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Asian American and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (AANHPI) Heritage Month

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USDA is proud to join the nation in recognizing the Asian American and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (AANHPI) Heritage Month, also known as Asian American Pacific Islander Heritage Month (AAPI). Observed annually in May, AANHPI Heritage Month is a time to reflect upon and celebrate the remarkable role of the AANHPI community in our nation’s history.

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Long before Christopher Columbus stepped foot on what would come to be known as the Americas, the expansive territory was inhabited by Native Americans. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, as more explorers sought to colonize their land, Native Americans responded in various stages, from cooperation to indignation to revolt.

After siding with the French in numerous battles during the French and Indian War and eventually being forcibly removed from their homes under Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act, Native American populations were diminished in size and territory by the end of the 19th century.

Below are events that shaped Native Americans' tumultuous history following the arrival of foreign settlers.

April 1513: Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon lands on continental North America in Florida and makes contact with Native Americans.

February 1521: Ponce de Leon departs on another voyage to Florida from San Juan to start a colony. Months after landing, Ponce de Leon is attacked by local Native Americans and fatally wounded.

May 1539: Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernando de Soto lands in Florida to conquer the region. He explores the South under the guidance of Native Americans who had been captured along the way.

October 1540: De Soto and the Spaniards plan to rendezvous with ships in Alabama when they're attacked by Native Americans. Hundreds of Native Americans are killed in the ensuing battle.

C. 1595: Pocahontas is born, daughter of Chief Powhatan.

1607: Pocahontas' brother kidnaps Captain John Smith from the Jamestown colony. Smith later writes that after being threatened by Chief Powhatan, he was saved by Pocahontas. This scenario is debated by historians.

1613: Pocahontas is captured by Captain Samuel Argall in the first Anglo-Powhatan War. While captive, she learns to speak English, converts to Christianity and is given the name "Rebecca."

1622: The Powhatan Confederacy nearly wipes out Jamestown colony.

1680: A revolt of Pueblo Native Americans in New Mexico threatens Spanish rule over New Mexico.

1754: The French and Indian War begins, pitting the two groups against English settlements in the North.

May 15, 1756: The Seven Years' War between the British and the French begins, with Native American alliances aiding the French.

1785: The Treaty of Hopewell is signed in Georgia, protecting Cherokee Native Americans in the United States and sectioning off their land.

1788/89: Sacagawea is born.

1791: The Treaty of Holston is signed, in which the Cherokee give up all their land outside of the borders previously established.

April 7, 1805: Sacagawea, along with her baby and husband Toussaint Charbonneau, join Lewis and Clark on their voyage.

November 1811: U.S. forces attack Native American War Chief Tecumseh and his younger brother Lalawethika. Their community at the juncture of the Tippecanoe and Wabash rivers is destroyed.

June 18, 1812: President James Madison signs a declaration of war against Britain, beginning the war between U.S. forces and the British, French and Native Americans over independence and territory expansion.

March 27, 1814: Andrew Jackson, along with U.S. forces and Native American allies attack Creek Indians who opposed American expansion and encroachment of their territory in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The Creeks cede more than 20 million acres of land after their loss.

May 28, 1830: President Andrew Jackson signs the Indian Removal Act, which gives plots of land west of the Mississippi River to Native American tribes in exchange for land that is taken from them.

1851: Congress passes the Indian Appropriations Act, creating the Indian reservation system. Native Americans aren't allowed to leave their reservations without permission.

October 1860: A group of Apache Native Americans attack and kidnap a white American, resulting in the U.S. military falsely accusing the Native American leader of the Chiricahua Apache tribe, Cochise. Cochise and the Apache increase raids on white Americans for a decade afterwards.

November 29, 1864: 650 Colorado volunteer forces attack Cheyenne and Arapaho encampments along Sand Creek, killing and mutilating more than 150 American Indians during what would become known as the Sand Creek Massacre.

November 27, 1868: General George Armstrong Custer leads an early morning attack on Cheyenne living with Chief Black Kettle, destroying the village and killing more than 100 people, including many women and children and Black Kettle himself.

1873: Crazy Horse encounters General Custer for the first time.

1874: Gold discovered in South Dakota 's Black Hills drives U.S. troops to ignore a treaty and invade the territory.

June 25, 1876: In the Battle of Little Bighorn, also known as " Custer's Last Stand," Lieutenant Colonel George Custer's troops fight Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, led by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, along Little Bighorn River. Custer and his troops are defeated and killed, increasing tensions between Native Americans and white Americans.

October 6, 1879: The first students attend Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, the country's first off-reservation boarding school. The school, created by Civil War veteran Richard Henry Pratt, is designed to assimilate Native American students.

December 15, 1890: Sitting Bull is killed during a confrontation with Indian police in Grand River, South Dakota.

December 29, 1890: U.S. Armed Forces surround Ghost Dancers led by Chief Big Foot near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, demanding the surrender of their weapons. An estimated 150 Native Americans are killed in the Wounded Knee Massacre, along with 25 men with the U.S. cavalry.

January 29, 1907: Charles Curtis becomes the first Native American U.S. Senator.

June 2, 1924: U.S. Congress passes the Indian Citizenship Act, granting citizenship to all Native Americans born in the territorial limits of the country. Previously, citizenship had been limited, depending on what percentage Native American ancestry a person had, whether they were veterans, or, if they were women, whether they were married to a U.S. citizen.

May 1942: Members of the Navajo Nation develop a code to transmit messages and radio messages for the U.S. armed forces during World War II. Eventually hundreds of code talkers from multiple Native American tribes serve in the U.S. Marines during the war.

July 1968: Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt found the American Indian Movement (AIM) in Minneapolis, along with Bellecourt's brother Vernon and Banks' friend George Mitchell. Originally an urban-focused movement formed in response to police brutality and racial profiling, AIM grows rapidly in the 1970s to become the driving force behind the Indigenous civil rights movement.

November 20, 1969: A group of San Francisco Bay-area Native Americans, calling themselves "Indians of All Tribes," journey to Alcatraz Island, declaring their intention to use the island for an Indian school, cultural center and museum. Referencing Europeans' colonization of North America, they claim Alcatraz is theirs "by right of discovery." On June 11, 1971 armed federal marshals descend on the island and remove the last of its Indian residents.

August 29, 1970: A group of Native Americans, led by the San Francisco-based United Native Americans, ascend 3,000 feet to the top of Mount Rushmore and set up camp to protest the broken Treaty of Fort Laramie.

November 26, 1970: On Thanksgiving Day, AIM members seize a replica of the Mayflower in Boston Harbor, declaring the holiday a National Day of Mourning.

June 6, 1971: A group of Native Americans, led by AIM, occupy Mount Rushmore to demand the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie be honored. Twenty Native Americans-nine men and 11 women-are eventually arrested.

February 27, 1973: The Wounded Knee Occupation begins as some 200 Oglala Lakota (also referred to as Oglala Sioux) and AIM members seize and occupy the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The occupation lasts for 71 days, during which time two Sioux men are shot to death by federal agents and several more are wounded.

January 4, 1975: Congress passes the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, which reverses the termination policy of previous decades when American Indian tribes were disbanded, their land sold and "relocations" forced Indians off reservations and into urban centers. The 1975 act provides recognition and funds to Indian tribes.

July 15, 1978: A transcontinental trek for Native American justice, called the " Longest Walk," sets off from Alcatraz Island, California. By the time marchers reach Washington, D.C. they number 30,000.

August 11, 1978: The American Indian Religious Freedom Act is passed, granting Native Americans the right to use certain lands and controlled substances for religious ceremonies.

October 11, 1980: President Jimmy Carter signs the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act. The act grants Indian tribes, including the Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, $81.5 million for land taken from them more than 150 years ago.

July 13, 2020: The Washington National Football League franchise announces it is dropping its name, the "Redskins," as well as its Indian head logo. The move is in response to decades of criticism that they are offensive to Native Americans. The team is eventually renamed the Commanders.

July 23, 2021: In response to criticisms, Cleveland's Major League Baseball team announces they are changing their name to the Guardians and are dropping their previous name, the Indians.

Fact Check

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As explorers sought to colonize their land, Native Americans responded in various stages, from cooperation to indignation to revolt.

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Communication in the Classroom | MyEducator

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Using successful communication in the classroom means both understanding the styles of communication students may use and practicing the basics of communication in your own teaching and conversation.

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Activity objectives:

To achieve an understanding of privilege and oppression

To provide an opportunity for learners to empathise, connect and reflect on the experience of having/not having privilege

To identify the privileges that exist in the society we live in today

To reflect upon what types of privileges (social, financial, legal etc) are important to them and why that may differ from others in their group.

To investigate and discuss what groups may have limited access to what privileges and effect that lack of access may have on an individual.

Go to activity "

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What is white privilege? An overview | Racism No Way

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Activity objectives: To achieve an understanding of privilege and oppression To provide an opportunity for learners to empathise, connect and reflect on the experience of having/not having privilege To identify the privileges that exist in the society we live in today To reflect upon what types of privileges (social, financial, legal etc) are important to them and why that may differ from others in their group.

