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Interventions:

In 1978, after Franco’s death, Spain’s new democratic constitution allowed for the creation of an autonomous Basque Country (comprising the provinces of Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa) with its own government and parliament.

Tensions have remained over the level of autonomy and the desire for full independence by some factions.

After the ETA carried out bombings, assassinations, and other acts of terrorism, especially during the 1970s and 1980s the Spanish government as a result conducted arrests, surveillance, and imprisonment of suspected ETA members.

The Spanish security forces and police however were often accused of human rights violations, including torture, during their operations against ETA.

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Interventions:

Ceasefires: Countries such as the United States, Egypt, and Qatar have mediated ceasefires between Israel and Hamas, a notable ceasefire was announced on January 15, 2025

U.S. Military Aid to Israel: The United States has provided military assistance to Israel, including arms sales and defence support.

UNRWA: The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) offers aid to Palestinian refugees. Donations to UNRWA USA have increased significantly during periods of heightened conflict.

International Criminal Court (ICC): The ICC has investigated alleged war crimes by parties involved in the conflict.

Help Organisations: Groups like the Parents Circle-Families Forum bring together Israelis and Palestinians who have lost family members to the conflict, promoting reconciliation through dialogue and educational programs.

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The Spratly Islands, Intervention Strategies

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The Spratly Islands, Intervention Strategies

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The UN have attempted to rule against Chinas “nine-dash line” (A line created by China covering 90% of the land in the Spratly Islands and stating that, that land is theirs) however China rejected the discussion.

There have also been ongoing talks between ASEAN and China to aim to establish legally binding rules however China continues to delay progress.

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Interventions:

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In 1991, while still at war with one another the UN brokered a ceasefire between the Polisario front (Western Sahara) and Morocco.

Ceasefire was upheld up until 13 November, 2020 when Moroccan troops entered the demilitarised town of Guerguerat, Polisario declared the ceasefire was broken and the SPLA (Sahrawi people's liberation army) attacked Moroccan troops

UN security council cannot come to a conclusion (countries from Africa as well as nations such as Russia are pro-Polisario) while France and many West African countries are pro-Morocco.

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Intervention in Russo-Ukrainian war

Humanitarian aid:

The UN has been supplying emergency aid and assistance to 15.8 million vulnerable people across Ukraine ands neighboring areas.

Over 1,400 UN personnel in Ukraine

WHO has distributed trauma kits to most Ukrainian cities that contain help for 150 people each.

Military aid:

NATO (Ukraine is not a part of) has pledged 800 million euros (non-lethal aid), as well as sending weapons, ammunition and military equipment.

UK is sending a new air defence system (funded jointly by British and Danish governments)

UK promised £3 billion in lethal aid (designed to kill/injure)

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Intervention

There has been extremely limited intervention of external parties relating to India and Pakistan's conflict. The only intervention there has been is political intervention by the United Nations. They called for a plebiscite, which is an agreement to stop the fighting. This was enforced by the UN security council, but these never passed.

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Basques - tensions with Spain

Located in Northern Spain.

Approximately 3,000,000 people live in the Basque Country.

Consider themselves separatists.

Originating in the Basque Country - straddling northern Spain and southwestern France.

The conflict is rooted in cultural, political, and territorial disputes, with the ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) advocating for Basque nationalism and independence. Euskadi Ta Askatasuna - directly translates to Basque Homeland and Liberty.

ETA was a nationalist and separatist organisation founded in 1959, advocating for the independence of the Basque region from Spain through a campaign that included violent tactics in response to General Francisco Franco’s repression of Basque identity after the Civil War.

Tensions about the type of relationship the Basque territories should maintain with the Spanish authorities have existed since the origins of the Spanish state and have also fuelled military confrontation - Carlist War and the Spanish Civil War

Why do the basques want to separate?

The Basques have unique customs and a language - Euskera - that is unrelated to any other spoken in Europe.

