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End Hunger Through Law: An International Food Security Treaty. Prepared by the International Human Rights Clinic at Willamette University College of Law for the International Food Security Treaty Campaign 

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As the world population increases, so does International food insecurity. In 1996, the UN's Food and Agriculture organization held a summit to "to protect what they deemed a fundamental human right of adequate food". Over 80 states joined in Rome and set 7 commitments in its Plan of Action that would act as a guide to establish principles for States to form policies on food security. The ultimate goal was to reduce the amount of individuals who suffered from food insecurity in half in 20 years. The amount slightly decreased in 2004, but their goal was unattainable. On a more positive note, the World Food Summit and Plan of Action led to both the Millennium Summit in 2000 and the Millenium Development Goals which helped further push a global plan/solution on tackling food insecurity. The Plan of Action also served as a foundation for the "Plant Treaty" or the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture adopted in November of 2001 (enforced in June of 2004). While this plan is considered soft law, the treaty helps establish the plan as concrete binding law.

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International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

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International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

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While the main purpose of the treaty was not on food security, the legally binding agreement aims to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. It recognizes the crucial role of genetic resources in achieving food security and sustainable agriculture. On page V it acknowledges the goals of the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action and said this agreement aids with successfully meeting those goals.

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Adopted December 16th, 1966. By General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI)

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International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

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International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

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With the ratification of 170 states, the ICESCR is a key United Nation's treaty that set standards for basic rights. Part III, Article 11 focuses on the idea that food security is a fundamental right and that states will work with other states to "improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food" and take "into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need".

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The World Food Programme was established by the United Nations in 1961. The IGO is comprised of 36 members, most of which are members of the Nations of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. According to the official website, "the Board provides intergovernmental support, policy direction and supervision of the activities of WFP". Unlike NGO's like Action Against Hunger or Convey of Hope, the World Food Programme offers support to governments to maintain food sustainability long term. The WFP is almost always the first to respond in an emergency and covers broad ranges of issues that effect individuals access to food. For example, when the pandemic hit in 2020, WFP was at the forefront making sure that individuals did not go without meals by delivering food and provided aid to governments to make sure that those who were unable to work were still able to eat. More recently, in 2023 WFP contributed a total of $8.3 billion USD in combating food insecurity via monetary funds to governments, meals to individuals, research, etc. A unique feature of the WFP is that they contribute not just to emergencies and hose who are unable to afford meals but also help during times of conflict and crop failure.

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Action Against Hunger (AAH) is an international non-profit organization that aims to help malnourished children and adults. They hope to solve world hunger and help as many individuals as they can. They help about 28 million people across 55 countries each year get access to food and clean drinking water. They help by treating severely malnourished children and preventing children from becoming malnourished in the first place. Teaming up with local government agencies, NGO partners, and community leaders to bring efficient, effective relief to communities hit by disaster. Their goal is to end world hunger by 2030.

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Action Against Hunger | Ending World Hunger & Malnutrition

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More than two million children die from hunger each year. Action Against Hunger works in more than 50 countries to save lives and help children grow strong. We lead the global movement to end hunger. We innovate solutions, advocate for change, and reach 24 million people every year with proven hunger prevention and treatment programs. As a nonprofit that works across 50 countries, our 8,300 dedicated staff members partner with communities to address the root causes of hunger, including conflict, inequity, and emergencies. We strive to create a world free from hunger, for everyone, for good.

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European Union Efforts on Food Assistance

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The European Union sets a great example as a leading IGO in their aims to limit food insecurity. A majority of their efforts stem from the European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations, which operates under the Directorate-General and is a part of the European Commission. They aim to limit food insecurity by providing food assistance to victims of food crises worldwide and invests in reducing the risk of famine. They have been creating legislation since 2010 that has helped millions of individuals get access to sufficient quantities of safe and nutritious food. They are one of the largest donors to ending food insecurity, donating over 1 billion euros annually. European Commission is also member of the Food Assistance Convention and has committed to providing a minimum of €350 million annually to alleviate food insecurity. In the last 2 years, it has spent over €1.7 billion in emergency food and nutrition assistance for the most vulnerable cases. Each year the Directorate-General releases reports on food security and ends with policy recommendations on what they think would be the most effective and practical way of solving the challenges addressed in the reports.