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Race, Racism & Anti-Racism | Diversity & Inclusion

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Race, Racism & Anti-Racism terms to broaden your understanding of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

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Opinion Piece-Top 10 Laws that Impact Education

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Opinion Piece-Top 10 Laws that Impact Education

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Even in non-election years, education remains at the forefront of most Americans' social, political, and economic concerns. Or it should, anyway. Seeing as how the public school system is run by the, uh, government, it ought to come as no shock to anyone whatsoever that some legislation stands as more groundbreaking than others.

Do keep in mind that this article only includes federal laws, though legislation passed at the state level can obviously still hold influence. Like compulsory education. That's kind of a big deal. But we're sticking with the rulings that govern all the states, because so many variations exist from one to the other it'd be hard to discuss them without keeping you here all day.

1. The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, guarantees equal protection under the law across demographics and, obviously, does not exclusively cover education. But it played a major role in shaping the American public education system when invoked during many different Supreme Court cases involving state schools. Most significant of the lot: Brown v. The Board of Educationout of Kansas, which overturned Plessey v. Ferguson in 1954. This decision marked a turning point in Civil Rights by declaring "separate but equal" and otherwise racially segregated schools absolutely unconstitutional. A decision which wound up provoking backwards governors like Arkansas' Orval Faubus and Alabama's George Wallace to infamously attempt blocking the first black students from entering traditionally white state schools.

2. The Fourteenth Amendment proved pivotal in ultimately desegregating public institutes of learning, and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 helped further the cause of racial equality in the public school system. Essentially, it made discrimination against faculty, administrators, staff, and students on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, or color illegal. Which is more or less what one would expect the law to be about, considering the title and everything. In 1982, it played a significant part in the Supreme Court case Plyler v. Doe, ultimately requiring public schools to provide equal-opportunity education for the children of undocumented immigrants.

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10 Most Important Education Laws in American History

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Even in non-election years, education remains at the forefront of most Americans' social, political, and economic concerns. Or it should, anyway. Seeing as how the public school system is run by the, uh, government, it ought to come as no shock to anyone whatsoever that some legislation stands as more groundbreaking than others.

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Navigating the Spectrum: Understanding Types of Sexualities - Pathways Family and Community Services

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Socioeconomic Status (Explained in 4 Minutes)

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Socioeconomic Status and the Brain - Michael Thomas

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African Americans, one of the largest of the many ethnic groups in the United States. African Americans are mainly of African ancestry, but many have non-Black ancestors as well.

African Americans are largely the descendants of enslaved people who were brought from their African homelands by force to work in the New World. Their rights were severely limited, and they were long denied a rightful share in the economic, social, and political progress of the United States. Nevertheless, African Americans have made basic and lasting contributions to American history and culture.

At the turn of the 21st century, more than half the country's more than 36 million African Americans lived in the South; 10 Southern states had Black populations exceeding 1 million. African Americans were also concentrated in the largest cities, with more than 2 million living in New York City and more than 1 million in Chicago. Detroit, Philadelphia, and Houston each had a Black population between 500,000 and 1 million.

Names and labels

As Americans of African descent reached each new plateau in their struggle for equality, they reevaluated their identity. The slaveholder labels of black and negro (Spanish for "black") were offensive, so they chose the euphemism coloured when they were freed. Capitalized, Negro became acceptable during the migration to the North for factory jobs. Afro-American was adopted by civil rights activists to underline pride in their ancestral homeland, but Black-the symbol of power and revolution-proved more popular. All these terms are still reflected in the names of dozens of organizations. To reestablish "cultural integrity" in the late 1980s, Jesse Jackson proposed African American, which-unlike some "baseless" colour label-proclaims kinship with a historical land base. In the 21st century the terms Black and African American both were widely used.

The early history of Blacks in the Americas

Africans assisted the Spanish and the Portuguese during their early exploration of the Americas. In the 16th century some Black explorers settled in the Mississippi valley and in the areas that became South Carolina and New Mexico. The most celebrated Black explorer of the Americas was Estéban, who traveled through the Southwest in the 1530s.

The uninterrupted history of Blacks in the United States began in 1619, when 20 Africans were landed in the English colony of Virginia. These individuals were not enslaved people but indentured servants -persons bound to an employer for a limited number of years-as were many of the settlers of European descent (whites). By the 1660s large numbers of Africans were being brought to the English colonies. In 1790 Blacks numbered almost 760,000 and made up nearly one-fifth of the population of the United States.

Attempts to hold Black servants beyond the normal term of indenture culminated in the legal establishment of Black chattel slavery in Virginia in 1661 and in all the English colonies by 1750. Black people were easily distinguished by their skin colour (the result of evolutionary pressures favouring the presence in the skin of a dark pigment called melanin in populations in equatorial climates) from the rest of the populace, making them highly visible targets for enslavement. Moreover, the development of the belief that they were an "inferior" race with a "heathen" culture made it easier for whites to rationalize Black slavery. Enslaved Blacks were put to work clearing and cultivating the farmlands of the New World.

Of an estimated 10 million Africans brought to the Americas by the trade of enslaved peoples, about 430,000 came to the territory of what is now the United States. The overwhelming majority were taken from the area of western Africa stretching from present-day Senegal to Angola, where political and social organization as well as art, music, and dance were highly advanced. On or near the African coast had emerged the major kingdoms of Oyo, Ashanti, Benin, Dahomey, and the Congo. In the Sudanese interior had arisen the empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai; the Hausa states; and the states of Kanem-Bornu. Such African cities as Djenné and Timbuktu, both now in Mali, were at one time major commercial and educational centres.

With the increasing profitability of slavery and the trade of enslaved peoples, some Africans themselves sold captives to the European traders. The captured Africans were generally marched in chains to the coast and crowded into the holds of slave ships for the dreaded Middle Passage across the Atlantic Ocean, usually to the West Indies. Shock, disease, and suicide were responsible for the deaths of at least one-sixth during the crossing. In the West Indies the survivors were "seasoned"-taught the rudiments of English and drilled in the routines and discipline of plantation life.

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African Americans | History, Facts, & Culture

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African Americans constitute one of the largest ethnic groups in the United States. African Americans are mainly of African ancestry, but many have non-Black ancestors as well. Learn more about African Americans, including their history, culture, and contributions.

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Contents

1. Early Spanish Explorers Reach America

2. Los Angeles Founded, First Hispanic Congressman Elected

3. Battle of the Alamo, Mexican-American War

4. Mexico Revolution Drives Immigration to US

5. Puerto Ricans Granted US Citizenship

6. First Hispanic Senator Sworn in

7. Contributions During World War II

8. Supreme Court Prohibits Segregation for Mexican-American Students

9. Civil Rights Act of 1964

10. Cesar Chavez Leads Delano Grape Strike

11. Mariel Boatlift

12. Multiple Firsts in White House Cabinets

13. NAFTA, Prop 187

14. Sonia Sotomayor Joints US Supreme Court

15. DAPA, DACA Rulings

American Hispanic/Latino history is rich, diverse and long, with immigrants, refugees and Spanish-speaking or Indigenous people living in the United States since long before the nation was established.

And, bringing with them traditions and culture from Mexico, Spain, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and other Latin American and Iberian nations, America's Hispanic population continues to grow, reaching a record 62.5 million in 2020, or 18.7 percent of the U.S. population.

From early Spanish colonialism to civil and worker rights laws to famous firsts to recent Supreme Court decisions on immigration, here's a timeline of notable events in U.S. Hispanic and Latino history.

Early Spanish Explorers Reach America
READ MORE: How St. Augustine Became the First European Settlement in America
Los Angeles Founded, First Hispanic Congressman Elected

Battle of the Alamo, Mexican-American War
READ MORE: Why Mexican Americans Say 'The Border Crossed Us' READ MORE: How the 14th Amendment Made Corporations Into People
Mexico Revolution Drives Immigration to US
READ MORE: How Border Crossing Became a Crime in the United States
Puerto Ricans Granted US Citizenship

March 2, 1917
President Wilson signs the Jones-Shafroth Act, granting U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans and creating a bicameral legislature in the island territory. With the United States about to enter World War I, it also gives America a stronghold and allows Puerto Ricans to join the U.S. Army. Eventually, 20,000 Puerto Ricans are drafted to serve during the conflict, many charged with guarding the important Panama Canal.
READ MORE: Puerto Rico's Complicated History With the United States
First Hispanic Senator Sworn in

Contributions During World War II

Dec. 7, 1941
Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, drawing the U.S. into World War II. More than 500,000 Mexican Americans serve in the American military during the conflict, with 13 Medals of Honor awarded to Latinos. The 158th Regimental Combat Team, largely composed of Latino and Native American soldiers who fought in the Philippines and New Guinea, is called "the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed in battle" by Gen. Douglas MacArthur.
READ MORE: 6 Facts About the Medal of Honor READ MORE: The Surprising Role Mexico Played in World War II
With racial tensions growing between the Hispanic and Anglo communities following an injust murder trial, sailors drag Latino youth from dineres, cafes, bars and movie theaters, ripping off their baggy suits and beating them with clubs and whips. The youth fight back, leaving both Mexicans and servicemen hospitalized.
READ MORE: The Zoot Suit Riots: Causes, Facts & Photos
Supreme Court Prohibits Segregation for Mexican-American Students

