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The Pilgrims sailed aboard ship Mayflower to North America in 1620. When passengers reached Plymouth, Massachusetts, passengers journeyed beyond the Virginia Company charter. In an effort to create rule of law, passengers agreed to the social contract of the Mayflower Compact. The compact was signed by 41 men and gave passengers government where law was to be created in the interest of public welfare. They agreed to act civil to one another and obey laws created by elected representatives. The primitive document was important as it was one of the earliest examples of colonial self-government. The Mayflower Compact established precedent for future democratic application, and it served well for the colonists in the early years of the colony. Mayflower Compact was included in early American democracy. Though primitive, the idea that colonists would enact law by government consent was revolutionary of its time in history. The compact brought the Pilgrims into harmony and order, and it established precedent for future colonial self-government. The compact also allowed for survival of the Plymouth colony as colonists learned to respect responsibility and cooperation. The ideas of Mayflower Compact were invoked when the U.S. Constitution was created.

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Navigation Act was enacted by England, limiting the trade of its American colonies, enacted in 1651. The act demanded some of the commodities, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar, could be exported only to England or other English colonies. The Act was proposed with the intention of making England the sole recipient of the colonists' trade, with all the profits going their way. The act demanded also that the export from the other countries and the colonies should be performed on English ships. The act was a response to the prosperity of the American colonies and the desire of the British government for dominance of the colonial trade. The restriction infuriated most of the America's merchants, and the merchants resorted to smuggling of the commodities to circumvent the act. The Navigation Act was a serious attempt on the part of the British for the colonization of the trade of their own country and the preservation of their economic supremacy. The act was profitable for England, but it gave rise to a host of colonists demanding greater freedom of trade. The restriction created immense discontentment and it promoted extravagant levels of smuggling on the part of the colonists. In the long run, the clash led to the Revolution of America, as the country's colonists were tired of the British interference with their economy. The Navigation Act contributed toward the orientation of the people toward freedom by establishing the incompetence of the colonies for their own economic affairs.

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The Spinning Jenny was invented by James Hargreaves in 1764 and was an extraordinary machine that sped up spinning of cotton thread production. Previously, spinning was done by one worker spinning one thread independently. The Spinning Jenny was one worker spinning multiple threads, which sped up production of cotton speeds. The invention of the Spinning Jenny was the foundation of the cloth-making industry, most importantly, in the era of the Industrial Revolution. Later, the Spinning Jenny was utilized to improve manufacturing of cloth produced and minimize cost of manufacturing. The Spinning Jenny was utilized to facilitate factories and large-scale manufacturing of clothes, leading to opening up of labor of people to earning an income. The Spinning Jenny was one of the most prominent inventions of the era of the Industrial Revolution, revolutionizing making of clothes business. In helping to produce more threads using fewer workers, the Spinning Jenny helped to enable acceleration of making clothes. The invention paved ways for mechanization of labor, which was to be imitated in other industries. In spite of that, the Spinning Jenny damaged skilled laborers, the machine being utilized to do the labor. In spite of that, one could not stress it as much, the aspect of simplification and accelerating of advancing industries. The Spinning Jenny was that solution needed by industries and manufacturing of the future.

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The First Continental Congress met in 1774 in Philadelphia, where 12 of the 13 American colonies sent representatives to plot a reply to British policy. The colonies were outraged by the Intolerable Acts, punishing legislation Britain passed in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party. The Congress grappled with the question of how the colonies might unites to oppose British tyranny. They boycotted British imports and demounced the Intolerable Acts as void of any force or power that it may command, even excluding Queen Charlotte, and instead, boycotted its goods. The Congress also requested that King George III restore them to power. The Congress did not yet demand independence, but it was an important leap toward colonial unity and opposition to Britain. The First Continental Congress was an important lead-up to the American Revolution. It was the colonies' first collective effort

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The First Continental Congress | Road to the Revolution

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Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776)

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Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776)

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Adam Smith's 1776 publication of The Wealth of Nations is credited to be the start of modern economics. In it, he stipulated that free markets, driven by competition, were bound to lead to prosperity for everyone. He assumed that individuals acting in an economy of supply and demand, in their own interest, would deliver the most optimal outcomes in terms of economy. He also promoted that government involvement in economic matters be an absolute minimum. His ideas gave rise to that of capitalism, wherein private enterprise and individuals were left to pursue economic interests freely. The Wealth of Nations revolutionized by changing the paradigm of economic thinking and becoming the foundation of economic systems of today. The Wealth of Nations shook monetary thinking by infusing into it that individual self-motivation, by means of self-interest, could be used to serve not just that of the public interest, but to act for it as well, in terms of economic activity. Adam Smith's theory of the "invisible hand" assumed that it is that of competition that shall regulate an economy, irrespective of government involvement. Although his ideas were pivotal in generating capitalism and free economies, it also generated fears of inequality and exploitation. Critics of his ideas suggest that if markets lack regulation, markets lead to abuses. At any rate, however, of these issues, Adam Smith's publication remains to affect economic policy worldwide today.