The Basque people largely consider themselves to have a separate identity from the rest of Spain - they have their own language, culture, history, territory, industry, and ancestry. From their perspective, they aren't Spanish and want this recognised.

Euskadi ta Askatasuna (ETA) have responded violently as a separatist group, after emerging in 1959. ETA have pursued the independence of a Basque homeland, Euskal Herria, that extends across seven administrative units in Spain and France.

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Even More Pakistan and India Knowledge - Sam

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Even More Pakistan and India Knowledge - Sam

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Territorial Integrity - Principle where nation-states should not attempt to promote secessionist movements in order to promote border change, or promote border change in any way.

Secession - Act of formally withdrawing from membership of a federation or body, such as a political state. Eg. UK leaving EU in 2020.

Territorial integrity of India and Pakistan was threatened due to the secession of India and Pakistan from British India - is this right?

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Background Info-

Western Sahara is currently disputed over between the Sahrawi Arab Democratic republic/ Polisario front and the Kingdom of Morocco. As well as Mauritania for some time also wanting to claim Western Sahara as part of its nation.

War has occurred from 1975-1991. While there is no violent conflict currently there were many casualties with between 14,000-21,000 casualties over that war period. There is also conflict politically between Polisario and Morocco. In order for Morocco to sway opinions they moved hundreds of thousands of Moroccans into Western Sahara who now make up roughly 2/3 of the inhabitants in Western Sahara (330,000 people)

The reason for conflict is Western Sahara is seen as a "non-self governing territory" by the UN and not officially a country or nation, therefore places such as Morocco believe that the people should choose to be apart of Morocco therefore taking control of the land

Polisario claim that Morocco only wants Western Sahara fro these reasons:

Deemed last major colony of Africa, Economic reasons (fishing, phosphate mining and oil reserves). Also leaving a place for Moroccan military bases as well as military testing.

Article- France backs Morocco in dispute over Western Sahara, BBC- October 29th 2024

Macron announced he backs Morocco plans-"for France, this territory's present and future fall under Morocco's sovereignty"

Analysts believe this was said in order to rebuild relations between France and Morocco, after Morocco was accused of spying on Macron, Visas for Moroccans was then limited

Have struck deals for energy, infrastructure and more totalling to approximately 10 billion euros

Many shocked including Algeria who massively disagree with this after France 2 months earlier were still on the idea that Western Sahara is experiencing "significant development". And are now denying the Sahrawi people of self-determination. Algeria claimed Morocco's presence in Western Sahara is "violent and illegal occupation"

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There are many oil bearing islands (estimated 11 billion barrels of oil total) within the South China Sea, these islands therefore cause disputes between many Asian countries, some of which being: Philippines, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaysia, and of course, China.

These islands began to be claimed by other countries during the 1970s and disputes are still ongoing, for example, within the Spratly Islands.

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This border dispute has been ongoing since 1947, as is not set to change. Previously, India and Pakistan were owned by the British, and the area was called 'British India'. However, due to the Indian Independence act, the area was partitioned, into India and Pakistan. Since 1947, there has been conflict between the Indians and Pakistanis over where the border lies, and trying to claim land they both believe is rightfully theirs.

As a result of the partition, there was a Hindu-majority India, and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. The area both countries believe to have a claim to is called Kashmir. From an outside perspective, Kashmir is clearly well within Pakistan, almost on the West side.

Pressures built, and in 1965 there was a war between India and Pakistan, and another brief war in 1971 over an area in West Pakistan.

Currently, India controls 55% of Kashmir, Pakistan controls 30%, and China controls 15% of Kashmir.