April 14, 1947
The 9th Circuit Court of Appeals makes a landmark ruling prohibiting segregation in California public schools in Mendez v. Westminster School District. In the case, the family of Sylvia Mendez, then 9, and others sued four school districts for being denied entrance to Westminster Elementary School because they were Mexican. The ruling sets precedent for the historic Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case seven years later.
READ MORE: The Mendez Family Fought School Segregation 8 Years Before Brown v. Board of Ed
May 3, 1954
In Hernandez v. State of Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that Mexican-Americans have equal protection under the law. The important civil rights case centers around Pete Hernandez, a farm worker indicted for murder by an all-anglo grand jury in Jackson County, Texas. His attornies argue discrimination, including the fact that no person of Mexican ancestory had served as juror in the county in 25 years, citing the 14th Amendment. The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously agrees, holding that the amendment protects those beyond "white" or "negro," also covering those of Mexican ancestry.
READ MORE: The Largest Mass Deportation in US History
Feb. 13, 1959
A plane carrying musicians Ritchie Valens, Buddy Holly and "The Big Bopper" J.P. Richardson crashes near Clear Lake, Iowa, killing everyone on board. Valens, who was just 17 years old when he died, is the first Mexican-American rock and roll star, scoring four hit records ( Donna and La Bamba among them) in his eight-month-long career.
READ MORE: All the Way the Bay of Pigs Invasion Failed
Civil Rights Act of 1964
READ MORE: US Immigration Timeline
Cesar Chavez Leads Delano Grape Strike
March 17, 1966
Cesar Chavez, general director of the National Farm Workers Association, leads 75 Latino and Filipino farm workers on a historic 340-mile march from Delano, California to the state capitol in Sacramento. Drawing attention to the demands of grape growers, the march, held at the onset of a strike that would last five years, lasts 25 days, and upon arrival in Sacramento on Easter Sunday, the group is met by a crowd of 10,000. Later that summer, the NFWA merges with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee to form the United Farm Workers union that affiliates with the AFL-CIO.
READ MORE: When Millions of Americans Stopped Eating Grapes in Support of Farm Workers READ MORE: Maurice Ferré becomes first Puerto Rican to lead a major U.S. mainland city
Mariel Boatlift

Multiple Firsts in White House Cabinets

NAFTA, Prop 187

Sonia Sotomayor Joints US Supreme Court

June 25, 2012
In a 5-3 ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down most of SB1070, an Arizona immigration law in Arizona v. United States. The decision finds three of the four provisions of the statute are preempted by federal law: the section making it a crime to reside in the country illegally, the section making it unlawful for undocumented workers to apply for a job and the section allowing warrantless arrest based on probable cause of unlawful presence. However, the court does uphold the law's requirement that law enforcement officers verify immigration status during lawful stops.

DAPA, DACA Rulings

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Early Spanish Explorers Reach America Los Angeles Founded, First Hispanic Congressman Elected Battle of the Alamo, Mexican-American War Mexico Revolution Drives Immigration to US Puerto Ricans Granted US Citizenship First Hispanic Senator Sworn in Contributions During World War II Supreme Court Prohibits Segregation for Mexican-American Students Civil Rights Act of

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Group of Immigrants Cabinet of American Illustration

In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution, and nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England - the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. Even so, a relatively large group of Chinese immigrated to the United States between the start of the California gold rush in 1849 and 1882, when federal law stopped their immigration.

With the onset of hard economic times in the 1870s, European immigrants and Americans began to compete for the jobs traditionally reserved for the Chinese. With economic competition came dislike and even racial suspicion and hatred. Such feelings were accompanied by anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California, for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. The result of this pressure was the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by Congress in 1882. This Act virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century.

Immigrants entered the United States through several ports. Those from Europe generally came through East Coast facilities, while those from Asia generally entered through West Coast centers. More than 70 percent of all immigrants, however, entered through New York City, which came to be known as the "Golden Door." Throughout the late 1800s, most immigrants arriving in New York entered at the Castle Garden depot near the tip of Manhattan. In 1892, the federal government opened a new immigration processing center on Ellis Island in New York harbor.

Although immigrants often settled near ports of entry, a large number did find their way inland. Many states, especially those with sparse populations, actively sought to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming. Many immigrants wanted to move to communities established by previous settlers from their homelands.

Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. Men were generally paid less than other workers, and women less than men. Social tensions were also part of the immigrant experience. Often stereotyped and discriminated against, many immigrants suffered verbal and physical abuse because they were "different." While large-scale immigration created many social tensions, it also produced a new vitality in the cities and states in which the immigrants settled. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

To find other documents in Loc.gov relating to this topic, use such key words as immigration or immigrants, or include the names of specific immigrant or ethnic groups, such as German, Irish, Scandinavian, Swedish, Norwegian, or Chinese.

Documents

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Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States.

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The Annexation of Hawaii - Bill of Rights Institute

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Was the annexation of Hawaii an act of imperialism?

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National Hispanic Heritage Month, which begins in the United States each year on Sept. 15, celebrates U.S. Latinos, their culture and their history. Started in 1968 by Congress as Hispanic Heritage Week, it was expanded to a month in 1988. The celebration begins in the middle of September to coincide with independence days in several Latin American countries: Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica celebrate theirs on Sept. 15, followed by Mexico on Sept. 16, Chile on Sept. 18 and Belize on Sept. 21.

Here are some key facts about the U.S. Latino population by geography and by characteristics such as language use and origin group.

The U.S. Hispanic population reached 63.6 million in 2022, up from 50.5 million in 2010. The 26% increase in the Hispanic population was faster than the nation's 8% growth rate but slower than the 34% increase in the Asian population. In 2022, Hispanics made up nearly one-in-five people in the U.S. (19%), up from 16% in 2010 and just 5% in 1970.

Hispanics have played a major role in U.S. population growth over the past decade. The U.S. population grew by 24.5 million from 2010 to 2022, and Hispanics accounted for 53% of this increase - a greater share than any other racial or ethnic group. The next closest group is non-Hispanic people who identify with two or more races. Their population grew by 8.4 million during this time, accounting for 34% of the overall increase.

The number of Latinos who say they are multiracial has increased dramatically. More than 27 million Latinos identified with more than one race in 2022, up from 3 million in 2010. The increase could be due to several factors, including changes to the census form that make it easier for people to select multiple races and growing racial diversity.

Growth in the number of multiracial Latinos comes primarily from those who identify as at least one specific race and "some other race" (i.e., those who write in a response). This population grew from 2.1 million to 24.9 million between 2010 and 2022 and now represents about 91% of multiracial Latinos. The increase was due almost entirely to growth in the number of people who identified as White and some other race, according to the 2020 census.

At the same time, the number of Latinos who identified as White and no other race declined from 26.7 million in 2010 to 10.7 million in 2022.

The roughly 37.4 million people of Mexican origin in the U.S. represented nearly 60% of the nation's Hispanic population in 2022. Those of Puerto Rican origin are the next largest group, at 5.9 million, which does not include another roughly 3.2 million Puerto Ricans who lived on the island in 2022. The U.S. population of Puerto Rican origin has grown partly due to people moving from Puerto Rico to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

Six other Hispanic origin groups in the U.S. each have 1 million or more people: Salvadorans, Cubans, Dominicans, Guatemalans, Colombians and Hondurans. In addition, in 2022, Spaniards accounted for nearly 1 million U.S. Latinos.

Puerto Rico's population has declined by about 500,000 since 2010, from 3.7 million to 3.2 million. Puerto Rico has experienced a net population loss since at least 2005, driven by low fertility rates and migration to the U.S. mainland. An ongoing economic recession and devastation from hurricanes Maria and Irma in 2017 have also contributed to the decline.

Venezuelans have seen the fastest population growth among U.S. Latinos. From 2010 to 2022, the Venezuelan-origin population in the U.S. increased by 236% to 815,000. Four other groups saw growth rates exceeding 50%: Hondurans increased by 67%, followed by Guatemalans (62%), Dominicans (59%) and Colombians (51%).

By contrast, the number of people of Mexican origin in the U.S. grew by only 14%, by far the slowest rate among the most populous origin groups.

Hispanics are the largest racial or ethnic group in California and Texas. This demographic milestone in California happened in 2014 and was a first for the state with the nation's largest Hispanic population. Latinos accounted for 40% of California's population in 2022, among the greatest shares in the country.

That year, there were about 15.7 million Hispanics in California, up from 14.0 million in 2010. The non-Hispanic White population, the next largest group, declined from 15.0 million to 13.2 million during this time, reflecting a broader national trend.

In Texas, the state with the next largest Latino population (12.1 million), Latinos also made up 40% of the population in 2022 and became the largest racial or ethnic group in 2021. In Florida, the state with the third-largest Latino population (6.0 million), Latinos made up 27% of residents.

Rounding out the top five states with the largest Hispanic populations were New York (3.9 million) and Arizona (2.4 million). Eight more states had 1 million or more Hispanics: Illinois, New Jersey, Colorado, Georgia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Washington and New Mexico.

Vermont had the nation's smallest Latino population (15,000) in 2022, followed by Maine (29,000), West Virginia and North Dakota (34,000 each), and South Dakota (42,000).