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University of Glasgow Adam Smith Business School

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Adam Smith Tercentenary | The Wealth of Nations

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The Articles of Confederation were the earliest written governing rules of the U.S. government following independence. They were written amidst Revolutionary War and gave more power to individual states than to the national government. There was no president, and Congress could not tax or enact laws. This was not an effective rule of the nation. Each of the states acted as if it were an independent nation. Even though the Articles maintained colonies together in wartime, the Articles did not succeed afterward. Issues like financial difficulties and conflicts among the various states proved America needed an even stronger government. Hence, the Constitution came into being a few years later. The Articles of Confederation were important in that it showed that there needed to be an equilibrium government. They united America at first but gave an excess of power to individual states. They provided lessons learned to Founding Fathers to create a superior framework using the U.S. Constitution.

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The Treaty of Paris in 1783 officially ended America's Revolutionary War against Britain. The treaty made America an independent nation. The treaty defined America's borders, giving America from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River. Britain also vowed not to keep soldiers in America, and both vowed to pay debts owed before the war. The treaty also allowed Americans to fish off Canada's coast. The peace treaty was important as it gave America its freedom and the freedom to expand and grow to the west. The Treaty of Paris was an important time in American history. The treaty officially stopped Britain's rule of colonies and gave the United States a chance to be an independent nation. The treaty gave America room to create its government, laws, and economy independently of Britain. Not everything promised within the treaty, though, was upheld. British soldiers lingered beyond what was agreed, and not every debt was settled. Native American tribes were not included in the treaty, either, and lost land as America moved to expand to the west. Despite its flaws, though, the treaty was an opportunity for a new country, and it showed other colonies in other countries that it was possible to revolt, as well.

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The Treaty of Paris, 1783 | Benjamin Franklin | PBS | A Film by Ken Burns

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The Enclosure Acts were the laws passed in England largely in the late 1700s and early 1800s. The acts allowed landowners to enclose the land that was shared among the farming villages. It was made into private land for agriculture, mostly for the production of cash crops or for livestock. Poor farm families used the common land for pasturing livestock, or for subsistence crops. After enclosure, many were excluded from the land and were pushed into the cities looking for work. Migration fueled the Industrial Revolution, as increasingly large numbers of individuals flocked into the cities looking for work in the new factory system. The Enclosure Acts reshaped land use in England and profoundly changed life in the country. As much as it helped increase the production of food and the incomes of landowners through agriculture, it rendered many poor farm families homeless and unemployed. It pushed them into the towns, creating the fuel for urban population increase and the factory system. It helped the Industrial Revolution advance rapidly. It created urban poverty and congestion. The Enclosure Acts give insight into how change for economic reasons, in this instance, can be both positively and negatively contributing to society.

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APUSH Review Unit 2 (Period 2: 1607-1754)—Everything You NEED To Know

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The Haitian Revolution, Haitian Revolt, began in 1791 and lasted until 1804. It was a massive slave uprising in the French colony Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). The slaves, led by the likes of Toussaint Louverture, demanded equality and freedom. The colony was the wealthiest in the world in the production of sugar and coffee owing to the many plantations, yet it was built on cruel slave labor. The slaves were inspired by the French Revolution and the battle cry of liberty and rose against their masters. They won the French army after many wars and proclaimed independence in 1804, making Haiti the world's first nation founded by the erstwhile slaves. The Haitian Revolution was among the biggest rebellions in the history of the world. It challenged the belief that slavery was normal or necessary and showed the slaves that they could fight and obtain freedom. Independence for Haiti was an inspiration for the world's downtrodden, though it shocked masters in other countries too. Most nations would not trade with Haiti, and it remained poor and isolated. Still, the revolution showed the power that could be derived from unity, courage, and the demand for human rights. It showed the serious flaws in colonialism and slavery too.

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Haitian Revolution: Toussaint Louverture Leads French Slaves To Freedom

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The Reign of Terror was the rule by the government of the French Revolution, mainly between 1793 and 1794. It was the time when the government used violence and terror in governing the country. Under Robespierre and the Jacobins, thousands were arrested and put to death, many through the guillotine. Most were accused of being anti-revolutionary in nature, with little support for the allegations. The aim was to protect the revolution from its enemies, but it was done at the cost of many innocent citizens. The reign ended when Robespierre was arrested and put to death. The violence then subsided, and there was an effort at rebuilding France. The Reign of Terror showed how revolutions become dangerous when rulers give too much power and use the weapon of fear in rule. Even though the revolution began on high moral grounds of freedom and equality, the values were lost in the violence. The Reign of Terror showed all the leaders in the future that order and justice must be balanced, no matter the state of change. Although it assisted in the elimination of some of the revolution's enemies, it instilled fear into the hearts of the populace and promoted anarchy. It is now seen as an example of what happens if power is left unchecked.

