe since soon after the end of World War II. Has the fact that Europe has largely substituted ethnic group for race ended racism there? Of course not. But it does mean that racism is not being perpetually and unnecessarily reinforced by the use of a term that inevitably evokes biological difference. Wherever this approach is adopted, if it is, vigilance will be needed to detect and halt conscious or unconscious attempts to redefine ethnicity as biological. Abandoning "race" will not in itself end racism or even help us to focus more on racism; we have called for focusing on racism to make it clear that abandoning the term "race" is part of a struggle against racism; and that the term "racism" must be retained. Abandoning "race" should, however, remove one ubiquitous and not inconsequential source of constant reinforcement of racism. Abandoning "race" should be part-admittedly a small part-of a strategy to intensify and broaden actions against racism. While abandoning "race," we should not only retain the term "racism" but mount more intensive efforts to identify and dismantle it. In particular, we need to focus on systemic or structural racism, often invisible but posing the greatest barriers to justice and health because it is the root source of the varied manifestations of racial discrimination observed in multiple domains.

While not useful as a biological category, geographic ancestry-i.e., African American, American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, European American, and Latino/Hispanic-is a key social classification for monitoring and addressing health inequities. These geographic ancestry groups are very broad, with great heterogeneity within each. To address this, we ideally would monitor and study much smaller and better-defined ethnic groups. Because of racism's profound influence on health and well-being, however, we must, at a minimum, continue to collect and analyze data on the population groups that have been racialized into socially constructed categories called "races." It is unfortunate that in Europe, abandoning the term "race" has not been accompanied by routine monitoring of health and well-being according to markers of the ethnic groups that are relevant to racism. We must continue to monitor differences in health and well-being according to geographic ancestry. We must not, however, continue to use the term "race." It is not the only obstacle to dismantling racism, but it is a significant one, one that amplifies the damage every time it is used, even when used by those who actively struggle against racism. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the implications of the use of "Black" and "White" in ongoing population monitoring and research, important and complex issues are involved there as well.

Bhopal ( 16) offered the following statement "for reflection and debate": "The term "race" should be used with caution for its history is one of misuse and injustice." Like Bhopal, we offer these thoughts to stimulate reflection and debate; however, we advocate not merely using "race" with caution but abandoning it entirely because it inherently lends itself to perpetuating falsehoods that promote serious harm and injustice. The public health crisis produced by racism requires fighting vigorously in many arenas, including conceptual and semantic spheres. Abandoning "race" is not a panacea but may be a useful adjunct to other crucial efforts to dismantle racism in all of its forms.

Author Contributions

PB wrote the first draft after discussion with TP. TP added substantially to that and made revisions. All authors consulted closely with each other and participated in final revisions.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

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Articles from Frontiers in Public Health are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

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The concept of "race" emerged in the 1600s with the trans-Atlantic slave trade, justifying slavery; it has been used to justify exploitation, denigration and decimation. Since then, despite contrary scientific evidence, a deeply-rooted ...

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1. What is the Imposter Syndrome?

The Imposter Syndrome is the inability to appreciate and cherish your own accomplishments and feel as if you do not deserve it, causing you to question your own skills.

2. How does the Imposter Syndrom affect a student in their educational journey AND into their career experiences?

Imposter Syndrome can affect a student negatively as it can affect their self-esteem and confidence. They'll question why or how they've made it so far in life as well as wondering if their skills are mediocre.

3. How does the Imposter Syndrome specifically affect the self-esteem and mental health of African American women in the workplace?

Being an African American woman in the workplace can be difficult depending on the sort of environment you are in. You have to present yourself a certain way and talk in a particular manner. You cannot express your disinterests or speak out if someone is wronging you because you would end up being seen as the aggressor.

4. How do race and gender play into the African-American woman's experience in the workplace?

If you are an African-American woman, you will have to work harder in life. You will be unable to have the same workplace environment as others. Females already aren't treated equally in the workplace, as they aren't ever taken seriously. If you are black working in the workplace, you'll have to work harder than someone who is white to get the same recognition.

5. State one strategy that you believe would be successful in addressing this issue and improving the workplace for women of color.

Although companies tend to have "training" for their employees to not have so much hatred in their hearts, this is clearly ineffective as racial events still happen in the workplace. Something that I think would help the workplace culture is allowing more opportunities for women of color. Add more diversity and representation.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

One thing that stood out to me in the Imposter Syndrome video was how white teachers had 30 less hope in black students and 40% less hope for black students to graduate high school. This just goes to show you how corrupt society is.