In New Mexico, Hispanics have been a majority of the population since 2021 and the state's largest racial or ethnic group since the early 2000s. In 2022, the state was home to 1.1 million Hispanics.

Three states' Hispanic populations increased by more than 1 million from 2010 to 2022. Texas (2.5 million increase), Florida (1.8 million) and California (1.6 million) accounted for almost half of the growth nationwide since 2010. Arizona (480,000 increase), New Jersey (464,000) and New York (432,000) had the next-biggest increases. All 50 states and the District of Columbia have seen growth in their Hispanic populations since 2010.

North and South Dakota's Hispanic populations have grown the fastest since 2010. The number of Hispanics in North and South Dakota more than doubled (146% and 107% increases, respectively) from 2010 to 2022. But even with that growth, these states each had fewer than 45,000 Hispanics in 2022, among the smallest populations in the country.

The slowest growth was in New Mexico (10% increase), California (12%), and Illinois and New York (13% each), all states with significant Hispanic populations.

The makeup of the U.S. Hispanic population varies widely across major metropolitan areas. Most of the metro areas in the Midwest, West and South with the largest Hispanic populations are predominantly Mexican. About three-quarters of Hispanics in the Chicago (77%) and Los Angeles (75%) areas identify as Mexican, as do 67% in the Houston area.

Metro areas in the Northeast tend to have more diverse Hispanic origins. For example, no origin group makes up more than 30% of the New York and Boston metro areas' Hispanic populations.

Metro areas in Florida and the nation's capital have distinctive Hispanic enclaves. Puerto Ricans make up 43% of Hispanics in the Orlando area, while Cubans make up 39% of Hispanics in the Miami area. In the Washington, D.C., metro area, Salvadorans account for 30% of Hispanics.

Catholics remain the largest religious group among Latinos in the U.S., but they have become a smaller share of the Latino population over the past decade. In 2022, 43% of Latinos adults identify as Catholic, down from 67% in 2010. Meanwhile, 30% of Latinos are religiously unaffiliated (describing themselves as atheist, agnostic or "nothing in particular"), up from 10% in 2010. The share of Latinos who identify as Protestants - including evangelical Protestants - has been relatively stable.

Newborns, not immigrants, have driven the recent growth among U.S. Hispanics. During the 2010s, an average of 1 million Hispanic babies were born each year, slightly more than during the 2000s. At the same time, about 350,000 Hispanic immigrants arrived annually, down substantially from the previous two decades.

The recent predominance of new births over immigration as a source of Hispanic population growth is a reversal of historical trends. In the 1980s and 1990s, immigration drove Hispanic population growth.

From 2020 to 2022, average annual births among Hispanics were slightly below the previous decade, but immigration decreased considerably, from 350,000 per year to 270,000. Some of this decline can be attributed to immigration into the U.S. stopping almost entirely during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. With the removal of pandemic-related restrictions, the contribution of immigration to Hispanic growth appears to be returning to early 2010s levels.

The share of Latinos in the U.S. who speak English proficiently is growing. In 2022, 72% of Latinos ages 5 and older spoke English proficiently, up from 59% in 2000. U.S.-born Latinos are driving this growth: The share of U.S.-born Latinos who speak English proficiently increased by 9 percentage points in that span, compared with a 5-point increase among Latino immigrants. All told, 42.3 million Latinos in the U.S. spoke English proficiently in 2022.

At the same time, the share of Latinos who speak Spanish at home declined from 78% in 2000 to 68% in 2022, and most of that decline was among the U.S. born.

Even though the share of Latinos who speak Spanish at home has declined, the number who do so has grown from 24.6 million in 2000 to 39.7 million in 2022 because of the overall growth in the Latino population.

The share of U.S. Hispanics with college experience has increased since 2010. About 45% of U.S. Hispanic adults ages 25 and older had at least some college experience in 2022, up from 36% in 2010. The share of Hispanics with a bachelor's degree or more education also increased, from 13% to 20%. The share with a bachelor's degree or higher increased more among Hispanic women (from 14% to 22%) than Hispanic men (12% to 18%).

The number of Latinos enrolled in college or postgraduate education also increased between 2010 and 2022, from 2.9 million to 4.2 million. Among all U.S. undergraduate and graduate students, the share of Latinos increased from 14% in 2010 to 20% in 2022, slightly higher than the Latino share of the total population.

Four-in-five Latinos are U.S. citizens. As of 2022, 81% of Latinos living in the country are U.S. citizens, up from 74% in 2010. This includes people born in the U.S. and its territories (including Puerto Rico), people born abroad to American parents, and immigrants who have become naturalized citizens. The Center recently published citizenship rates among Hispanic origin groups for 2021; this data is not yet available for 2022.
Note: This post has been regularly updated since it was originally published on Sept. 16, 2014.

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Key facts about U.S. Latinos for National Hispanic Heritage Month

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The U.S. population grew by 24.5 million from 2010 to 2022, and Hispanics accounted for 53% of this increase.

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This is a song by a Puerto Rican artist named Bad Bunny where he talks about the colonization of Puerto Rico and how the people fear it will become like Hawaii as of colonization it is pg but something that might be interesting to talk about when it comes to Puerto Ricans.

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Bad Bunny - LO QUE LE PASÓ A HAWAii (Lyrics) + English Traduction

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Marsha P. Johnson’s historic role in the LGBTQ+ rights movement

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Facts of the case

At a school-supervised event, Joseph Frederick held up a banner with the message "Bong Hits 4 Jesus," a slang reference to marijuana smoking. Principal Deborah Morse took away the banner and suspended Frederick for ten days. She justified her actions by citing the school's policy against the display of material that promotes the use of illegal drugs. Frederick sued under 42 U.S.C. 1983, the federal civil rights statute, alleging a violation of his First Amendment right to freedom of speech. The District Court found no constitutional violation and ruled in favor of Morse. The court held that even if there were a violation, the principal had qualified immunity from lawsuit. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed. The Ninth Circuit cited Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District , which extended First Amendment protection to student speech except where the speech would cause a disturbance. Because Frederick was punished for his message rather than for any disturbance, the Circuit Court ruled, the punishment was unconstitutional. Furthermore, the principal had no qualified immunity, because any reasonable principal would have known that Morse's actions were unlawful.

Question

1) Does the First Amendment allow public schools to prohibit students from displaying messages promoting the use of illegal drugs at school-supervised events?

2) Does a school official have qualified immunity from a damages lawsuit under 42 U.S.C. 1983 when, in accordance with school policy, she disciplines a student for displaying a banner with a drug reference at a school-supervised event?

Conclusion

Yes and not reached. The Court reversed the Ninth Circuit by a 5-4 vote, ruling that school officials can prohibit students from displaying messages that promote illegal drug use. Chief Justice John Roberts's majority opinion held that although students do have some right to political speech even while in school, this right does not extend to pro-drug messages that may undermine the school's important mission to discourage drug use. The majority held that Frederick's message, though "cryptic," was reasonably interpreted as promoting marijuana use - equivalent to "[Take] bong hits" or "bong hits [are a good thing]." In ruling for Morse, the Court affirmed that the speech rights of public school students are not as extensive as those adults normally enjoy, and that the highly protective standard set by Tinker would not always be applied. In concurring opinions, Justice Thomas expressed his view that the right to free speech does not apply to students and his wish to see Tinker overturned altogether, while Justice Alito stressed that the decision applied only to pro-drug messages and not to broader political speech. The dissent conceded that the principal should have had immunity from the lawsuit, but argued that the majority opinion was "[...] deaf to the constitutional imperative to permit unfettered debate, even among high-school students [...]."

Cite this page

"Morse v. Frederick." Oyez, www.oyez.org/cases/2006/06-278. Accessed 24 Mar. 2021.

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At a school-supervised event, Joseph Frederick held up a banner with the message "Bong Hits 4 Jesus," a slang reference to marijuana smoking. Principal Deborah Morse took away the banner and suspended Frederick for ten days. She justified her actions by citing the school's policy against the display of material that promotes the use of illegal drugs.

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Bethel vs Fraser: Details of 1st amendment in the classroom

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Bethel vs Fraser: Details of 1st amendment in the classroom

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Euro-American | Research Starters | EBSCO Research

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Euro-American, also referred to as European American, is a panethnic identity encompassing individuals in the United States who have European ancestry, including groups such as English, German, Irish, Italian, and Polish descendants. This demographic represents the largest ethnic group in the U.S., comprising descendants from early colonizers to more recent immigrants. The identity has evolved due to the decline of specific ethnic affiliations and the formation of a shared narrative surrounding immigration and social mobility, particularly in response to challenges from diverse racial and ethnic communities.

Despite its significance, the term "Euro-American" is often less recognized compared to other panethnic identities like Asian American or Hispanic, which may indicate the dominant status of the group in societal interactions. Competing labels such as White, Caucasian, and Anglo-American further complicate the understanding of this identity, with Anglo-American specifically highlighting the historical influence of British Americans. The future of the Euro-American identity is likely to be shaped by both internal dynamics within the group and external societal forces influencing ethnic categorizations.

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Telling All Americans’ Stories: Introduction to European Heritage (U.S. National Park Service)

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telling all american stories, european heritage, irish american heritage, anglo american heritage, german american heritage

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A government website explaining what happened on the Trail of Tears.