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Reign of Terror in the French Revolution - History Crunch Investigates

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The Napoleonic Code was created in 1804 by Napoleon Bonaparte after he became the French leader. It was one of the very first laws that treated all individuals the same, no matter their class in life. The code set laws for property, contracts, the family, and the rights of individuals. The code granted power to men in the family, limited the freedoms of women, and made individuals treated equally under the law. Laws in France were different in all places before the code. Now the whole country had the same laws. The code influenced the laws in the remainder of Europe as well as the world, and most importantly in those conquered during Napoleon's reign. The Napoleonic Code was important because it created a system based on reason and fairness, and not on birth or finances. The code made it very clear that it was conceivable for a country to be governed using written, cut-and-dried laws. While the code helped many things, such as trials in court and property, it granted power to men in the family and limited freedoms as well. However, it influenced many governments and codes in law in the past. It helped disperse the belief that the laws were to be the same for all, an important discovery at the time.

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The Congress of Vienna was a conference of 1814–1815 after the defeat of Napoleon. Most of the nations of Europe had sent their leaders to Vienna, Austria, to determine how peace and stability in Europe could be maintained. They wished the old royal houses to govern once again and keep any nation from dominating the continent. They redrew the boundaries of several states in order to distribute the power. The key players at the conference were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Britain. The Congress not only wished to avoid breaking the peace in the near future, but also the wars in the far future, by maintaining stability in the continent. It was the first instance that the representatives of several countries collaborated in order to establish peace after a great war. The Congress of Vienna kept Europe fairly peaceful for the next 100 years. It prevented any single nation from becoming powerful enough, thus preventing any nation from dominating the continent. It, however, overlooked the interests of many, particularly those who wished for independence or more say in the government. The Congress restored the monarchs in the state, contrary to the wishes of the forces supporting democracy. Although it was successful in preventing the large-scale wars for some years, it sowed the seeds for the wars and revolutions in the years to follow.

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The CONGRESS of VIENNA, Explained [AP Euro Review—Unit 5 Topic 7]

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The Sepoy Rebellion, popularly referred to as the Indian Rebellion of 1857, was an uprising of wide geographical extent against British rule in India. The rebellion began when the sepoys, who were the Indian soldiers in the British army, objected to the use of new rifle cartridges greased with pig and cow fat, contrary to Hindu and Muslim beliefs. The rebellion soon broke out in the other regions in northern India, as many Indians were not satisfied with British rule, unfair treatment, and the disregard for local practices. The British ultimately curbed the rebellion, but it led to far-reaching changes. The British government stepped in for the East India Company for governing India directly, and new laws were created with the aim of avoiding such rebellions in the future. The Sepoy Rebellion marked an important milestone in the history of India. It uncovered the dissatisfaction among many Indians towards British rule. While the rebellion in the end failed, it led the British to reconsider the manner in which they governed. It marked the initiation point for the stronger Indian nationalist movement. The rebellion signified the danger that comes with disregarding local beliefs and practices. Ultimately, it contributed towards the movement for independence, something that would happen almost 90 years later.

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Why Did Britain's Most Brutal War happen? The 1857 Revolt

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Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities (1859)

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Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities (1859)

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Charles Dickens penned the novel A Tale of Two Cities in 1859, a historical novel about the French Revolution. It revolves around the lives of the people in London and Paris during dangerous and decisive years. The novel is about characters whose difficult choices lead them, for example, Sydney Carton, who gives up his life for the sake of another human being. Dickens describes the resentment among the poor Frenchmen and how it spawned violence, while at the same time warning against the violence of vengeance. The novel emerged as the most famous historical novel in English literature. It exposed the public to the way life was during the years when revolutions happened and how the stories of the people become history.

This book is important because it teaches about love, sacrifice, and how people can change. Dickens didn’t just tell a story—he made readers think about justice and fairness. He showed how revolutions can help people but also bring more problems. His message still matters today: anger can lead to change, but also to danger when people stop caring about others.

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Charles Darwin: On the Origin of Species (1859)

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Charles Darwin: On the Origin of Species (1859)

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In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, a book that introduced the idea of evolution. Darwin said that all living things change over time through a process called natural selection. In this process, animals with traits that help them survive are more likely to have babies and pass on those traits. Over many generations, this leads to changes in species. Darwin’s book challenged the belief that all life was created exactly as it is now. Many scientists accepted his ideas, but others—especially religious leaders—strongly disagreed. Over time, his theory became one of the most important ideas in biology. Darwin’s theory of evolution changed how people think about life on Earth. It helped scientists understand how species adapt and survive. While the idea was very controversial at first, it later became a key part of science education. Darwin’s work also caused debates about science and religion that still continue today. His theory has been used both for good and bad purposes, but its impact on science is huge and long-lasting.