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The EU provides food assistance in anticipation of, during, and in the aftermath of a humanitarian crisis. It aims to save lives and livelihoods by averting widespread hunger.

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Official United Nations Website, Millennium Development Goals

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In September 2000, world leaders came together at UN Headquarters in New York to adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration. In the declaration they committed their nations to a new global partnership in hopes of reducing extreme poverty. They established several goals with a deadline of 2015. These goals have become known as the Millennium Development Goals. More specifically, Target 1.C was that between 1990 and 2015, the goal is to cut the proportion of people who suffer from hunger in half. This would place their target at 11.5% of the population suffering from hunger. While other MDGs were met, unfortunately this goal was unattainable. In 2015 the percentage of individuals suffering from hunger was 12.9%. While these goals helped set a target for diminishing food insecurity, it was unsuccessful in attaining it's goal. One possible setback to the MDG's are the fact that they are non-binding international law. Meaning that states will try their best to comply with their promises, but they aren't required or forced to comply.

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GOAL 1:
ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY & HUNGER

Target 1.A:
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1.25 a day

The target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years ahead of the 2015 deadline.

More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990.

In 1990, nearly half of the population in the developing regions lived on less than $1.25 a day. This rate dropped to 14 per cent in 2015.

At the global level more than 800 million people are still living in extreme poverty.

Target 1.B:
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people

Globally, 300 million workers lived below the $1.25 a day poverty line in 2015.

The global employment-to-population ratio - the proportion of the working-age population that is employed - has fallen from 62 per cent in 1991 to 60 per cent in 2015, with an especially significant downturn during the global economic crisis of 2008/2009.

Only four in ten young women and men aged 15-24 are employed in 2015, compared with five in ten in 1991.

Target 1.C:
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger

The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since 1990.

Globally, about 795 million people are estimated to be undernourished.

More than 90 million children under age five are still undernourished and underweight.

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united nations millennium development goals

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United Nations Millennium Development Goals

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The target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years ahead of the 2015 deadline. More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990. In 1990, nearly half of the population in the developing regions lived on less than $1.25 a day.

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I learned that contrary to popular belief, world hunger continues to be a big global issue that affects millions every single year. Over the years the international community has made significant improvement starting with the 1996 World Food Summit and Plan of Action which led to other achievements like the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goal of 2015, up until COVID-19. While the international community was cooperating together to build soft law goals, NGO collaborations on emergency food supplies, legally binding treaties on food production and treaties that made food a basic human right, they were able to drastically decrease the percentage of individuals suffering from food insecurity worldwide. However, all progress was lost following the global pandemic that forced a world-wide lockdown. The effects of COVID-19 are still felt today as food insecurity reaches an all time high. COVID isn't the only challenge facing this global issue but lack of consensus on the origin, government reliance on NGO's, and the proportion of funding to demand continues to make the issue persist.

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B) What do the resources demonstrate about the constraints, challenges, and achievements of international law in addressing global challenges?

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B) What do the resources demonstrate about the constraints, challenges, and achievements of international law in addressing global challenges?