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Federal Indian Removal Policy

Early in the 19th century, the United States felt threatened by England and Spain, who held land in the western continent. At the same time, American settlers clamored for more land. Thomas Jefferson proposed the creation of a buffer zone between U.S. and European holdings, to be inhabited by eastern American Indians. This plan would also allow for American expansion westward from the original colonies to the Mississippi River.

Between 1816 and 1840, tribes located between the original states and the Mississippi River, including Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, signed more than 40 treaties ceding their lands to the U.S. In his 1829 inaugural address, President Andrew Jackson set a policy to relocate eastern Indians. In 1830 it was endorsed, when Congress passed the Indian Removal Act to force those remaining to move west of the Mississippi. Between 1830 and 1850, about 100,000 American Indians living between Michigan, Louisiana, and Florida moved west after the U.S. government coerced treaties or used the U.S. Army against those resisting. Many were treated brutally. An estimated 3,500 Creeks died in Alabama and on their westward journey. Some were transported in chains.

The Cherokees

Historically, Cherokees occupied lands in several southeastern states. As European settlers arrived, Cherokees traded and intermarried with them. They began to adopt European customs and gradually turned to an agricultural economy, while being pressured to give up traditional home-lands. Between 1721 and 1819, over 90 percent of their lands were ceded to others. By the 1820s, Sequoyah's syllabary brought literacy and a formal governing system with a written constitution.

In 1830- the same year the Indian Removal Act was passed - gold was found on Cherokee lands. Georgia held lotteries to give Cherokee land and gold rights to whites. Cherokees were not allowed to conduct tribal business, contract, testify in courts against whites, or mine for gold. The Cherokees successfully challenged Georgia in the U.S. Supreme Court. President Jackson, when hearing of the Court's decision, reportedly said, "[Chief Justice] John Marshall has made his decision; let him enforce it now if he can."

The Treaty of New Echota

Most Cherokees opposed removal. Yet a minority felt that it was futile to continue to fight. They believed that they might survive as a people only if they signed a treaty with the United States. In December 1835, the U.S. sought out this minority to effect a treaty at New Echota, Georgia. Only 300 to 500 Cherokees were there; none were elected officials of the Cherokee Nation. Twenty signed the treaty, ceding all Cherokee territory east of the Mississippi to the U.S., in exchange for $5 million and new homelands in Indian Territory. More than 15,000 Cherokees protested the illegal treaty. Yet, on May 23, 1836, the Treaty of New Echota was ratified by the U.S. Senate - by just one vote.

"Many Days Pass and People Die Very Much"

Most Cherokees, including Chief John Ross, did not believe that they would be forced to move. In May 1838, Federal troops and state militias began the roundup of the Cherokees into stockades. In spite of warnings to troops to treat the Cherokees kindly, the roundup proved harrowing. Families were separated-the elderly and ill forced out at gunpoint - people given only moments to collect cherished possessions. White looters followed, ransacking homesteads as Cherokees were led away.

Three groups left in the summer, traveling from present-day Chattanooga by rail, boat, and wagon, primarily on the Water Route. But river levels were too low for navigation; one group, traveling overland in Arkansas, suffered three to five deaths each day due to illness and drought. Fifteen thousand captives still awaited removal. Crowding, poor sanitation, and drought made them miserable. Many died. The Cherokees asked to postpone removal until the fall, and to voluntarily remove themselves. The delay was granted, provided they remain in internment camps until travel resumed.

By November, 12 groups of 1,000 each were trudging 800 miles overland to the west. The last party, including Chief Ross, went by water. Now, heavy autumn rains and hundreds of wagons on the muddy route made roads impassable; little grazing and game could be found to supplement meager rations. Two-thirds of the ill-equipped Cherokees were trapped between the ice-bound Ohio and Mississippi Rivers during January. Some drank stagnant water and succumbed to disease. One survivor told how his father got sick and died; then, his mother; then, one by one, his five brothers and sisters. "One each day. Then all are gone." Another survivor recalled:

"Long time we travel on way to new land. People feel bad when they leave Old Nation. Womens cry and make sad wails. Children cry and many men cry...but they say nothing and just put heads down and keep on go towards West. Many days pass and people die very much."

By March 1839, all survivors had arrived in the west. No one knows how many died throughout the ordeal, but the trip was especially hard on infants, children, and the elderly. Missionary doctor Elizur Butler, who accompanied the Cherokees, estimated that over 4,000 died- nearly a fifth of the Cherokee population.

Epilogue

In August 1839, John Ross was elected Principal Chief of the reconstituted Cherokee Nation. Tahlequah, Oklahoma was its capital. It remains tribal headquarters for the Cherokee Nation today. About 1,000 Cherokees in Tennessee and North Carolina escaped the roundup. They gained recognition in 1866, establishing their tribal government in 1868 in Cherokee, North Carolina. Today, they are known as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.

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What Happened on the Trail of Tears? - Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail (U.S. National Park Service)

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Early in the 19th century, the United States felt threatened by England and Spain, who held land in the western continent. At the same time, American settlers clamored for more land. Thomas Jefferson proposed the creation of a buffer zone between U.S. and European holdings, to be inhabited by easter…

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The message connected drug use and religion in a nonsensical phrase that was designed to provoke, and it got Joseph Frederick into a lot of trouble.

After he unfurled his 14-foot "Bong Hits 4 Jesus" banner on a Juneau, Alaska, street one winter morning in 2002, Frederick got a 10-day school suspension. Five years later, he has a date Monday at the Supreme Court in what is shaping up as an important test of constitutional rights.

Students do not leave their right to free speech at the school door, the high court said in a Vietnam-era case over an anti-war protest by high school students.

But neither can students be disruptive or lewd or interfere with a school's basic educational mission, the court also has said.

How to strike that balance is the question, particularly since the Columbine massacre and the Sept. 11 attacks have made teachers and administrators quicker to tamp down on unruly or unusual behavior.

Other student speech cases making their way through the courts include a student who was pulled from class after taping an anti-gay message to his shirt and a middle schooler who got into trouble for a shirt that uses symbols of drugs and alcohol to criticize President George W. Bush.

Student: Case about speech, not drugs
Unlike the Vietnam protesters who won their court fight in the late 1960s, Frederick says he was not staking out a political position with the banner he fashioned with pieces of duct tape as lettering.

"What the banner said was, 'Look here, I have the right to free speech and I'm asserting it.' I wasn't trying to say anything religious, anything about drugs," Frederick said in a telephone news conference from China, where he now teaches English and studies Mandarin.

An array of groups, from advocates of drug law changes to gay rights backers to supporters of religious freedom, have lined up behind him. "This case is not about drugs. This case is about speech," said Douglas Mertz of Juneau, Frederick's lawyer.

The Bush administration, school boards, anti-drug groups and former drug control directors William Bennett and Barry McCaffrey are supporting the Juneau schools and principal Deborah Morse. They say that the court should support school administrators who impose reasonable limits on student expression and that those limits should extend to promotion of illegal drugs.

"It was the wrong message, at the wrong time and in the wrong place," said former independent counsel Kenneth Starr, who is representing the school district free of charge, in court papers.

Frederick had previous run-ins with school administrators before the banner dispute. He said he first saw the slogan on a snowboard and thought it would make a good test of his rights because, though meaningless, it sounds provocative.

He chose to display the banner during a school-sanctioned event to watch the Olympic torch relay as it passed through Juneau on its way to the 2002 Winter Games in Salt Lake City.

Morse saw the banner, confronted Frederick and suspended him. Frederick said she doubled the suspension to 10 days when he quoted Thomas Jefferson on free speech.

Frederick, helped by the American Civil Liberties Union, sued the principal and the Juneau school district. He lost in federal district court, but the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals said Frederick's rights were violated and that Morse could be held financially liable for her actions.

Banner was on public property
Among the factors that could weigh in the decision, Frederick was standing on public property, not school grounds when he displayed the banner. The school said students were allowed to leave class to see the torch pass by, making the event school-sanctioned. Frederick, however, never made it to school that day before the event.

The other issue in the case is whether the principal should have to compensate Frederick. The appeals court said Morse should have known that her decision to suspend Frederick ran counter to Supreme Court precedent. But Starr said she made a reasonable, on-the-spot decision that, even if wrong, should not subject her to a "potentially ruinous damages award."

Frederick, now 23, said he later had to drop out of college after his father lost his job. The elder Frederick, who worked for the company that insures the Juneau schools, was fired in connection with his son's legal fight, the son said. A jury recently awarded Frank Frederick $200,000 in a lawsuit he filed over his firing.

Joseph Frederick pleaded guilty in 2004 to a misdemeanor charge of selling marijuana at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, according to court records.

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'Bong Hits 4 Jesus' case heads to high court

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A student who unfurled a "Bong Hits 4 Jesus" banner has a date Monday at the Supreme Court in what is shaping up as an important test of constitutional rights.