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Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859) – First edition

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The First Sino-Japanese War was a war fought between China and Japan in 1894-1895. The reason for the war was primarily control of the nation of Korea, both nations wanting it. Japan won the war with its modern fleet and army easily. The war was concluded with the Treaty of Shimonoseki, and China lost Taiwan and other land territories to Japan. Japan gained greater control in the country of Korea as well. The war demonstrated that Japan was now an advanced, powerful nation and China was still struggling with old ways. The loss was very humiliating for China and triggered massive changes, including revolts and changes. The First Sino-Japanese War was a significant realignment for the balance in power in Asia. The Japanese victory demonstrated the power of modernizing and military power in altering the position of a nation in the world in very short order. It demonstrated the weakness in the government in China as well. The war made Japan bolder and aggressive, something that would carryover into the next conflict. For China, it was an alarm call that change was necessary. The war created the beginnings for things that would lead ultimately to revolutions in both nations.

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History With Seb - First Sino Japanese War

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The Spanish-American War was fought in 1898 between the U.S. and Spain. The U.S. allied with Cuba, who wanted to be independent of Spain. When the U.S. ship, the Maine, exploded in the harbor in Havana, the Americans blamed Spain. The U.S. declared war, and Spain was defeated in just a few months. Therefore, the U.S. now owned Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Cuba became independent but stayed dependant on the U.S. The U.S. was made into an international power, and new territories abroad were awarded to it through the conflict. The U.S. became stronger and more powerful abroad. It was believed it was a good thing the U.S. was doing, while others believed the U.S. was acting like an empire. It began discussions about freedom and how much power the U.S. could exercise in other countries. The war dictated the actions that America would exercise towards other countries in the world in the years thereafter.

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The Boxer Rebellion was a violent uprising in China from 1899 to 1901. A group called the Boxers, mostly poor Chinese people, wanted to get rid of foreign influence in China. They were angry about the spread of Christianity and the control that European countries had over Chinese trade and politics. The Boxers believed they could use martial arts and spiritual power to fight back. They attacked foreigners, Chinese Christians, and symbols of Western culture. In response, eight countries, including Britain, Japan, and the U.S., sent soldiers to stop the rebellion. After fighting, the foreign armies defeated the Boxers and forced China to pay money and accept more foreign control. The Boxer Rebellion showed how unhappy many Chinese people were with foreign rule and influence. Even though the rebellion failed, it was a sign that China wanted to protect its culture and traditions. The harsh punishment after the rebellion made many people more upset with their government and the outsiders. This event helped push China toward major changes and eventually led to the fall of the emperor. It also showed how powerful and united foreign countries could be when protecting their interests.

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The Boxer Uprising – The Chinese Revolt against Foreign Invasion

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The 1911 Revolution put an end to the reign of the Qing Dynasty, in power for more than 2,000 years. The emperor and his government made most Chinese unhappy. They wanted a modern nation with voting, schools, and good work. Revolutionaries, led by Sun Yat-sen and others, rebelled against the emperorship and the establishment of a republic. China became the new republic in 1912, and Sun Yat-sen was its president. Although the revolution abolished the monarchy, China still had numerous issues such as civil wars and warlords. Even so, the revolution was the stepping stone towards modern governing in China. The 1911 Revolution displayed to the world the fact that the people can overthrow an extremely old system if improving things is desired. Although the new government was in disarray, the abolishment of the empire provided China with the opportunity for experimenting with new things. It marked the start of enormous changes that built the China of the future.

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The two wars that occurred in southeastern European history prior to the start of the First World War were the Balkan Wars. The first was in 1912, where countries like Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria fought the Ottoman Empire for the retaking of land. They were successful in retaking it and then fought among themselves for the ownership of the land. That was the Second Balkan War in 1913. The wars generated much tension in the region and made countries resentful against other countries, thereby leading to the start of the First World War, especially after Serbia dominated and Austria-Hungary was threatened. The two Balkan Wars are important in history because the wars created resentment and suspicion among the European nations, and things led to problems that began the First World War. The wars also showed the way in which small things become big things if many countries get involved in them.

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8th October 1912: First Balkan War begins when Montenegro declares war on the Ottoman Empire

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)

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The Archduke of Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in the year 1914 in Sarajevo by a young assassin, Gavrilo Princip. The assassin belonged to an organization that wanted Serbia to be independent of Austria-Hungary. It was such an act that led to the snowball effect. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war against it. Because of country alliances, other nations sided with them in order to start World War I. One assassination led to the start of the deadliest war in the history of the world. The assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand shows that an act might snowball into much bigger things. It was an act that led to an extremely large-scale war since countries were already tense and prepared for war. It shows the dangerous nature of alliances and past wars if coupled with violence.