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The resources demonstrated the difficulties of tackling such a complex issue in such a large scope. One of the main challenges in ending food insecurity is the lack of consensus behind what the real root of the problem is. In order to abolish world hunger long term, one must eliminate the origin first. However, research shows that the international community accredits the origin to several different possibilities. Without a clear cut approach and consensus it is almost impossible to come up with a strategy. Another issue is the lack of participation from governments and the reliance they have on non-governmental organizations. While NGO's have been very successful in their efforts of helping reduce the percentage of individuals suffering from food insecurity and malnourishment, they are extremely limited in terms of money, resources, and scope. Without help and participation from governments, food insecurity will remain an unsolvable global issue. On the other hand, the international community has had many success in lowering the amount of individuals suffering from food insecurity through soft law like Millenium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goal which force food insecurity onto the global agenda and set goals for states. IGO's and NGO's have also been extremely successful in providing emergency aid, meals, food supplies, and nutrition resources to communities in need. The international community was significantly decreasing the percentage of individuals suffering from food insecurity until COVID-19. The global pandemic continues to be a big issue and has halted the success of the changes made by the international community. While funding continues to increase each year, it is still not enough to keep up with the demands.

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C) How are intergovernmental organizations involved? 

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C) How are intergovernmental organizations involved? 

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Intergovernmental organizations are involved by providing money and resources to affected communities, conducting research, releasing annual reports and updates, creating and drafting policies, and working with non-governmental organizations to further reach more individuals. IGO's are the key players in ending food insecurity and have done their best to be transparent and hold themselves accountable. Examples of this include the European Union's European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations which has it's Directorate-General release multiple statements a year that has a detailed report on where the international community stands as a whole on food security and policy recommendations.

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D) What can your target audience do with this information to address these challenges?

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D) What can your target audience do with this information to address these challenges?

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My target audience can use my information to continue their own research on how food insecurity affects millions of lives everyday and ways they can help. The goal of my project was to shed awareness on an issue many think has simply gone away or has been resolved. With the help of my research, I explored the challenges of resolving food insecurity and urge my audience to spread the word in order to get states motivated to take charge and not rely on NGO's to get the work done. On the other hand helping NGO's can still greatly help the cause. There are many routes in doing so but some of the most common ways of getting involved with NGO's is by volunteering, donating money or goods and services, attending their events or fundraisers, etc. There are so many ways to help address this global challenge, and just engaging with this project was enough to spread awareness.

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Convoy of Hope, is an American non-proft humanitarian organization that works with local communities to aid in solving hunger and poverty. Convoy of Hope differs from other food insecurity NGO's as they are a faith based organization. They work by providing food, water, and other emergency supplies to individuals affected by disasters, conflicts, and/or poverty. They collaborate with a wide range of NGO's like World Vision, Save the Children, and Mercy Corps by working together on projects, exchanging resources, and networking to maximize their impact and reach more communities. Along with NGO's they also work with IGO's like United Nations World Food Programme, UNICEF, and the World Health Organization to help them reach more communities. In addition, they work with government agencies and local governments to help bring resources to communities struggling with food insecurity, disasters, and poverty. Their best known example of their assistance was in 2010 after a devastating earthquake in Haiti. Convoy of Hope provided supplies like food, water, hygiene kits, and medical aid to survivors, many of whom had lost their homes and belongings in the disaster. They worked with other NGO's and local governments to help bring resources as effective and efficient as possible while also helping provide long-term solutions. They fed tens of thousands who had no access to food after the disaster by distributing food supplies, provide mobile feeding programs, established community feeding centers, and nutritional support for vulnerable individuals like children and pregnant women.

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The Sustainable Development Goals, came fourth after the Millenium Summit and the Millenium Development goals. The MDG's set expectations/goals for 2015, giving the goals a "deadline". Before these goals were set to "expire" in 2015, the global community came together in Rio in 2012 to have a plan for when they have reached the deadline. Member states drafted the "Future We Want" document that ensured they wanted to continue their fight towards ending poverty, food insecurity, improving working conditions, etc. The document ultimately outlines a plan that would build on their prior MDG's and provided a promise from the international community to continue to move forward as a whole to help meet these new goals. A year later, in 2013, the General Assembly created a group of about 30 members that would draft a proposal for the Sustainable Development Goals. In early 2015, the actual negotiations would take place before they actual UN Sustainable Development Summit in September where the final goals would be considered soft law. The new SDG's would replace the MDG's and would have a new deadline of 15 years (like the MDG's) which are set to "expire" in 2030. There are 17 goals with 2 pertaining to food insecurity: goal 2 (no hunger) and goal 12 (responsible consumption and production). Every year UN Secretary General releases progress reports on the SDG's to hold states accountable. While the SDG's and their annual reports are helpful in bringing awareness and accountability, the reports show that in terms of food insecurity the SDG's aren't helping and the numbers are actually getting worse.The reports further states that "world is also seriously off track in its efforts to halve per capita food waste and losses by 2030" and that 2023 figures "reflects an alarming 391 million more people than in 2019".