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Native Knowledge 360° | Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian

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Educational resources, lesson plans, teacher training, and strategies to support positive change! Native Knowledge 360° is a national initiative to inspire and promote improved teaching and learning about Native America. #NK360

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Hispanic Americans, also called Latinos, feminine Latinas, and Latinxs, people living in the United States who are descendants of Spanish-speaking peoples. Since most Hispanics trace their ancestry to Latin America, they are also often called Latinos. Hispanics make up the largest ethnic minority in the United States, forming more than one-sixth of the country's population. There are more than 50 million Hispanic Americans, living in all 50 states. Hispanics do not always think of themselves as a single group, however, often identifying more with their family's country or area of origin. This highly diverse group includes people with roots in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Colombia, Honduras, and other parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean, as well as Spain. Hispanics may be recent immigrants or people whose families have been settled in the United States for generations. Most Hispanic Americans are U.S. citizens who were born in the United States.

Spanish-speaking people have lived in what is now the United States since before the country's founding. Before there was New England, there was New Spain, and before there was Boston, Massachusetts, there was Santa Fe (now in New Mexico). The teaching of U.S. history normally emphasizes the founding and growth of the American colonies, their emergence as an independent nation in 1776, and the development of the United States from east to west. That treatment often omits the fact that there was significant colonization by Spain of what is now the American Southwest from the 16th century onward. It also tends to ignore, until the Mexican-American War (1846-48) is mentioned, that the whole Southwest, from Texas westward to California, was once a Spanish-speaking territory with its own distinctive heritage, culture, and customs.

Portrait of ethnic diversity

Hispanics form one of the fastest-growing ethnic minorities in the United States. More than half of the increase in the country's total population from 2000 to 2010 was due to growth in the Hispanic population alone. The growth rate of the number of Hispanics during that period was 43 percent-four times the growth rate of the general population. Hispanics became the largest minority group in the country in 2002, surpassing the African American population for the first time. However, the growth of the Hispanic American population slowed after the start of an economic downturn in the United States ( Great Recession) in 2007.

Although Hispanics generally share Spanish as a second (and sometimes first) language, they are hardly a uniform group. Within the group are peoples of diverse origins. They may be of African, Native American, or European ancestry or a combination of those ancestries. Hispanic Americans trace their origins to more than 20 countries.

The two largest groups of Hispanics are Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans. More than half of all Hispanic Americans are of Mexican ancestry. Some of them descended from settlers in parts of the United States that were once part of Mexico-including Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California. Other Mexican Americans come from families that migrated across the Mexico-U.S. border. The greater opportunities and higher living standards in the United States have long attracted immigrants from Mexico and Central America (as well as from other parts of the world).

Making up about one-tenth of the Hispanic American population, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Hispanic group in the country. They enjoy a different status from other Hispanics in that Puerto Rico is a commonwealth in association with the United States. Puerto Ricans are citizens of the United States by birth, whether they were born in Puerto Rico or in the United States. Puerto Ricans were granted citizenship in 1917. (The island became a possession of the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War [1898].) Puerto Ricans may therefore go back and forth between the island and the mainland without visas or passports. By contrast, people migrating from Mexico and other Latin American countries must enter the United States as immigrants with alien status and must apply for citizenship in the same way as do immigrants from other regions. Since Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens, migration between Puerto Rico and the United States has been fairly fluid, mirroring the process by which Americans as a whole have always moved to where opportunities seem best.

The next largest groups of Hispanic Americans- Cubans and Salvadorans-each have populations of more than two million. People of Cuban ancestry have long formed a major group of Hispanic Americans. Many people fled to the United States from Cuba after Fidel Castro's communist revolution of 1959. While Cuban Americans include people from every social group, the initial wave of Cuban immigrants was distinctive because of the large number of professional and middle-class people among them. Their social and political attitudes generally differed from those of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans.

After 1960, easy air travel and political and economic instability stimulated migration to the United States from Central America, South America, and the Dominican Republic. Constituting about one-fifth of the Hispanic American population, Americans from those regions included largely Salvadorans, Guatemalans, Hondurans, Dominicans, and Colombians. In earlier years, immigrants from those Latin American regions often came to the United States to flee political persecution. More recently many immigrants from the regions came seeking better economic opportunities. In the 21st century high murder rates and the threat of gang violence in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras also led to increased immigration to the United States. Many of the refugees fleeing dangerous conditions were women and children, including children unaccompanied by their parents or guardians.

Although there are Hispanics living in all regions of the United States, some areas have especially large concentrations. More than three-fourths of Hispanics live in the West or the South. Most Mexican Americans live in the West. Cubans are concentrated in Florida, especially in Miami-Dade county. Most Puerto Ricans live in northeastern states, especially New York and New Jersey. The New York City area is also home to many Dominicans, and Florida also has a large population of Puerto Ricans.

The state that is home to the largest number of Hispanics is California. Together, California, Texas, and Florida account for more than half of the total Hispanic population in the United States. Other states with large populations of Hispanics include New York, Illinois, Arizona, New Jersey, and Colorado. The state with the largest proportion of Hispanics is New Mexico, where they make up roughly half of the state's population. There are large Hispanic populations in many U.S. cities and metropolitan areas, including Los Angeles, the Riverside- San Bernardino area, San Diego, and San Francisco in California; New York City; Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas in Texas; Chicago; Phoenix, Arizona; and Miami.

Most Hispanics are bilingual, speaking both English and Spanish well. Some, especially older immigrants, are proficient only in Spanish. Other Hispanics speak only English. Whether American schools should teach Spanish-speaking students in both Spanish and English or in only English has been a matter of debate. Advocates of bilingual education-teaching in two languages-argue that it speeds learning in all subjects for children who speak a foreign language at home. They also stress that it prevents such students from being marginalized in school. Other people contend that bilingualism hinders such children from mastering the language of the larger society. They believe that bilingual education thus limits the students' opportunities for employment and higher education.

Today's Mexican Americans trace their history to a development that began more than four centuries ago, when Spain conquered Mexico and made it a colony. Before that the territory was inhabited exclusively by American Indians. Mexican Americans are, therefore, the second oldest component of American society.

Some Mexican Americans are immigrants or descendants of immigrants, while others come from families that were living in the Southwest before it became part of the United States. That led to the saying among such Mexican Americans that "we didn't cross the border, the border crossed us."

Historical background

Mexican American history can be divided into five fairly distinct periods. The first era, from 1520 until 1809, covers the period from the Spanish conquest until the beginning of the revolt against Spain. It was during those nearly 300 years that the synthesis of Spanish and American Indian cultures took place. Early in that period the Southwest of what is now the United States was added to Mexico. (The Spanish administration founded one of the oldest cities in North America, Santa Fe [now in New Mexico], in 1610.) The last region to be colonized was California.

During the second era, from 1810 until 1848, the Southwest was part of an independent Mexico. The region developed slowly, largely because of the distance between it and the capital of Mexico City. Then in 1846-48 the Mexican-American War resulted in the United States acquiring the Southwest, including most of what are now New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and western Colorado. The war was ended by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which the United States promised to protect the rights of Mexicans in the newly won territories. Unfortunately, the United States did not honour most of the treaty's provisions. Huge tracts of land belonging to Mexicans were taken from them by the most dubious legal means or by outright theft. Violence was perpetrated against them, and there was a great deal of economic exploitation. The period from 1849 until 1910 was an era of Anglo-American assimilation of the new territory. The Mexican Americans of the Southwest were gradually overwhelmed in numbers by Anglo newcomers from the East.

About 1910 the next era began with the start of massive emigration from Mexico itself. Large numbers of Mexicans came to the United States to escape the Mexican Revolution (1910-20) or to seek economic opportunity. Immigration from Mexico, legal and illegal, has continued to the present. During the early decades the arrival of Mexicans in the United States was part of the much greater migratory trend that included many immigrants from Europe and Asia. The Mexican immigration continued steadily until the Great Depression of the 1930s. Then, with the collapse of the U.S. economy, many immigrants returned to Mexico. Many others were sent back by the United States government. During the period from 1910 until 1939, Mexican Americans remained largely unassimilated, rural, and poor. They were for the most part forgotten Americans amid the crises of the Depression and World War II (1939-45).

The current period began about 1940. In the decades since 1940-and especially since 1960-Mexican Americans have come together to assert their civil rights as a people who deserve social, economic, and political equality ( see below "Hispanic activism"). During that period the way of life of the Mexican American population shifted from basically rural to mostly urban. As a city-dwelling minority, many Mexican Americans found themselves sharing the problems of others in urban society, such as lack of jobs and affordable housing.

Many U.S. cities are home to large populations of Mexican Americans. California's Los Angeles- Long Beach area has more Mexican Americans than any other metropolitan area in the United States. There are also sizable Mexican American communities in Riverside-San Bernardino, California; Houston, Texas; Chicago, Illinois; Dallas, Texas; Phoenix, Arizona; San Antonio, Texas; and San Diego, California.

Migrant labour

In the years after the American Civil War (1861-65), Mexicans began crossing into Texas to work the cotton harvests. By the end of World War I (1914-18) they were also working in California on large farms in the Central Valley. Slowly they began to work their way to states farther north as they heard of other crops to be harvested. Many of the migrants returned to Mexico after each season was over, but others stayed to wait for the next season or to look for better-paying jobs.

During World War II much of the U.S. workforce was lost to the military forces and to defense work, resulting in shortages of farmworkers. In July 1942 the governments of the United States and Mexico negotiated an agreement called the Mexican Farm Labor Program. Unofficially it was called the Bracero Program. (One definition of bracero is "day labourer.") The program continued until 1964, nearly 20 years after the war's end, largely at the insistence of employers who benefited from it. During that period it brought ever greater numbers of Mexicans to states as far north as Minnesota and Wisconsin.