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How the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Unfolded with Dan Snow

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The Lusitania was a British passenger liner that was torpedoed in 1915, in the midst of the First World War, by a German U-boat. Nearly 1,200 were killed, including over 100 Americans. Germany believed the ship was bringing weapons, but most were incensed that civilians were being killed. The action outraged many Americans against Germany. Although the U.S. was not yet in the war, the sinking of the Lusitania led the path for those wanting to go into the war later on. It was mostly regarded as the major reason for the U.S. entry into the First World War in 1917. The sinking of the Lusitania proves the damage that can occur in war on innocent civilians. It opened the public up to the threat that submarines pose. It helped turn America against Germany as well. Sometimes an experience such as this can lead the whole nation into believing the country should be in the war.

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Lusitania's Final Days at Sea - May 4th-5th, 1915

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The Sykes-Picot Agreement was a secret deal made in 1916 during World War I. Britain and France decided how they would divide the Middle East after the war, once the Ottoman Empire was defeated. They drew new borders without asking the people who lived there. This agreement gave France control over parts of Syria and Lebanon, and Britain control over Iraq and Palestine. Many Arabs felt betrayed because they had been promised independence for helping in the war. The agreement caused a lot of anger and distrust that still affects the Middle East today. The Sykes-Picot Agreement is important because it shaped the modern Middle East. The way Britain and France divided the land led to problems, including conflicts over borders and identity. It showed how powerful countries ignored the wishes of local people. This betrayal hurt trust and caused long-lasting problems in the region.

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The Secret Agreement That Shaped the Middle East | History of Israel Explained | Unpacked

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The Zimmerman Telegram was a coded telegram sent from Germany to Mexico in 1917, during the First World War. Germany, in the telegram, assured Mexico that it would help it reclaim land from the U.S. if it helped Germany in the case of war. The British intercepted the telegram, however, and warned the U.S. The telegram infuriated many Americans. It was among the causes the U.S. entered the First World War. It helped affirm that Germany was acting to start the war in the U.S. and undermine American security. The Zimmerman Telegram changed the course of the First World War. It helped persuade the U.S. into the war, giving the Allies the upper hand. It also showed the power of secret messages and spying in the shaping of world events. The U.S. entry into the war led the war to end earlier and helped the country discover its niche as an international player.

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The Russian, or Bolshevik, Revolution happened in 1917. The Russians were very poor, starving, and tired of fighting in World War I. The government was fragile, and the king, the czar, already had been deposed. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, desired a communist government. They believed the workers should rule all. The Bolsheviks deposed the government and pulled out of the war. They killed the royal family and created a new type of government where land and businesses were state-owned. It created the Soviet Union. The Bolshevik Revolution changed Russia for all history. It eliminated kings and brought forth communism. Although some believed it would help workers, it also created strict control and the loss of freedom. It led to the start of a new world power that would soon be an important force in global events, such as the Cold War.

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The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed in 1918 between Germany and Russia. Russia was fighting in World War I, but it was having much trouble at home, including the Bolshevik Revolution. The new Russian government wanted out of the conflict and negotiated with Germany. Russia relinquished much land in order to make peace. It allowed Germany the freedom to focus on fighting in the west. It marked the end of Russian involvement in World War I, but it engendered outrage among the Russians who did not wish to lose any land. It ceased fighting for Russia, but at enormous expense. It showed how much the new Russian leadership desired to focus on internal issues. It infuriated many individuals that land was being lost, and it fostered tensions in the new Soviet Union. It was an early sign that the new leadership in Russia would be making tough decisions.

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3rd March 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed between Russia and the Central Powers

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President Woodrow Wilson, in 1918, presented an address in which he laid out 14 concepts for the preservation of peace following the Great War, known as the "14 Points." They included concepts such as open agreements between nations, freedom of the seas, and the right of the people to self-government. Wilson's most prominent point was the establishment of nations in the League of Nations, an entity that would act in concert as nations in order not to fight another war. While many nations were satisfied with his concepts, not all were included in the treaty at the end of the war. Wilson's 14 Points were an important movement in the direction towards the building of an egalitarian world. Although all were not embraced, they were an offer for peace and cooperation. The League of Nations was created, though it was undermined when the U.S. failed to sign up. The concepts created by Wilson, however, inspired other nations and the process for the formation of the United Nations many years later.

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Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points | History

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The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 formally concluded the war. The winners in the war, Britain, France, and the U.S., met in Versailles, France, and made the decision on how Germany would be treated. Germany, the losing country, was punished for the war. It lost its land, its army was diminished, and it was forced to pay all the other countries an amount of money. Germany was blamed for the war and made to pay for the damage. Germany believed the treaty was unfair and humiliating. The treaty was actually the effort towards the preservation of the peace, yet it fueled resentment in Germany that empowered Hitler in the later years of his life. The Treaty of Versailles is important because it concluded one war, but created another. The harsh restrictions infuriated the country of Germany and made it extremely poor. Instead of peace, the treaty brought strife back into the continent of Europe. It is showing us that peace treaties need to be just if we want wars to never occur in the future.