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End Hunger Through Law: An International Food Security Treaty. Prepared by the International Human Rights Clinic at Willamette University College of Law for the International Food Security Treaty Campaign 

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A major difficulty in solving this global issue, is the fact that there is not a common consensus on who or what is to blame for food insecurity. In order to successfully prevent a problem, one must eradicate the very root of the problem. However, this article highlights "poverty, economic fluctuations, and the impact of transnational businesses and international financial institutions" as the competing causes of hunger. The author goes further into this idea by stating that the lack of agreement causes "the hunger problem to persist and [is] creating further obstacles in trying to reach world goals toward defeating hunger". (p. 6, 2001).

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Kakaei H, Nourmoradi H, Bakhtiyari S, Jalilian M, Mirzaei A. Effect of COVID-19 on Food Security, Hunger, and Food Crisis. COVID-19 and the Sustainable Development Goals. 2022:3–29. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-91307-2.00005-5. Epub 2022 Jul 29. PMCID: PMC9335023.

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A big challenge when dealing with food insecurity is the heavy impact of COVID-19. Prior to the global pandemic of 2019, their were significant efforts to end world hunger and food insecurity that resulted in a significant reduction of the world population suffering from food insecurity. With a world-wide quarantine, food insecurity numbers rose to an all time high and continue to do so. caused food factories to reduce or slow down their production. According to the article, "airline closures, national and international restrictions, and lockdowns have severely disrupted the food supply chain... along with structural weaknesses in the world food system such as production, distribution, access, and stability in the food chain, have exposed more people to the food crisis". The lockdown itself can be to blame for the rapid increase of food insecurity. A second consequence was the rise of food prices. Because food was much more difficult to get, the prices of basic food items drastically rose. Because of the lockdown, many individuals were laid off or unable to work therefore having little to no money. Many individuals could no longer afford food and were now struggling with poverty and had no access to food. Today, the international community has struggled to decrease the amount of individuals suffering from food insecurity because "funding struggles to keep pace with growing food assistance needs" (European Commission).

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Guest Editor (s): Mohammad Hadi Dehghani

Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran

Institute for Environmental Research, Center for Solid Waste Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Guest Editor (s): Rama Rao Karri

Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Guest Editor (s): Sharmili Roy

School of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States

Abstract

COVID-19 affected the world's socioeconomic and food security more than other infectious diseases. In many countries, food industries' workers were moderated because of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused food factories to reduce or slow down their production. Airline closures, national and international restrictions, and lockdowns have severely disrupted the food supply chain. These, along with structural weaknesses in the world food system such as production, distribution, access, and stability in the food chain, have exposed more people to the food crisis and acute hunger in the world. Therefore it is necessary to use proper planning by governmental organizations and charities in the field of food supply in critical situations.