The Mexican government backed the program because of the large amounts of money the braceros sent back to their families, thereby helping the Mexican economy. The braceros favoured the program because of the opportunities it offered compared with those in their homeland.

Nevertheless, migrant workers earned significantly lower wages than nearly all other American labourers and faced much harsher working conditions. In the 1960s some migrant workers in the Southwest began to form labour unions under the leadership of activists such as Cesar Chavez. Unionization helped improve conditions for migrant workers, but their standard of living still remained much lower than that of the average American worker.

Meanwhile, the Bracero Program lost support, and the United States terminated it in December 1964. One advantage of the program had been its legality. The U.S. government kept records of the immigrant workers; however, undocumented Mexican labourers were also drawn by the promise of employment, and, because of the ease with which illegal immigrants could be hired, only a small portion received valid worker certificates from 1947 to 1960. The influx of undocumented workers sparked a public outcry that contributed to the mass deportation of Mexican nationals in 1954 as part of a controversial U.S. immigration law enforcement campaign that became known as Operation Wetback (its name was derived from the offensive term for Mexican immigrants who traversed the Rio Grande to illegally cross the Mexico-U.S. border). After the Bracero Program ended, many American employers in farm industries still needed the work of immigrants in order to adequately meet demands and compete in the marketplace. Large numbers of migrant workers continued to come to the United States, many of them illegally.

Immigration to the U.S.

The border between Mexico and the United States stretches for 1,950 miles (3,140 km) from near Brownsville, Texas, in the east to Tijuana, Mexico-San Diego, California, in the west. Because Mexico's economy has long been less prosperous than that of the United States, the lure of El Norte ("the North") has been powerful. Unemployment, underemployment, and lower wages have provided a strong motive for Mexicans to move northward. More than 16 million Mexicans migrated to the United States between 1965 and 2015.

Most Mexican Americans were born in the United States, and most Mexican immigrants have arrived legally. However, the number of Mexicans wanting to live in the United States has greatly exceeded the number permitted under U.S. immigration limits. In the 21st century more than five million Mexicans living in the United States were thought to have moved there illegally. Such immigrants are often called unauthorized or undocumented immigrants or aliens.

Whether illegal immigration has proved beneficial or harmful to the United States has been highly contentious. Some people believe that illegal immigration is bad for the U.S. economy. They think it is unfair that states pay for some public services for people who immigrated illegally-for example, the education of children of undocumented immigrants. Some also believe that undocumented workers take jobs that would otherwise go to U.S. citizens. Other people believe that the work that undocumented immigrants do contributes to the United States and is advantageous to the economy. Among them are many employers-whether farmers, owners of factories or other companies, or individuals employing household help. Many people maintain that undocumented workers do not take jobs from other Americans. They argue that undocumented immigrants take only low-paying jobs that Americans do not want. Employers thus make higher profits than by seeking other ways to produce some goods and services, and consumers benefit from the lower prices.

What the United States should do to prevent or curb illegal immigration has likewise been the subject of intense political debate. Also at issue is how the country should handle the millions of immigrants who have already arrived illegally. Various measures and proposals have ranged from detention and deportation to allowing them a path to U.S. citizenship.

Residents of Puerto Rico are not a single ethnic group. They, like other Hispanics, have inherited a mixture of cultures. Puerto Ricans have lived in the mainland United States since at least the 1830s. At that time there was a fairly sizable trade between the island and New York City, but migration was not large. By the end of the 19th century there were only about 1,500 Puerto Ricans in all of the United States.

The Spanish-American War (1898) changed the status of the island by making it a United States possession. In 1917 the Jones Act conferred U.S. citizenship on Puerto Ricans. Over the next 23 years several thousand residents moved to the mainland. By 1940 there were nearly 70,000 Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States, mostly in or near New York City.

The great migration began after World War II, and the reasons for it were economic. The Puerto Rican economy was struggling while the United States prospered. Inexpensive airplane fares between San Juan, Puerto Rico, and New York City made it possible for the Puerto Rican migrant community to more than triple in size by 1950. By 2000 there were about 3.4 million Puerto Ricans living on the mainland.

The earliest migrants settled in the East Harlem section of Manhattan, New York, a region they called El Barrio, meaning the neighbourhood. They moved fairly rapidly into the other four New York City boroughs as well as into upstate New York. In 1970, 64 percent of Puerto Ricans living on the mainland were in New York. By 1980 that figure had dropped to 50 percent, and Puerto Rican enclaves had grown in other major cities-particularly Hartford, Connecticut; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Cleveland, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; and Miami, Florida.

Patterns of migration fluctuated in relation to economic conditions in the mainland United States and on the island. During the 1950s an average of 46,000 islanders moved to the mainland annually. During the 1960s that number dropped to 14,000 because economic conditions had improved in Puerto Rico. During the 1970s, with worsening economic conditions in the United States, more Puerto Ricans returned to the island than came to the mainland. That is not unusual, as there has always been a two-way migration pattern-especially for those born on the island.

Some Puerto Ricans have worked as seasonal migrant labourers along the East Coast and in the Midwest. The sugarcane season on the island is in the winter, whereas harvesting on the mainland is in the late summer and fall. Thus, migrant workers sometimes work at harvests in both places.

In the 1980s a new wave of migration to the mainland began, and it was significantly different from previous ones. Puerto Rico had entered a state of severe economic decline brought on in part by the recession in the United States proper. Unemployment in Puerto Rico averaged more than 20 percent for several years. For those who were employed, the average income per person was lower than in any state.

Many who lost their jobs in the 1980s were highly educated professional people and government workers. They began to leave the island in great numbers, creating what many called a "brain drain," the loss of some of the island's most educated residents. Individuals with graduate degrees in such professions as engineering, law, and medicine left the island for jobs on the mainland, and American companies actively recruited new workers from the island.

By the late 20th century much of the island's poverty had been eliminated, and unemployment rates were lower. However, large-scale migration from Puerto Rico continued into the 21st century. By about 2006 the number of Puerto Ricans living on the U.S. mainland was greater than the population of Puerto Rico itself. A long, severe economic recession on the island then fueled an even larger wave of migration. Unlike earlier waves, many of the migrants moved to Florida. Today more than five million Puerto Ricans live in the United States. They are concentrated especially in New York, Florida, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, California, Illinois, and Texas. Puerto Ricans have carved out a place for themselves in North American society, occupying leading positions in government, business, education, and the arts. Since virtually every Puerto Rican residing on the U.S. mainland has relatives on the island, there is frequent back-and-forth travel, particularly during summer and Christmas holidays.

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Hispanic Americans | Definition, History, People, & Population

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Hispanic Americans, people living in the United States who are descendants of Spanish-speaking peoples. Since most Hispanics trace their ancestry to Latin America, they are also called Latinos. Hispanics make up the largest ethnic minority in the United States, forming one-sixth of the country's population.

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

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Information about the the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the law that governs education for children with disabilities, including the law’s statutes, regulations, and associated policies.

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Brown v. Board of Education, EXPLAINED [AP Gov Review, Required Supreme Court Cases]

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Civil Rights Movement: Timeline, Key Events & Leaders | HISTORY

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for justice and equality for African Americans that took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Among its leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Little Rock Nine, Rosa Parks and many others.

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Understanding Tribal Foster Care Systems for Native Children - Indian Reservations

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Understanding Tribal Foster Care Systems for Native Children Readers, have you ever considered the unique complexities of tribal foster care systems for

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Information About Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830

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The U.S. Government used treaties as one means to displace Indians from their tribal lands, a mechanism that was strengthened with the Removal Act of 1830. In cases where this failed, the government sometimes violated both treaties and Supreme Court rulings to facilitate the spread of European Americans westward across the continent.

As the 19th century began, land-hungry Americans poured into the backcountry of the coastal South and began moving toward and into what would later become the states of Alabama and Mississippi. Since Indian tribes living there appeared to be the main obstacle to westward expansion, white settlers petitioned the federal government to remove them. Although Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe argued that the Indian tribes in the Southeast should exchange their land for lands west of the Mississippi River, they did not take steps to make this happen. Indeed, the first major transfer of land occurred only as the result of war.

In 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson led an expedition against the Creek Indians climaxing in the Battle of Horse Shoe Bend (in present day Alabama near the Georgia border), where Jackson's force soundly defeated the Creeks and destroyed their military power. He then forced upon the Indians a treaty whereby they surrendered to the United States over twenty-million acres of their traditional land-about one-half of present day Alabama and one-fifth of Georgia. Over the next decade, Jackson led the way in the Indian removal campaign, helping to negotiate nine of the eleven major treaties to remove Indians.

Under this kind of pressure, Native American tribes-specifically the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw-realized that they could not defeat the Americans in war. The appetite of the settlers for land would not abate, so the Indians adopted a strategy of appeasement. They hoped that if they gave up a good deal of their land, they could keep at least some a part of it. The Seminole tribe in Florida resisted, in the Second Seminole War (1835-1842) and the Third Seminole War (1855-1858), however, neither appeasement nor resistance worked.