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7.6 Intersectionality, Bias and Microaggressions

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7.6 Intersectionality, Bias and Microaggressions

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1. What would you say are the psychological consequences of experiencing subconscious racial slights as a person of color?

The psychological consequences of explaining subconscious racial slights as a person of color tend to circle around affecting how the person affected views themself as a person. Mainly, a person of color who has been affected by microaggressions (or racial slights) can feel as if they have to act a certain way to feel validated. In simpler terms, you'll feel like an outcast and isolated. Racial slights can also cause lower self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.

2. What stereotypes are perpetuated when racial microaggressions are thrown around towards a person of color?

"You speak so well. You are so articulate. You are so proper." comes across as "Oh wow, you speak so well for your kind. That's a rarity out of your race." (People of color aren't as intelligent as Caucasians.)

"Where are you from? No like, WHERE are you from?" come across as "Oh, you do not belong here. Definitely some kind of foreigner. " (You don't belong in America and belong somewhere else.)

"I cannot be racist as I have several (affected race) friends." comes across as "I am immune to racism because I have your race in my friend circle."

3. Considering Intersectionality, what other issues does this theme affect in the African American community?

Intersectionality affects everyone in a variety of ways (as the definition in simpler terms shows how said person has faced oppression and discrimination.) For the African American community (specifically women since I've experienced it and would be easier to explain), can be stereotyped into being "ghetto" just due to the way you present yourself. You can't talk back when you are being wronged as you are considered "loud and aggressive". You are sexualized more for the way you dress as well as getting labeled "ghetto". You are an African American woman with children. With microaggressions, you are a "single mother".

4. State how these theories of intersectionality, racial microaggressions, bias or white privilege affect one's understanding of "sense of self" or ethnic identity?

The following theories of intersectionality, racial microaggressions, bias or white privilege affect one's understanding of "sense of self" or ethnic identity as it changes how they view themself as an individual, feeling like an outcast to their race and generally questioning their identity. Being told how "well-spoken" and "proper" I am, it distorted how I viewed myself and caused me to question my own identity.

5. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

https://www.forbes.com/sites/biancabarratt/2020/06/19/the-microaggressions-towards-black-women-you-might-be-complicit-in-at-work/?sh=7345b1e72bda

The following source explains how microaggressions affect black women, which was something I had talked about in the previous questions.

6. State a strategy that you feel can be successful to address the use of microaggressions especially when the offender is unaware of how their reactions affect people of color.

A strategy that I personally feel can be effective would be to properly educate people in schools about microaggressions and how they can affect said people. Microaggressions are subtle and difficult to comprehend at first, which is why it would be best to educate people on why they are harmful.

7. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

Something that I learned in this unit was how harmful microaggressions can truly affect you. It seems like something small and subtle at first until you begin to question your own identity.

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Black women have been subjected to racial-gender microaggressions in the workplace for years. It's ... [+]
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The light touch against your waist as he moves past you to get to the coffee machine; the constant interruptions when you're in a meeting; the insistence by your manager that the reason your male counterpart earns more than you is because his role truly is 'different.'

If you identify as a woman, you're probably well-versed in these subtle yet damaging gender microaggressions - have probably even complained about them and the men who perpetuate them to people you feel safe around.

There's no denying the fact that, no matter your racial identity, being a woman in the workplace is tough. The fact of the matter is though, being a Black woman in the workplace is even tougher. Why? Because not only are they subjected to gender-driven microaggressions, they're also being subjected to racial ones from - and here's the crucial part - both men and women.

A discussion that has gained more attention over the last few weeks of the Black Lives Matter movement is that white women, despite belonging to a widely marginalized gender group, are also often marginalizers themselves in their continual reticence and apathy towards the fight for Black female equality. From being more likely to face occupational segregation to earning less than white women (women on average earn 19% less than white men in the United States; Black women specifically on average earn 39% less) Black female professionals are facing discrimination for both their race and gender and, given how widespread the problem is, the chances that you have been a part of that discrimination, even if you're a woman, are very high.