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Treaty of Versailles Explained - End Of WW1 1919

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The "Night of Broken Glass," Kristallnacht, happened in Nazi Germany on the nights between November 9 and 10, 1938. It was an act against the Jewish populace, their homes, and their businesses. Jewish shopfronts were smashed, synagogues were burnt, and over 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent off to the concentration camps. The violence was the result of the assassination of a German official in Paris, who was killed by a young Jewish man, and the Nazis used the incident as an excuse for the violence. "Kristallnacht" is the name for all the shattered glass on the streets. It was an important milestone, marking the point when the Nazis moved from passing discriminatory laws on Jews to the violence against Jews. Most individuals all around the world were scandalized, but few governments helped the Jews. Life became that much riskier for Jewish families in Germany and Austria after that. Kristallnacht was an early sign that things were going to get worse for Jews in Nazi-occupied territories. It showed the world how hatred can lead to violence and action by the government against its own citizens. Unfortunately, other countries did not help much, if at all. It is an example as to why we should stand for ourselves against the onset of hatred before it turns into something worse and larger.

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Kristallnacht: The Night of Broken Glass | WWII IN 2

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The Non-Aggression Pact was between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, signed in August 1939. They each pledged the other would not attack it. In secret, however, each pledged the other that it would divide up parts of Eastern Europe, specifically Poland, with the other. The pact shocked the world because Germany was fascist and the Soviet Union was communist, two belief systems that were very different. Both Hitler and Stalin accepted the pact, however, because it was convenient for them. Germany invaded Poland shortly thereafter, and the Soviet Union invaded the other direction. It was the start of the onset of World War II. The pact was not in effect for very long. Hitler withdrew the pact in 1941 and invaded the Soviet Union.

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Molotov-Ribbentrop: The Pact That Changed Europe's Borders

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The Battle of Britain was a major air battle during World War II. It took place in the summer and fall of 1940. Nazi Germany wanted to defeat Britain by bombing its cities and military targets. The German air force, called the Luftwaffe, launched daily attacks on London and other areas. British pilots, flying fighter planes like the Spitfire, fought hard to protect their country. This was the first major battle fought only in the air. People in Britain had to hide in shelters during air raids. Even though they were outnumbered, the British air force, or RAF, didn’t give up. They used radar to help track enemy planes. In the end, Germany gave up its plan to invade Britain. This was the first big loss for Hitler’s military. The Battle of Britain proved that courage and good planning can stop even a powerful enemy. British pilots, many of them very young, defended their country from the sky. The use of radar was a smart move and showed how technology can help in war. The battle also gave people hope that Hitler could be beaten. It reminds us that even when things look bad, standing strong and working together can make a big difference.

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The Manhattan Project was a secret plan by the United States during World War II to build an atomic bomb. It started in 1942 and brought together some of the world’s top scientists. The project took place in different parts of the country, including Los Alamos, New Mexico. Scientists worked very hard to build a bomb that used nuclear energy to create a huge explosion. The first test of the bomb happened in July 1945 in the desert. It was a success. Soon after, two bombs were dropped on Japan—one on Hiroshima and the other on Nagasaki. These bombings led to Japan surrendering and the end of World War II. The Manhattan Project showed how science and war could come together to create powerful weapons. The Manhattan Project changed the world forever. It ended World War II, but it also introduced the danger of nuclear weapons. While the project helped save lives by ending the war faster, it also killed many people and left long-term damage in Japan. It raises big questions about when it's okay to use such powerful weapons. It also started a nuclear arms race between countries.

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The Manhattan Project (1942-1946 CE) | The Atomic Age Begins

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Tehran Conference (November 28–December 1, 1943)

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Tehran Conference (November 28–December 1, 1943)

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The Tehran Conference was a meeting between the leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union during World War II. These leaders were Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin. They met in Iran’s capital, Tehran, in 1943. The main goal of the meeting was to plan how to defeat Nazi Germany. They agreed that they would work together and open a second front in Europe to help take pressure off the Soviet Union. This led to the planning of D-Day. The leaders also talked about what the world should look like after the war. Stalin promised to help fight Japan once Germany was defeated. This meeting was important because it showed that even though the three countries had different beliefs, they could work together to beat a common enemy. The Tehran Conference was a key moment in World War II. It showed the power of teamwork between very different countries. The choices made at this meeting helped lead to the end of the war. But it also planted seeds for future problems, like the Cold War, because the leaders didn’t fully trust each other.