From a legal standpoint, the United States Constitution empowered Congress to "regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes." In early treaties negotiated between the federal government and the Indian tribes, the latter typically acknowledged themselves "to be under the protection of the United States of America, and of no other sovereign whosoever." When Andrew Jackson became president (1829-1837), he decided to build a systematic approach to Indian removal on the basis of these legal precedents.

To achieve his purpose, Jackson encouraged Congress to adopt the Removal Act of 1830. The Act established a process whereby the President could grant land west of the Mississippi River to Indian tribes that agreed to give up their homelands. As incentives, the law allowed the Indians financial and material assistance to travel to their new locations and start new lives and guaranteed that the Indians would live on their new property under the protection of the United States Government forever. With the Act in place, Jackson and his followers were free to persuade, bribe, and threaten tribes into signing removal treaties and leaving the Southeast.

In general terms, Jackson's government succeeded. By the end of his presidency, he had signed into law almost seventy removal treaties, the result of which was to move nearly 50,000 eastern Indians to Indian Territory-defined as the region belonging to the United States west of the Mississippi River but excluding the states of Missouri and Iowa as well as the Territory of Arkansas-and open millions of acres of rich land east of the Mississippi to white settlers. Despite the vastness of the Indian Territory, the government intended that the Indians' destination would be a more confined area-what later became eastern Oklahoma.

The Cherokee Nation resisted, however, challenging in court the Georgia laws that restricted their freedoms on tribal lands. In his 1831 ruling on Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that "the Indian territory is admitted to compose a part of the United States," and affirmed that the tribes were "domestic dependent nations" and "their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian." However, the following year the Supreme Court reversed itself and ruled that Indian tribes were indeed sovereign and immune from Georgia laws. President Jackson nonetheless refused to heed the Court's decision. He obtained the signature of a Cherokee chief agreeing to relocation in the Treaty of New Echota, which Congress ratified against the protests of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay in 1835. The Cherokee signing party represented only a faction of the Cherokee, and the majority followed Principal Chief John Ross in a desperate attempt to hold onto their land. This attempt faltered in 1838, when, under the guns of federal troops and Georgia state militia, the Cherokee tribe were forced to the dry plains across the Mississippi. The best evidence indicates that between three and four thousand out of the fifteen to sixteen thousand Cherokees died en route from the brutal conditions of the "Trail of Tears."

With the exception of a small number of Seminoles still resisting removal in Florida, by the 1840s, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, no Indian tribes resided in the American South. Through a combination of coerced treaties and the contravention of treaties and judicial determination, the United States Government succeeded in paving the way for the westward expansion and the incorporation of new territories as part of the United States.

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Milestones: 1830-1860 - Office of the Historian

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OAH | A History of Latino and Mexican Boxing

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By Roberto José Andrade Franco | February 15, 2018

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Teachings of Our Elders - North Dakota's Native American Essential Understandings

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Traditional Games - Teachings of Our Elders

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North Dakota’s Native American Essential Understandings

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Prayer and Religious Expression at Public Schools: FAQ

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Find answers to key questions students, educators, and parents have about religious expression and accommodations in PK-12 schools.

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Designed for all members, particularly those committed to addressing bias around sexual orientation and gender identity, this program teaches school personnel how to create a safe school climate for students and staff.

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UNESCO believes that every learner matters equally. Yet millions of people worldwide continue to be excluded from education for reasons which might include sex, gender orientation, ethnic or social origin, language, religion, nationality, economic condition or ability. Inclusive education works to identify all barriers to education and remove them and covers everything from curricula to pedagogy and teaching.

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Featured “The vote is precious. It is almost sacred. It is the most powerful nonviolent tool we have in a democracy.” — Rep. John Lewis We are happy to share our newest One World poster from the upcoming Learning for Justice Anthology, Volume 1, “Democracy for the 21st Century.” Featured One World Poster: John Lewis […]

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Learn about CAST’s Universal Design for Learning framework, fostering inclusive educational experiences and improving learning outcomes for all learners.

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Our research and resources can empower you to make your community’s schools safer and more inclusive for LGBTQ+ youth.

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A People’s Journey, A Nation’s Story | National Museum of African American History and Culture

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About Native Knowledge 360°

Native Knowledge 360° (NK360°) provides educators and students with new perspectives on Native American history and cultures. Most Americans have only been exposed to part of the story, as told from a single perspective through the lenses of popular media and textbooks. NK360° provides educational materials, virtual student programs, and teacher training that incorporate Native narratives, more comprehensive histories, and accurate information to enlighten and inform teaching and learning about Native America. NK360° challenges common assumptions about Native peoples and offers a view that includes not only the past but also the vibrancy of Native peoples and cultures today.

Essential Understandings about American Indians

The National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) Essential Understandings are an educational framework of key concepts based on the ten themes of the National Council for the Social Studies standards. They serve as a foundation for educational materials developed by the NMAI. In addition, educators, curriculum developers, administrators, and others can use these Essential Understandings to conceptualize new curricula, lessons, and learning activities. This framework can lead students to new knowledge about Native Americans as historical and contemporary people with diverse cultures and roles, namely as diplomats and leaders, civic engineers, orators, scientists, agriculturalists, participants in global events, and much more. Available in English and Spanish.

New Materials for Teachers and Students

The NMAI is constantly creating new online educational materials that embrace a richer and more inclusive discourse about Native Americans. Mindful of today's classroom demands and priorities, these materials are manageable in scope and address academic standards. NK360° lessons engage students through explorations of the most relevant and crucial stories from the histories and contemporary lives of Native peoples.

Created in collaboration with Native communities themselves, NMAI resources bring the Native voice directly into the classroom. NK360° offers teachers and students of various grade levels a rich selection of geographically and culturally diverse resources.

Professional Development for Teachers

NK360° professional development supports educators to build more inclusive and culturally-responsive classrooms, and to support social justice for Native Americans.

The NMAI is working to build a nationwide network of teachers, trainers, and advocates for improved education about Native Americans. The NMAI offers a variety of online and in-person professional development designed to equip teachers with critical concepts, more complete content, and engaging pedagogy that will support a transformation in their teaching and learning about Native Americans.

NK360° Teacher Institutes are the centerpiece of the NMAI's professional development programs. Institutes are hosted in Washington, D.C., New York, and around the country, featuring interactions with the NMAI's educators, scholars, world-class collections, and exhibitions along with experts from Native communities. Participants are immersed in the NMAI's newest instructional resources and have opportunities to plan integration for their own classrooms.

The NMAI offers numerous professional development formats for educators to increase their expertise, including webinars, online courses, workshops, and teach-ins.

National Advocacy and Partnerships

NK360° is aligned with the work of many Native Nations, states, and organizations that share a common goal of improving teaching and learning about Native Americans. By supporting collective efforts and engaging in creative collaborations with like-minded organizations, the NMAI seeks to elevate the national dialogue and accelerate change on this important educational issue. At national and regional conferences, through symposia, scholarly publications, and media presentations, the NMAI adds its voice to the cumulative call for new and more effective approaches to education about American Indians. The NMAI's objective is that these efforts will result in a better-educated American public-one with an increased understanding of the complexity, diversity, and relevancy of Native peoples. Most important, Native youth themselves will no longer have to question why their stories are absent from their education.

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Native Knowledge 360° (NK360°) provides educators and students with new perspectives on Native American history and cultures. Most Americans have only been exposed to part of the story, as told from a single perspective through the lenses of popular media and textbooks.

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This statistical profile of the Latino population in the 50 states and the District of Columbia is based on Pew Research Center tabulations of the Census Bureau's 2010 and 2015 American Community Survey (ACS) and the 1980-2000 decennial censuses.

The ACS is the largest household survey in the United States, with a sample of more than 3 million addresses. It covers the topics previously covered in the long form of the decennial census. The ACS is designed to provide estimates of the size and characteristics of the resident population, which includes persons living in households and group quarters. For more details about the ACS, including the sampling strategy and associated error, see the 2010 or 2015 American Community Survey's Accuracy Statement provided by the U.S. Census Bureau.

The specific data sources for this statistical profile are the 1% samples of the 2010-2015 ACS Integrated Public use Microdata Series (IPUMS) provided by the University of Minnesota and the 5% samples of the 1980-2000 decennial censuses. The IPUMS assigns uniform codes, to the extent possible, to data collected by the decennial census and the ACS from 1850 to 2015. For more information about the IPUMS, including variable definition and sampling error, please visit http://usa.ipums.org/usa/design.shtml.

Due to differences in the way in which the IPUMS and Census Bureau adjust income data and assign poverty status, data provided on these topics might differ from data on these variables that are provided by the Census Bureau.

For the purposes of this statistical portrait, the foreign born include those persons who identified as naturalized citizens or non-citizens and are living in the 50 states or the District of Columbia. Persons born in Puerto Rico and other outlying territories of the U.S. and who are now living in the 50 states or the District of Columbia are included in the U.S.-born population.

Find Statistical Portraits for 2005 - 2014:
2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005

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Tables and statistics about Latinos in the United States from 2005 to 2015.

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Civil Liberties Cases in NARA's Southeast Region, Atlanta Civil Rights Records available in electronic format Martin Luther King Jr.

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A nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world.