As all women know, the reason we call the negative gender-based actions previously mentioned 'microaggressions' is because they're often small, subtle and difficult to pinpoint. The aggressiveness of these actions lies in the fact that many women feel they'd be seen as 'overdramatic' for flagging them, meaning the perpetrator keeps all the control and the sufferer is left to deal with the feeling of being undermined. Often delivered in a 'well-meaning,' not overtly aggressive way, microaggressions are their own form of gaslighting. For Black women, this experience is only more concentrated, as they suffer for both their gender and race.

The time has come, as Marketeer and Diversity and Inclusion Consultant Bonita Darkoh says, for all professionals to step in to properly care for and support their Black female colleagues:

"Firms must understand that diversity and inclusion has to become a priority through education and tangible actions. The lack of diversity within businesses - especially in leadership - should be an ongoing discussion, rather than a reactive response to what is happening around us - leaders must become accountable for there to be real change through education, insights and data. This requires a long-term approach and cannot be fixed overnight."

As Bonita says, learning is the first key to overcoming this situation and though acknowledging that the part you have played in the oppression of Black female professionals is difficult, it is necessary.

Robin DiAngelo, author of White Fragility, made a really important point in an article for the Guardian last year: that we have to get over the idea that racism is a series of "individual acts of intentional meanness." We have to challenge the assumption (and I speak for myself here as well) that niceness and identification as a feminist does not automatically make us an advocate for all women.

These are some of the most common microaggressions Black women are subjected to at work.
Assuming that all Black women have had the same life experiences
"In the work place I tend to be either the only Black woman, or a minority. I have always been seen as the representative, whether it's a question about Black hairstyles, what to do about the diversity issue within the business or "what do you feel about knife crime," explains Bonita. "I seem to always get asked these questions as if we all have the same experiences."

Expecting your Black female colleagues or employees to be the spokesperson for all Black women shows a lack of understanding, empathy and respect for each person's individuality. It also puts pressure on them to a lot of unpaid work and singles them out as 'different' to everyone else.
Tone policing based on racial stereotypes
"I remember once being informed by my white female manager that I was quite 'assertive' in meetings," recalls Global Publicist, Brenda Gabriel. "It was said in the way that indicated she wanted to say 'aggressive.' To be honest, I wasn't assertive enough. As a project manager, I would attend team meetings and make suggestions for the way forward and be ignored. Two minutes later my male white manager would say exactly the same thing as me and it would be cooed over and added to the action list."

Black women have dealt with the 'angry' stereotype for years, enforced by a white privileged agenda to stamp out their voices and keep them quiet. Often labelled aggressive or over assertive, Black female professionals are regularly subjected to tone policing - a silencing tactic used by oppressors throughout history.

Before flagging up a Black female colleague or employee's tone, ask yourself this: are you focusing more on the way she is speaking rather than what she is saying? And would you have the same issue if it were a white woman or man speaking in that way?
Expressing surprise, or worse, judgement in their appearance
Asking a Black female colleague uninvited questions about her hair is a microaggression. Implying that her natural hair is either 'messy' or 'unprofessional' is an outright aggression. Both imply that natural Black hair is 'substandard' and that Western hair is the default, something of which Digital PR Specialist Gabrielle Ashanti has had plenty of experience. "I've been questioned about my changing hairstyles often and dealt with many of my co-workers wanting to touch my hair (sometimes without asking). I absolutely understand their curiosity and complements but their ignorance made me feel like the office pet."

Iphie Mottoh, a Sex, Intimacy and Relationship Coach, has also dealt with this and challenges white women to think before they ask.

"I was asked so many questions about why it is curly, why do other black women have it long and straight...the list goes on. Due to these questions and the attention it brought when other ladies changed their wigs, I chose to wear the same wig to work, simple and straight, so that I would be taken seriously. I am sure most of the behaviours displayed were not intended to insult or offend, beings usually followed by the comment, 'Hope I didn't offend you', Is it ok to ask?' I always wonder what I am expected to say to this. The only option I have is to reply 'of course not' because I don't want to come across as aggressive."
Opportunity shaming
The distinct lack of Black women in high powered roles has absolutely nothing to do with a lack of desire, drive or talent. It's the result of a system that continues to uplift and reward white people. The women that do break through this barrier are often left feeling isolated, tokenised or worse, shamed into 'acknowledging' their 'luck' at being in such a position at all. This is an experience that Documentary Filmmaker Rochelle Newman is all too familiar with. "I was filming with a white male producer/director and we talked about our careers so far in the TV industry. He began to say how 'lucky' I was to be there, like I didn't deserve to be."