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North Korea - South Korea border dispute - Amy

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North Korea - South Korea border dispute - Amy

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Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) acts as a buffer between North Korea and South Korea, on latitude 38°N (38th parallel)

Has territory on both sides of ceasefire line (1.2km into land)

DMZ is 160 miles long, 2.5 miles wide

The Armistice Agreement for the Restoration of the South Korean State - signed 27th July 1953, created the DMZ, states how many military personnelle and type of weapons allowed

No official peace treaty signed so technically still at war

Most heavily armed in the world

Military Demarcation Line (DML) goes through the center of the DMZ - indicates where the front was when the agreement was signed

Factors that have led to the challenges to territorial integrity:

historical wars

Japan was defeated in WWII, Soviet Russia occupied Korea up to the 38th parallel. They wished to unify the peninsula by force so invaded South Korea in 1950.

The Cold War - 1947-1989. USSR and US, US’s policy of containing communism lead to the Korean War when the USSR invaded South Korea

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Who is involved?

Israel and Palestine

What has happened?

A big part of the Israel–Palestine conflict is about who controls the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. This area used to be Mandatory Palestine.

The area has been occupied by Israel since 1967.

Both Israelis and Palestinians claim to own this land.

Challenges to territorial integrity:

Historical claims to land

Religious and cultural significance

Undefined borders - Israel does not have internationally recognised borders

Settlements - there are Israeli settlements in Palestinian territory

Power and control - both Israel and Palestine claim East Jerusalem as their capital, disputes over control

Access to resources - especially water, as Israel controls the majority

Lack of agreement on a ‘two-state solution’

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Ongoing war between Ukraine and Russia over their border.

What has happened:

Crimea has been a source of tension historically, and after being annexed by Russia in 17, it became a part of Ukraine again in 1954. It was then invaded and annexed by Russia in 2014, beginning the most recent Russo-Ukrainian war.

Russia began a large scale occupation of much of Ukraine’s territory in 2022, which hugely increased tensions, publicly saying that the reason was they needed to ‘protect the Russian people in Ukraine who were facing humiliation and genocide’.

As of 2024, Russia occupies 20% of territory that is recognised as being part of Ukraine, and between 3-3.5 million Ukrainians live there.

Factors leading to the conflict:

- Historical connection. Russia has previously owned Crimea and much of the territory that now belongs to Ukraine.

- Cultural connection. In 2001, 17% of people in Ukraine identified themselves as being ethnically Russian. Russia feels ownership over these people.

- Economic reasons. Control of Lithium deposits and other wealth in Ukraine would give Russia increased power and economic resources.

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Who is involved:

Turkey and Kurdish population

Approximately 30 million Kurds live in the Middle East—primarily in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey

The Kurds comprise nearly 1/5 of Turkey’s population of 79 million

What has happened:

The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), established by Abdullah Öcalan in 1978, has waged an insurgency since 1984 against Turkish authorities for greater cultural and political rights, primarily with the objective of establishing an independent Kurdish state.

The ongoing conflict has resulted in nearly 40,000 deaths.

2013 - 2015 - the Turkish government intensified its efforts to resolve its long-running conflict with the PKK

July 2015 - ceasefire fell apart and conflict resumed

Early 2023- PKK ceasefire declared following devastating earthquakes, but the PKK ended the ceasefire in June.

More than 6,600 people have died in the domestic conflict since 2015

October 2024 - Turkey Bombs Kurdish Targets in Iraq, Syria After Attack on Defense Firm

Summary of the factors that have led to the challenges to territorial integrity:

Ethnic and national identity

Desire for autonomy - Turkey refuses to recognise conflicts for interdependence

Terrorism

Socio-economic factors

Historical context - Ottoman Empire

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India and China in next round of talks to resolve border dispute - 17th March 2022

15th round of talks to solve issues - countries agreed to solve issues through diplomatic channels

Countries share a 2176 mile border running along the Himalayas

Ongoing conflicts since 2020 - 20 dead

Fourteen previous talks have resulted in the resolution of the North and South bank of Pangong, Tso, Galwan and Gogra hot spring areas

Factors leading to territorial integrity which has occurred

Legacy of colonial era

Differing versions of the boundary

Loss of territory as a result of the war

Divided nations

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Ollie - Conflict Between Turkey and Armed Kurdish Groups (Territorial Dispute)

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Ollie - Conflict Between Turkey and Armed Kurdish Groups (Territorial Dispute)

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Article Title - Conflict Between Turkey and Armed Kurdish Groups By the Center for Preventive Action

Updated: August 8th 2023

1) Who Is Involved:

Turkey: Led by President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the Turkish government has been engaged in a decades-long struggle against the PKK, which it designates as a terrorist organisation.

Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK): An armed Kurdish militant group that has been seeking greater autonomy and rights for Kurds in Turkey since 1984.

Pro-Kurdish Political Entities: Notably, the People's Democracy and Equality Party (DEM), which advocates for Kurdish rights within Turkey's political framework.

2) What Has Happened:

The conflict between Turkey and armed Kurdish groups, primarily the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), has spanned decades. The PKK, formed in 1978, launched an armed insurgency in 1984 with the goal of achieving greater autonomy and rights for the Kurdish population (14 million out of 78 million total) in Turkey, including cultural recognition and political freedoms. Turkey has labelled the PKK a terrorist organisation, and the conflict has resulted in forty thousand deaths, significant displacement, and economic devastation, particularly in southeastern Turkey. The roots of the conflict lie in the historical marginalisation of Kurds within the Turkish state, which sought to enforce a strict national identity, often suppressing Kurdish language, culture, and political expression.

In July 2015, a two-year cease-fire between Turkey and the PKK ended after a suspected Islamic State suicide bombing killed nearly thirty Kurds near the Syrian border. Following the 2016 coup attempt, President Erdogan intensified crackdowns, arresting around fifty thousand people, increasing airstrikes on the PKK in southeastern Turkey, and launching military operations in Syria. These operations targeted both the Islamic State and the Kurdish PKK. Turkey successfully expelled the Islamic State from key areas and prevented the PKK from expanding west of the Euphrates River along its border.

3) Main 4 Factors influencing territorial integrity:

- Ethnic and Cultural Identity: The Kurdish population in Turkey has long sought recognition of their distinct ethnic and cultural identity, including language rights and political representation.

- Political Exclusion: Historically, Kurdish political movements have faced restrictions, leading some groups to pursue armed struggle as a means to achieve their goals.

- Regional Dynamics: The instability in neighbouring countries, particularly Syria and Iraq, has allowed Kurdish groups to establish autonomous regions, influencing Kurdish aspirations within Turkey.

- Economic Disparities: The southeastern region of Turkey, predominantly Kurdish, has experienced underdevelopment and economic neglect, fueling discontent and calls for greater autonomy.

4) Interventions

1. Military Operations

• Domestic: Turkish military campaigns against the PKK in southeastern Turkey.

• Cross-Border: Frequent airstrikes and ground operations in northern Iraq (e.g., Operation Claw).

• Syria: Operations against the PKK to prevent Kurdish autonomy (e.g., Euphrates Shield, Olive Branch, Peace Spring).

2. International Involvement

• EU Mediation: Backed failed peace talks (2009-2015).

• Iraq-Syria: Mixed responses—sometimes allowing, sometimes resisting Turkish actions.

3. Political & Diplomatic Actions

• Failed Peace Talks: Negotiations collapsed in 2015, leading to renewed violence.

• Crackdowns: Turkey arrests Kurdish politicians and suppresses the pro-Kurdish HDP.

4. Counterterrorism & Sanctions

• PKK Ban: Recognised as a terrorist group by Turkey, the US, and the EU.

• Economic Measures: Sanctions and funding restrictions on Kurdish groups.

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Conflict Between Turkey and Armed Kurdish Groups | Global Conflict Tracker

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Learn about the world’s top hotspots with this interactive Global Conflict Tracker from the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on Foreign Relations.