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1.0 Mah Meri

1.1 Introduction to Mah Meri

1.2 Types of Mah Meri wood carvings

1.3 Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

1.4 History behind the artefacts

1.5 References

2.0 Bidayuh

2.1 Introduction to Bidayuh

2.2 Types of Bidayuh wood carvings

2.3 Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

2.4 History behind the artefacts

2.5 References

3.0 Kayan

3.1 Introduction to Kayan

3.2 Types of Kayanic wood carvings

3.3 Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

3.4 History behind the artefacts

3.5 References

4.0 Orang Ulu

4.1 Introduction to Orang Ulu

4.2 Types of Orang Ulu wood carvings

4.3 Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

4.4 History behind the artefacts

4.5 References

5.0 Melanau

5.1 Introduction to Melanau

5.2 Types of Melanau wood carvings

5.3 Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

5.4 History behind the artefacts

5.5 References

6.0 Reflective essay

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The Mah Meri, an indigenous group residing on Carey Island for over a century, are famously known as Malaysia’s ‘Masked men' due to their exceptional craftsmanship in wooden mask-making. Their work, often inspired by spiritual beliefs involving food and evil forces, is rooted in Orang Asli traditions.

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Masks at Mah Meri Art Gallery at Tanah Rata, Cameron Highlands

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Mah Meri artisans craft wooden masks and statues, originally using light coloured Pulai wood. However, due to its scarcity, they now rely on the harder, reddish Nyireh Batu wood, sourced from nearby mangrove forests.

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The Mah-Meri woodcarving process research article

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In Malaysia, the main focus of Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli (JAKOA) is helping aboriginal people on various aspects in their lives. For example, education, accommodation, basic survival skills and other facilities for this group of people to adapt and survive in modern times of Malaysia [1]. However, are these efforts enough? The Mah-Meri people are one of the nineteen tribes of aboriginal people in Malaysia. The homeland of this ethnic tribe is situated in Carey Island, located less than forty miles from Kuala Lumpur, hidden in plain sight. The Mah-Meri tribes survives by producing creative handy crafts such as wood carvings and weavings to keep themselves afloat in these challenging times. The ancestral skills and stories of their ethnic tribe are passed down by word and mouth from generation to generation. However as the society moves towards the future, many of the skills and stories are forgotten and lost [2]. Some of the Mah-Meri people have moved on working in the city and there are still a portion of them continuing the legacy. Due to that, it has arisen that the Tompoq Tompoh Mah-Meri Women’s `First Weave’ project, states that it is obvious and that there is a need to document their oral tradition and culture [2]. In this paper, the documentation of the Mah-Meri wood carving shall be presented in a digital platform. The demand of interactive systems are flooding the technology industry where every individual are now armed or equipped with a digital device [3]. Interactive systems play an important role in the effort of preserving the Mah-Meri tribe’s culture and heritage. In this paper, a documentation journey of the Mah-Meri wood carving process into digital platform will be discussed. The final output of the prototype targeted to users of the Malaysian public and international audience.

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings 

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings 

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The carvings play a vital role in cultural rituals like ‘Hari Moyang’ and ‘Puja Pantai’, serving both spiritual and ancestral purposes. Masks are worn during sacred dances to honor the ‘moyang’, ancestral spirits believed to enforce tribal laws. Statues, on the other hand, provide new vessels for the spirits of the deceased, reflecting the belief that all life holds a soul that needs a form to inhabit after death.

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Mask carving is also a medium for storytelling, depicting myths and legends passed down through generations. Rooted in animism, Mah Meri traditions involve shaman-led ceremonies to seek guidance and blessings from ancestral spirits. Each mask and sculpture embodies stories of nature, animals, and spirits; like the tale of the spirit gibbon, where a hunter must atone for killing the animal by replacing it. These carvings symbolise both reverence and a deep spiritual connection to the land and its unseen forces.