Implying, as highlighted by Ruchika Tulshyan, that a Black woman may only have her job because she is the 'diversity hire' may be something you'd consider an overt aggression - something you'd never do - but think about this: if you're an employer and have felt that after hiring one Black woman you can 'relax', you are part of the problem. If you've ever singled out a female colleague to be part of company representation (either at meetings or events or during marketing campaigns) because she is Black and you think it will make the company look good, you are part of the problem. Both of these examples are a form of tokenising; a microaggression that proves you are not actually committed to providing true equal opportunity but are more interested in looking like you have.

Making assumptions about seniority

This was a story that cropped up again and again in my research. Many of the Black women I spoke to recalled multiple incidences in which they experienced the microaggressive assumption that the most senior person in the room must be white. TV Presenter, Freelance Writer and Public Speaker Marilyn Devonish recalls one incident in particular in which she arrived at HM Treasury for a meeting and the man who came to collect her spoke to every other woman in the lobby (all of whom were white) before finally turning to her. "It didn't occur to him for a moment that the Management Consultant he had spoken to at length on the phone might be Black."

Dr. Abigail Takyi has also been subjected to this on multiple occasions whilst working for the NHS, with patients telling her she 'spoke good English' or asking to see the 'real doctor' after she had assessed or treated them.
Uprooting the problem
As Dr. Takyi highlights, the roots of racial-gender microaggressions towards Black women run deep and need to be dug out if any real change is to happen. "We don't feel we belong in the work environment in UK and that's because the work environment in the UK was never designed for us to belong. We are an after-thought, an aberration in the system, a square peg being forced into a round hole, having to compromise who we are to be accepted."

If we don't want to be part of the problem, we have a responsibility to flag rather than ignore these microaggressions when they occur because to brush them aside is to suppress the Black female experience. It comes back to the fact that to be active or complicit in this form of microaggression is a form of gaslighting. Is a form of racism.

"When we are made to feel these incidents are small and trivial, we are taught to second guess ourselves, which takes a toll on mental health when they keep accumulating."

Today marks Juneteenth - a historical day that marks the official end of slavery in the U.S. (it is important to note that not all Black people enslaved were freed on this day, though). Perhaps one of the best gifts we can give our Black female colleagues today is taking the time to learn from our own inherent complicity* and in doing so, begin to provide a safer, more equal professional environment in which they can thrive and feel supported.
*If you're looking to learn more, consider supporting one of the many Black women educating on this topic by buying and participating in her books and works. A great place to start is Next Week: How to actively dismantle racial-gender microaggressions at work More Than Enough by Elaine Welteroth and Me and White Supremacy by Layla F. Saad.

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The Microaggressions Towards Black Women You Might Be Complicit In At Work

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Black women have been subjected to racial-gender microaggressions in the workplace for years. It's time to question in what ways you might have been complicit.

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1. STRENGTHS: What are the strengths of Black neighborhoods and communities and how have they manifested over time?

Black neighborhoods and communities have a strong sense of resilience. Despite the oppression that we still go through as a community, we are always together. Black neighborhoods typically view each other as family. We hold traditions and family functions as a way to unite.

2. WEAKNESSES: What are the weaknesses of Black neighborhoods and communities and state one solution to an issue you have raised?

The education in black neighborhoods and communities tend to be lackluster due to not getting sufficient supplies and textbooks. I had to go to schools that were in "white" neighborhoods to get a proper education. Despite our community being loving, the black community also holds a lot of violence. If you are succeeding too much, someone will be there to hold you down and ruin your life.

3. OPPORTUNITIES: What are three ways in which Black neighborhoods and communities could play a role in the progressive movement of the Black community?

By allowing minority neighborhoods more access to up-to-date supplies for school. Give them equal education to those who are in the white neighborhoods. There should be more city events that give out supplies and food to those in need, and hopefully, that will help people refrain from restoring to violence.

4. THREATS: What are three ways in which Black neighborhoods and communities could have a detrimental effect on the progressive movement of the Black community?

Black communities, specifically the youth, need to stop falling into the stereotypes society have set for us. It is not cool to get involved in gangs or do any sort of violence. It only tears us apart as a community. To add on, the amount of colorism the black community goes through divide us despite us being equal and the same race at the end of the day. Finally, the lack of proper education holds us back as a community.