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28th November 1943: The Tehran Conference begins between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin

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D-Day was the day Allied forces landed in Normandy, France, to fight Nazi Germany. It happened on June 6, 1944. This event was one of the biggest military attacks in history. Soldiers came by sea and air to storm the beaches and break through German defenses. The goal was to free France and other parts of Europe that Germany had taken over. Over 150,000 Allied soldiers took part, including Americans, British, and Canadians. The landings were very dangerous, and many soldiers were killed or wounded. But the mission was successful, and it marked the beginning of the end of World War II in Europe. After D-Day, the Allies pushed further into Europe and got closer to defeating Nazi Germany. D-Day was a huge turning point in World War II. It showed bravery and strong planning. Even though it was risky, the mission helped free Europe from Nazi rule. It also showed how different countries could come together for a common goal. Many people gave their lives to protect freedom.

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What is D Day? June 6, 1944 - Facts for Kids

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Battle of the Bulge (December 16, 1944 – January 25, 1945)

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Battle of the Bulge (December 16, 1944 – January 25, 1945)

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The Battle of the Bulge was the last major attack by Nazi Germany during World War II. It started in December 1944, in the snowy forests of Belgium. The Germans tried to surprise the Allied forces with a big attack to split their armies. The battle got its name from the way the front lines “bulged” during the fighting. The weather was cold, and the fighting was very tough. At first, the Germans made progress, but the Allies quickly fought back. American soldiers, including those in the town of Bastogne, showed great courage by holding their ground. In the end, the Allies stopped the German attack and pushed them back. This battle caused many deaths on both sides but helped bring World War II closer to an end. The Battle of the Bulge showed how hard the Allies had to fight to win. Even when surprised and outnumbered, they didn't give up. It proved that strong teamwork and determination could stop even a powerful enemy. This battle helped wear down the German army for good.

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Day 1 of the Battle of the Bulge | 2 Minute Time Trip to December 16, 1944

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Chinese Civil War: Nationalists vs. Communists (1946–1949)

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Chinese Civil War: Nationalists vs. Communists (1946–1949)

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After World War II ended, China fell into a civil war between two main groups: the Nationalists and the Communists. The Nationalists were led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists were led by Mao Zedong. Both sides wanted to control China, and the fighting became very serious. At first, the Nationalists had more support, including help from the U.S. But the Communists gained more followers by promising land and help to poor farmers. In 1949, the Communists won the war and took over the government. Mao Zedong became the leader of the new People’s Republic of China. The Nationalists fled to the island of Taiwan and made their own government there. This split still causes problems today between China and Taiwan. The Chinese Civil War changed the future of China and the world. It turned China into a communist country, which worried many other nations during the Cold War. The war also left behind deep divisions between China and Taiwan that continue today. It shows how civil wars can affect not just one country but global politics.

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The Chinese Civil War (final phase, 1945–1949)

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The Partition of India in 1947 was a major event that divided British India into two separate countries: India and Pakistan. The decision was made because of differences between Hindus and Muslims. The Indian National Congress, which was mostly Hindu, and the Muslim League, which represented Muslims, wanted different governments. As a result, India was split along religious lines, with India being a mostly Hindu country and Pakistan being a mostly Muslim one. The Partition caused massive migration, with millions of people moving to the country where their religion was the majority. This led to violent clashes, with many people dying in riots. The Partition also created long-term conflicts, especially between India and Pakistan, including over the region of Kashmir. The split marked the end of British rule in India but left behind a legacy of division and violence. The Partition of India changed the country forever, causing violence and fear. It separated families and created long-lasting conflict between India and Pakistan, especially over Kashmir. While it gave both countries their independence, it also left behind a bitter history. It reminds us that dividing people by religion can have painful consequences, which still affect South Asia today.

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Why was India split into two countries? - Haimanti Roy

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The Berlin Airlift was a response to the Soviet Union blocking all roads, railways, and canals into West Berlin in 1948. The Soviet Union wanted to force the Western Allies out of the city, which was deep inside Soviet-controlled East Germany. Instead of giving up, the Allies, led by the United States, decided to airlift supplies into the city. For nearly a year, planes flew nonstop, delivering food, medicine, and other necessities to the people of West Berlin. The operation showed that the Allies were committed to defending West Berlin and standing up to Soviet pressure. The airlift helped keep the people in West Berlin alive, and it became a symbol of resistance to Soviet control. Eventually, the Soviets lifted the blockade, but the event marked the beginning of the Cold War tensions between East and West. The Berlin Airlift showed the power of cooperation and determination. The Western Allies didn’t give in to Soviet threats and instead found a way to help the people of Berlin. It was a peaceful solution in a time of high tension. The airlift also set the stage for the Cold War, showing how the world was divided between the Soviet Union and the West.