Keywords: COVID-19, Food crisis, Food insecurity, Hunger, Food supply systems, Sustainable development goals

1. Introduction

COVID-19 outbreak has brought hunger to millions of people around the world. 1 Various strategies such as physical distance, school closures, trade restrictions, and countries' lockdown to control the pandemic have increased the nutritional challenges around the world, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with the highest populations. 2, 3 These restrictions have likely disrupted agricultural production and concerned millions of people about access to adequate food. Various experts in this field believe that this hunger crisis is global. The sudden loss of productivity and income, falling oil prices, low tourism revenue, problems such as climate change, and other factors are all related to the outbreak of COVID-19. 1 A recent FAO report (2019) found that 820 million people have been suffering from starvation worldwide. The Global Report on Food Crisis (FSIN, 2020) also showed that approximately 135 million people in 55 countries are affected by acute food insecurity, of which 73 million are in 36 countries in Africa. 4 The United Nations reported that COVID-19 is likely to increase poverty and food insecurity on a global scale. Therefore achieving the goals of sustainable development is considered a top priority. Other international organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) have also supported this concept. 5 People's health and nutrition in food crises are at greater risk due to their inability to access healthcare and their inability to reimburse their expenses. 4

2. Food insecurity

Food insecurity is one of the factors contributing to the increase in food poverty and malnutrition in middle and low standard of living communities, which during epidemics such as COVID-19 can affect the nutritional conditions of a large population of the world.

Food insecurity is defined as the persistent concern about access to sufficient and affordable food at all times. 1 Food insecurity causes stress in people. One of the most important reasons for people's stress is where and how to get enough food due to unemployment and low income during the COVID-19 epidemic. 6 Poverty, low-income family health, poor livelihoods and household management strategies can lead to food insecurity. The severity and classification of food insecurity depend on family members' perceptions of food and food budgets. Consequences and threats of food insecurity hurt mental, social, and psychological-emotional status. Food insecurity can be mild, moderate, or severe. The classification depends on the severity of the uncertainty, anxiety about access to food, unbalanced diet, and changes in diet quality ( Fig. 1 ). 5

In the United States, household food insecurity increased from 11% in 2018 to 38% in March 2020. In April 2020, 35% of households with children aged 18 years old and under were food insecure. Households with food insecurity may be less likely to follow social distancing recommendations during the COVID-19 epidemic for access to food resources. Because these people have less flexibility in their jobs, they are inevitably at greater risk due to reduced incomes and, consequently, reduced access to food. 15 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) believes that food insecurity can be investigated in four dimensions: availability, access, quality, and stability. Despite the few instances of food access disruption and instability due to transportation disruption or temporary hoarding, the main effects of COVID-19 on people's food security are related to physical access. 16, 17, 18, 19 The FAO reports that the COVID-19 outbreak has affected agriculture and food security in two important ways: food supply and demand. For this reason, food security is exposed to serious risks during the COVID-19 crisis. 20

3. COVID-19 and food access

The food chain is a network that connects the agricultural system to the consumer fork. This food chain includes the processes of production, packaging, distribution, and storage of food. At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, social quarantine by governments caused people to flock to food products sales centers, leading to shortages of some food products in many countries. 20 Behavioral patterns of people with food insecurity can change through the food supply. 21, 22 Weak monitoring systems, job losses, and limited transportation systems are key factors that hinder the national food supply and demand. 23 Demand is related to the ability of consumers to buy certain goods or services in any given period. Purchasing power and income also have a large impact on demand ( Fig. 2 ). 20

For this reason, they tend to buy cheaper and less nutritious foods to meet their needs. Even if the recession is short time, the effects of malnutrition can be long, especially in young children. 24 Of the four dimensions of food security, food availability is probably the most important. 27

4. COVID-19 and food hygiene

However, the outbreak of COVID-19 has raised public health concerns, economic and food crises. During the quarantine, the food sector was severely affected, with the greatest impact on vulnerable groups. The agricultural and aquaculture economy in the last quarter of 2020 showed a significant decline that affected millions of people worldwide. This could be because of health concerns about the transmission of the virus through food. 12 Since the effects of this epidemic began in the food market, it is anticipated that food processing and production policies could be revised. Unless new methods of cooperation and action are adopted between government, industry, and individuals, the world will be even less prepared for the next epidemic in the future. 12