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Mah Meri Myth and Song of the Siamang (Gibbon)

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1. VisitSelangor.com. (2020, September 27). Mah Meri Cultural Village. Visit Selangor. Retrieved from https://www.visitselangor.com/mah-meri-cultural-village/#google_vignette

2. Mah Meri Workshops – Malaysian Indigenous Culture. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mmcv.org.my/mah-meri-workshops/

3. Lim, P. S., Lim, Y. P., & Tan, K. C. (2016, October). The Mah-Meri woodcarving process. In 2016 22nd International Conference on Virtual System & Multimedia (VSMM) (pp. 1-7). IEEE.

4. Santano, D., & Thwaites, H. (2022). The Soul of The Masks:: A Journey Through Mah Meri Indigenous Carvings. Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue, (22).

5. Ibrahim, N. H. (2013). A way to communicate: a new sculptural signage system for the Mah Meri indigenous community in Malaysia (Doctoral dissertation, Monash University).

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The Bidayuh, often called 'the hill people', are an Indigenous group from the highlands of western Sarawak, Borneo. They hold a strong animistic belief that every object, living or not, contains a spirit known as ‘semangat’. Illness arises when this spirit is weakened, and death occurs when it departs entirely. Harmful spirits, called ‘mundua’, are believed to cause sickness.

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Bidayuh artisans are particularly known for their bamboo carvings. One of their most significant wooden creations is the ‘rasang’, a sacred altar used in harvest rituals. They are usually 1–1.5 feet high and 1.9–2.7 feet wide, adorned with symbolic items such as combs (sinuod), spears (asuol), swords (ba’ie), and bamboo cylinders. Rasang are carved from either the g’tiak or situ trees, believed to be favored by spirits (i’eng) for their strength and durability. The sculpture is shaped like a Ruoi (Great Argus bird), chosen for its sacred significance and intricate beauty. Before cutting down a tree for carving, a gawai ritual must be performed.

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Dayung Borih perform Ngirindang dance by circling around the rasang

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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The rasang serves as a spiritual dwelling for the i’eng during Gawea Ngidaan Rasang, part of the Gawai festival. Only women destined to become Dayung Borih (shamans) receive their own rasang, which becomes a lifelong spiritual link. During the Gawai Pribarih Dayung ceremony, it plays a central role in a healing ritual called ‘pribarih’, where the spirit is diverted to aid in curing illness. Through this, the women officially become shamans.

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Both Dayung Borih (female shamans) and Pinguguoh/Pinyigar (male spiritual leaders) act as intermediaries between the human and spiritual realms. The rasang is carved over eight days and nights during the Adat Dayung Borih ritual. During the ceremony, the Dayung Borih chants and circles the altar to invite spirits to inhabit it and bless the harvest. Each rasang features distinct organic and geometric motifs, sometimes inspired by the carver’s dreams believed to be messages from the i’eng.

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1. Lim, T. (2024, August 12). A Peep into the Lifestyle of the Bidayuh Community. Budayaw Festival. Retrieved from https://budayaw.com/a-peep-into-the-lifestyle-of-the-bidayuh-community/

2. Terra-Cultura. (2025, January 13). The Bidayuh of Borneo: History and Traditions of the Longhouses. Terra Cultura. Retrieved from https://terra-cultura.com/en/the-bidayuh-of-borneo-history-and-traditions-of-the-longhouses/

3. Other, O. F. (2021, February 2). Rasang and the Spirit World: Rituals, symbols and initiation in the life of a Bidayuh Dayung Borih at Bau Sarawak - o for other. O for Other. Retrieved from https://oforother.malaysiadesignarchive.org/rasang-and-the-spirit-world-rituals-symbols-and-initiation-in-the-life-of-a-bidayuh-dayung-borih-at-bau-sarawak/

4. Campbell, Y. M., & Mikeng, D. (2019). Dayung Borih, the Conduits of the Bidayuh and the Spiritual World. Borneo Research Journal, 13, 98-114.

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Originating from the lower Baram and Telang Usaan regions of northwest Borneo, the Kayan people have lived in Sarawak and around Brunei Bay since the 19th century. Their advanced knowledge of metallurgy established them as key trade partners with Brunei’s coastal regions. From the 14th to 18th centuries, they crafted high-quality weapons, especially tempered swords, for Brunei in exchange for items like swivel cannons (lila or meriam). This legacy is reflected in their heirlooms, which include bronze statues and ritual artefacts.