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The Korean War was a conflict between North and South Korea, lasting from 1950 to 1953. North Korea, supported by communist countries like China and the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The United Nations, led by the United States, came to South Korea’s aid. The war was very brutal, with both sides suffering heavy losses. At first, the North made big gains, but the South, with help from the U.S. and other UN forces, pushed them back. The war ended in a stalemate, with the two countries remaining divided at the 38th parallel. There was no clear victory, but the war had lasting effects. It led to the creation of a heavily militarized border between North and South Korea, and tensions between the two countries continue to this day. The Korean War was also one of the first major conflicts of the Cold War, where the U.S. and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides. The Korean War was a reminder of how the Cold War divided countries around the world. The war didn’t solve the division of Korea but instead created long-lasting tension. Even though the fighting stopped in 1953, North and South Korea remain separated, and the conflict still affects them today. The Korean War shows the struggles of countries caught in the middle of a bigger global fight, with superpowers like the U.S. and Soviet Union taking sides.

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The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies. It was created as a response to the formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) by Western countries, including the U.S. and its European allies. The Warsaw Pact was meant to strengthen the Soviet Union’s control over its satellite states in Eastern Europe and create a unified defense system. The countries in the pact included Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and others. The pact lasted until 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved. During the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact was a key part of the division between the East (communist) and West (democratic) blocs. It also led to a number of military confrontations and tensions, especially during the Hungarian Revolution in 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968. The Warsaw Pact was important in keeping Eastern Europe under Soviet control during the Cold War. It also showed how countries were forced into alliances based on political pressure rather than choice. The pact divided Europe into two rival groups, leading to many conflicts and military standoffs. Its end in 1991 was a sign that the Cold War was over and that the world was changing.

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Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962)

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Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962)

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The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major Cold War confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union in October 1962. The Soviet Union had secretly placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from the U.S. border. The U.S. discovered the missiles through spy planes, and President John F. Kennedy immediately called for a naval blockade to prevent more missiles from arriving. Tensions were extremely high, as the world feared the crisis could lead to nuclear war. After thirteen days of intense negotiations, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba in exchange for the U.S. agreeing not to invade Cuba and secretly removing its own missiles from Turkey. The crisis marked the closest the world ever came to full-scale nuclear war and led to better communication between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, including the creation of a direct "hotline" between the two superpowers. The Cuban Missile Crisis showed how close the world came to nuclear war. It also demonstrated the importance of diplomacy in solving major international issues. Kennedy’s decision to engage in careful negotiations rather than military action helped avoid a disaster. The crisis taught world leaders the need to prevent similar situations in the future by improving communication and reducing tensions.

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28th October 1962: End of the Cuban Missile Crisis as Khrushchev agrees to remove nuclear missiles

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Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (August 7, 1964)

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Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (August 7, 1964)

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The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was a law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1964 after an alleged attack on American ships by North Vietnamese forces in the Gulf of Tonkin. The resolution gave President Lyndon B. Johnson the authority to take military action in Vietnam without needing approval from Congress. It was the beginning of greater U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Although the details of the Gulf of Tonkin incident were unclear and later questioned, the resolution allowed the U.S. to send more soldiers and equipment to Vietnam. Over the next few years, the conflict grew, and many more lives were lost. The resolution was later seen as a mistake, as the U.S. got deeply involved in a war that would be difficult to win. It was eventually repealed in 1971 as public opinion about the war turned against it. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution showed how a single event could lead to a larger conflict. Although the details of the attack were unclear, it led the U.S. to commit more resources to the Vietnam War. This resolution also illustrates the power of government decisions to shape history. In hindsight, it is seen as a turning point that escalated a war many people later thought was unnecessary.

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7th August 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed by US Congress

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Nelson Mandela (Presidency, May 10, 1994 – June 14, 1999)

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Nelson Mandela (Presidency, May 10, 1994 – June 14, 1999)

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Nelson Mandela became South Africa’s first Black president in 1994, after spending 27 years in prison for fighting against the country’s system of racial segregation, known as apartheid. His presidency marked the end of decades of racist policies that kept Black South Africans from having the same rights as White people. Mandela worked hard to bring people together, emphasizing forgiveness and reconciliation. His leadership helped heal a nation divided by years of discrimination and violence. During his time as president, he focused on addressing the needs of the poor, improving education, and promoting equality. He also worked to improve South Africa’s relationships with the rest of the world. Mandela's presidency is remembered for its message of hope and peace, showing how a country can move forward after a long history of injustice. He stepped down in 1999, choosing not to seek a second term. Nelson Mandela’s presidency changed South Africa forever. He led the country out of apartheid by focusing on unity, justice, and equality. His time as president showed that true leaders don’t seek revenge, but instead work for peace. Mandela proved that a person’s beliefs could transform a nation and inspire the world. His leadership taught the world that no matter how difficult the past, there is always a way to build a better future.

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May 2, 1994: Nelson Mandela Becomes S. Africa's 1st Black President