Therefore due to the rate and routes of transmission of this virus, it is necessary to provide special health measures for the food industry. Although health concerns are a top priority in the COVID-19 epidemic, livelihoods and food insecurity should not be ignored. The world is currently on the brink of worsening unemployment and food security crises. Policymakers need to keep in mind that the COVID-19 threat still exists worldwide. Therefore they must be careful not to repeat the mistakes that occurred in the food crisis of 2007-08. 28 Food factories should take steps to preserve food products and distribute goods properly following WHO recommendations. However, packaging may be a suitable place for virus transmission. 34

5. COVID-19 and food production

Globally, it has been estimated that drought and heat can reduce crop production by approximately 10% nationally. According to the Global Food Crisis Report (2020), severe weather events in 2019 have significantly affected food security in the Horn of Africa, South Africa, Central America, and Pakistan. However, the food security crisis still affects the ongoing economic crisis in Venezuela, Haiti, Sudan, and Zimbabwe. 35 The COVID-19 pandemic, in addition to the threat to health and the great damage it has done to countries' economies, has clarified other things. In addition to being a serious threat to health, the COVID-19 pandemic has also caused significant damage to countries' economies. The inadequacy of the global food production and distribution system has disrupted food supply in some parts of the world and wasted food in other parts. This is while world hunger is increasing with the COVID-19 crisis. 36

In some cases, more emphasis may be placed on the automation of food production and processing to avoid the risks of labor use due to disease transmission or transfer restrictions. This can lead to more investment in mechanization. The mechanization can eliminate food contamination during production. 41

In developing countries, agricultural production is performed with a large labor force. Many processes, such as planting rice and harvesting basic crops, bring workers together. Although farmers in poorer countries are generally younger than in rich countries, the health systems are usually weaker in the poorer ones, and the health challenges may increase individuals' vulnerability to COVID-19. 26 In this regard, many agricultural producers face labor shortages. The travel prohibition has led to a shortage of seasonal and informal farmworkers. The International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates that COVID-19 affects about 81% (2.7 billion workers) of the workforce due to full or partial closure of the workplace. 24, 42 Disruption of the aquatic supply chain also occurred due to restrictions on transportation, trade, and labor. Decreases in production due to reducing fishing efforts and delays in aquaculture systems led to reduced availability and consumption of these foods. The reduction in consumers' demand and increase in maintenance costs have enhanced the price of aquaculture and reduced its cost-effectiveness for consumers. In India, fisheries are an important part of nutrition and food security. More than 9 and 14 million people depend directly on fisheries and are employed in this occupation, respectively, contributing to more than 1% of India's GDP. 34 Fig. 3 , Fig. 4 show the impact of COVID-19 lockdown on food, agriculture, and fisheries and the main factors for food contamination during food processes, factories, and stores, respectively. 34 To respond to such crises, food supply chain issues need to be addressed.

6. COVID-19 and the food crisis

7. The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on countries around the world

From a macroeconomic point of view, the IMF estimates the loss of global GDP (GDP) caused by the COVID-19 epidemic at $ 9 trillion, a small portion of which could be highly cost-effective in preparing for an epidemic. 54 In a recent study (2020), Mauro and Baldwin reported that the outbreak of the coronavirus would cause economic collapse in countries such as the G-7, which has a 65% stake in the world's manufacturing units, as well as a 60% drop in global supply and demand. Forty-one percent of world exports are also affected by this outbreak. 55

In 2020 UNICEF reported that approximately 820 million people were chronically hungry, and 113 million were experiencing severe insecurity. 42, 53 More than 1.4 million people (14% of the population) in Bolivia suffer from food shortages due to financial constraints, and 7% suffer from chronic hunger. In India, approximately 16,500 farmers committed suicide even before the epidemic, for which the psychological and economic impact of COVID-19 could not be estimated ( Fig. 5 ). 56