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Kayanic Guardian Figure at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

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Kayan artisans are proficient in multiple materials; wood, bamboo, bone, and metal. Their woodwork is particularly notable, featuring funerary carvings such as mausoleums, coffins, and carved posts related to secondary burial rites. These pieces often depict anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures, characterized by large heads, bulging eyes, protruding jaws, and concave faces. While hardwoods like ironwood are preferred for larger carvings, lighter woods like pelai or pulai are used for shields, masks, and daily items. Smaller functional objects like stools, baby carriers, and jar lids, vary depending on the region and local customs.

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Pair of Mythical Animal table legs at The Dallas Museum of Art

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Kayan Figurative Bowl at Musee de quai Branly, France

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Hawat, a Kayan traditional wooden baby carrier

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Berawan Chief's Door at Sarawak State Museum 

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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These carvings serve both protective and spiritual purposes. Funerary sculptures were believed to guard the deceased from evil spirits and guide them to the afterlife. Structures like the ‘salung’ or ‘kelirien’ mausoleums reflect the status of the individual and are designed based on their location, either riverside or cliffside. Carvings also project social identity and may be used decoratively in homes, especially those belonging to high-ranking individuals.

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Coffin Finial at Museo, delle Culture Lugano, Swirtzerland

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Kayan metallurgical expertise allowed for the creation of precise carving tools such as awls (kelivo), axes (ase, say), adzes (bikung), and knives (yu, malaat, kuu’). Their art style evolved over centuries, influenced by neighboring groups such as the Modang, Kenyah, and other Northern Kayanic communities. These cross-cultural interactions from the 17th to early 20th century helped shape the distinct visual language of Kayan carvings.

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1. Guerreiro, A. J. (2024, April 21). “The Kayanic Arts of Borneo: Adventures in Chronology and Authenticity” by Antonio J. Guerreiro & Steven G. Alpert — Art of The Ancestors | Island Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Global Tribal Art News. Art of the Ancestors | Island Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Global Tribal Art News. Retrieved from https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/kayanic-arts-borneo-guerreiro-alpert

2. Alpert, S. G. (2024, April 21). Steven G. Alpert presents Kayanic Art | Aesthetic Traditions of Borneo: Part I — Art of The Ancestors | Island Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Global Tribal Art News. Art of the Ancestors | Island Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Global Tribal Art News. Retrieved from https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/kayanic-art-borneo

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The Orang Ulu, meaning 'upriver people', is a collective term for 26 Indigenous ethnic groups in Central Borneo, including the Kenyah, Kayan, Kelabit, Kajang, Murut, Penan, and others. Traditionally, they were hunter-gatherers and practiced shifting agriculture, living in communal longhouses adorned with intricate carvings. These decorative elements often reflected their spiritual beliefs and close connection to nature.

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Among various woodcrafts, the most iconic Orang Ulu creation is the Sape, a traditional two-stringed musical instrument shaped like a narrow longboat. Originally strung with rattan or Enau fibers, modern Sapes use metal strings. They are carved from either softwoods like Kayu Pelaik and meranti or hardwoods like jackfruit and belian, with denser woods producing better acoustics. The instrument showcases both functional craftsmanship and ornate artistic design.

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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There are two main uses of the Sape: ceremonially and socially. In spiritual healing, a Bali Dayong (ritual specialist) uses the Sape in rites to drive out evil spirits (Udo). Over time, the instrument evolved beyond ritual use and became central to social gatherings, especially traditional dances like Ngajat (warrior dance) and Datun Julud. Performers typically sit cross-legged while playing, and some performances feature two Sapes tuned to different pitches to create richer melodies.