5. Find one resource that helps you understand these themes and post it to your Padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

https://www.urban.org/racial-equity-analytics-lab/structural-racism-explainer-collection/causes-and-consequences-separate-and-unequal-neighborhoods#:~:text=The%20poor%20quality%20of%20public,transit%2C%20with%20detrimental%20consequences%20for

The following article goes into depth regarding the struggles in urban neighborhoods and communities.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

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Causes and Consequences of Separate and Unequal Neighborhoods

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History Recounts the history of policies and practices that built separate and unequal neighborhoods in the United States and the profound consequences for people's quality of life and access to opportunity.

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Paige's Copy _Psych 110_ Resources and Questions for Critical Analysis Project  (1)

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1. State the most important thing that you learned from this unit's readings and how it has deepened your understanding of Black male and female interpersonal and close relationships.

One of the most important things in the unit readings was how adolescence males and females' youth both affect how they develop. For instance, African American boys are more likely to obtain "bravado" if they live in dangerous or risky neighborhoods. As identity and self-worth tend to also be a major factor in African American girls, they are more likely to bully others if they don't have this healthy development during their adolescence by positive female mentors. In fact, they are a lot more likely to gossip and bully others whereas boys would rather get physical. To add on, once these African American boys and girls grow up, the women tend to outlive African American men, and have lower chances of getting involved with the criminal justice system. This deepened my understanding regarding black male and female interpersonal close relationships as

2. How do long-standing stereotypes in the media of African American females being portrayed as property (i.e. in rap videos etc.) affect the psyche of those seeing these images and the African American woman's dating prospects?

Long-standing stereotypes in the media of African American females being sexualized affects the psyche of those, especially young African American females can be affected as it affects their youth as well as how they view themselves growing up. African American girls are expected to be mature and responsible unlike their white counterparts, which can overall lower their self-esteem and can raise distorted and unrealistic beauty standards in the dating community.

3. What factors are contributing to the rising number of single Black unmarried females?

The main factors that contribute to the rising number of single black unmarried females is how women tend to be better educated compared to black males. Black women are also more likely to live longer compared to black males, who have a higher rate of getting involved with the criminal justice system. There is also colorism involved, as only light-skinned black women tend to be preferred than other black women.

4. Why is there a stigma in the African American community against the LGBTQ community?

There is a stigma regarding the African American community due to white supremacy. Specifically, how severe the oppression on the African American community was, it has caused the community to set barriers and divides the community, which manifests on future generations. A great example of such is colorism, where light-skinned people are considered more beautiful than those who are brown or dark-skinned.

5. Find one resource that helps you understand these themes and post it to your padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

The following source I have sourced goes into great detail regarding the "adultification" of young black girls. I have also sourced another that also goes into depth regarding the adultifcation of black girls and how they are sexualized. https://www.cpedv.org/post/war-against-black-girls-addressing-adultification-bias

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1. What does it mean to code switch and how does this affect an African American's success in life?

To code switch is to switch up the way you speak and present yourself to an individual. This makes the person assume they are more proper and intelligent.

2. How does expecting code switching threaten diversity?

Code switching too often can make you lose your sense of self and identity. You won't be able to express how you truly feel and your true personality.

3. How do the effects of code switching intersect with a persons' mental health?

Code switching and intersect with one's mental health as they will get drained simply from not expressing themself to the point they lose their own identity.

4. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

5. State a strategy that you feel can be successful to address the misconceptions about code switching that exist inside and outside of the African American community.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

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1. What are the significant differences in terms of religious and spiritual practices of the African American community compared to the larger community?

2. Why do Black Millenials exhibit different religious habits compared to older African Americans who more traditionally attended historically Black protestant churches?

3. How does attending church affect the mental health of African Americans?

4. Please locate a resource that helps you understand this theme. Analyze the resource and state the most important thing you learned from it about this topic.

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

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1. From this unit's material, choose one major theme that stood out the most to you. State the theme and why it stood out to you on your Padlet.

2. How does the theme that you chose affect the African American community? Give an example.

3. State one strategy that could be used to improve upon the theme that you have selected.

4. Find one resource that helps you understand this theme and post it to your Padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

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1. Why do African Americans face higher COVID 19 rates according to the PEW Research articles?

2. How are the mistrust of the health care system and the general distrust of medical doctors during the time of COVID 19 affecting the African American community?

3. State THREE strategies that you feel can address the issues raised in questions one and two.

4. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.