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Sape' Leto Ngorek performance by Mathew Ngau | FDVCC #14

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Sape' Leto Ngorek by Mathew Ngau | FDVCC #14

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The origins of the Sape are rooted in myth and legend. One popular story tells of a Kenyah man, Anyie Selong, who dreamed of a spirit in the form of his ancestor guiding him to build a longboat-shaped instrument to heal his ailing wife. Another tale speaks of a man rescued after a boating accident, inspired by mysterious melodies he heard while unconscious in the forest. Though once exclusive to healing rituals, the Sape now symbolizes the evolving cultural identity of the Orang Ulu, blending tradition with modern artistic expression.

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1. Jalil, M. H., Abdullah, Q. D. L., Wong, N. R., Hoon, L. N., & Amaran, M. A. (2024). Art inheritance: Revitalizing traditional material culture motifs through innovative graphic design and artistic expression. Journal of Graphic Engineering and Design, 15(4), 5-17.

2. Zaluhi, N. Z., Abdullah, R., & Shamsudin, K. (2021). Reflection of the Mystical Element through the Form of Sapeâ€™ Using Metal in Modern Sculpture. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 6(SI5), 131-135.

3. Rodrigo, J. (2024, February 5). Anderson Kalang's Origin Story Of The Sape' Instrument. Eksentrika: Arts Community • Artist Registry • Asian Arts Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.eksentrika.com/anderson-kalang-sape-instrument/

4. Regional, N. (2024, January 24). Why the Sape is such an enchanting instrument. NST Online. Retreived from https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2024/01/1005100/why-sape-such-enchanting-instrument

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The Melanau are among Sarawak's earliest inhabitants. Traditionally calling themselves a-likou ("people of the river"), the term 'Melanau' was later adopted, possibly from the Bruneian Malay word meaning 'coast-dweller'. They are known as skilled farmers, traders, sago producers, boat-builders, and fishermen. Melanau life is deeply influenced by a complex system of taboos; ranging from general and hereditary taboos to those related to medicine, which shape their social and spiritual practices.

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Melanau artisans produce a wide array of woodwork, from functional items like spoons and bowls to ceremonial objects such as parang, kris, and walking sticks. One of their most distinctive creations is the bilum (also called dakan), a healing charm carved from soft wood or sago pith. Bilum designs vary depending on the spirit associated with the illness:

Air spirits (langit): Bird-like form with wings, a beak, and a spear in hand.

Water spirits (anum): Sitting posture, rounded low headgear or horns, with sunken, fish-like eyes.

Earth spirits (guun): Squatting position, prominent eyes, and often holding a blowpipe, spear, or sword.

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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Purpose and occasions for the use of wood carvings

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Bilum figures act as spiritual intermediaries in healing rituals. Illness is believed to result from spirit attacks, which are diagnosed by a ‘bomoh’ (shaman). The cure often involves crafting a bilum that embodies the spirit causing the illness. The bomoh performs ceremonies using the charm, invoking the appropriate forces to restore health.

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Traditional Festival Kaul Mukah Sarawak 2024 Melanau Ethnic Group Thanksgiving Tradition Borneo Kalimantan

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The Kaul festival, held annually in Sarawak’s Dalat District, involves three villages; Kampung Medong, Dalat, and Oya. It is a ritual to appease spirits and protect the community from disease and misfortune. A central feature of the ceremony is the blisieng, a tall wooden pole believed to house a male and female bilum, along with offerings to the spirits.

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Pesta Tradisi Kaul Mukah Sarawak 2024 Suku Kaum Melanau Thanksgiving Tradition Borneo Kalimantan

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1. Project, J. (n.d.). Melanau in Malaysia. Retrieved from https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13666/my

2. Mashman, V. (1994). MEMORY, MEANING AND MEMENTOES. The Sarawak Museum Journal: For the Promotion of Scientific Knowledge and Study of the Natives and Natural History of the Island of Borneo..., 47, 117.

3. Seng, C. C. (1987). Traditional Melanau woodcarving (bilum) in Dalat, Sarawak. Persatuan Kesusasteraan Sarawak.

4. Rafee, Y. M., Arshad, A. H. A., Siri, H., Dim, A. R., & Samaroon, M. J. (2017). Bilum: A Cultural Object of the Pagan Melanau. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 12(5), 6968-6973.