Risks of hunger and food security have also existed in Brazil since 2016 and are now exacerbated by the onset of the COVID-19 epidemic. This situation requires awareness of the scope and importance of the issue and the expression of measures in three government areas (federal, municipal, and state) to ensure access to adequate and healthy food and reduce the adverse effects of disease on diet, health, and nutrition among the most vulnerable. 59 A study conducted by UNICEF and the Brazilian Institute of Public Opinion and Statistics from July 3, 2020, to July 18, 2020, found that during the epidemic, one in five Brazilians aged 18 or over (33 million) has had no experience with money to buy food due to running out of income. The study also reported that about 9 million Brazilians could not even eat a meal due to a lack of money or food. 60

Across Africa, high levels of malnutrition among women, children, and the elderly will be exacerbated by declining incomes in low-income families. Also, the livelihoods of farmers and suppliers are at greater risk due to restrictions and disruptions such as the closure of transportation routes. 4 However, most African countries have seen a steady decline in the prevalence of malnutrition since 2000. For example, the prevalence of malnutrition in Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Cameroon, Togo, and Ethiopia increased from 10.7%, 6.8%, 28.7%, 30.8%, 31.1%, and 52% in 2000 to 3.9%, 3.4%, 11.3, respectively, 9.9%, 16.1%, and 21.4% in 2019. However, in countries such as Uganda, Nigeria, and Madagascar, the prevalence rate of malnutrition increased from 27.7%, 9.3%, and 34.4% in 2000 to 41%, 13.4%, and 44.4% in 2019, respectively ( Fig. 6 ). 69

During the COVID-19 epidemic, India's economic loss is estimated at $ 234.4 billion, or 8.1% of GDP, assuming that India remains quarantined at least until the end of May 2020. 34 Fig. 7 , Fig. 8 show changes in GDP during the 5 weeks of quarantine in Nigeria and 7 weeks in Ethiopia. 70

8. COVID-19, food insecurity, and its consequences

Short-term shortages of basic foodstuffs in shops, inability to access shops due to personal quarantine, and economic reasons were the three main factors in food insecurity. In particular, people from ethnic groups of blacks, Asians and minorities, unemployed adults, childcare charities, and people with health and disabilities were at higher risk. 13, 73

In the United States, about 38% of adults had experienced an increase in food insecurity since mid-March 2020, when COVID-19 was declared a national emergency. 78 This rate is likely to increase as the economic crisis continues and housekeeping orders continue. As a result of unemployment and declining incomes from the COVID-19 epidemic, millions of Americans struggled with the quantity and quality of food needed and the price of in-store food, accompanied by rising prices. 79 In addition, food insecurity in populations vulnerable to COVID-19 (for example, people with chronic illnesses and the elderly) increased due to fears of exposure to the virus.

Widespread food insecurity during the COVID-19 epidemic can have serious and long-term consequences for the health of low-income households. Food insecurity is associated with an increased risk of chronic diseases such as HIV, 83, 84, 85, 86 type 2 diabetes, 87, 88 cardiovascular disease, 89, 90 hyperlipidemia, hypertension, 91 and high rate mortality. 92 In addition, given that chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease are risk factors for COVID-19 complications, 93 food insecurity can increase the risk of COVID-19 with a worse outcome.

The study of the impact of the first wave of COVID-19 on food insecurity during the epidemic crisis in the first week (April 20-26) of 2020 shows that a large proportion of respondents in April 2020 experienced food insecurity in the COVID-19 health emergency. Compared to March rates, food insecurity generally doubled in April and tripled among children. The rate of increase in food insecurity was higher than the projected increase in unemployment in April, especially for families with children. As a result, the number of economic problems families have experienced has increased and required an immediate and sustained response from the government. 94

Therefore it is necessary to pay more attention to the relationship between eating pathology and food insecurity, especially in children and adolescents during pandemics. Although these times are uncertain, there are issues such as identifying the factors that exacerbate income and job inequality in the economic crisis that we must consider to protect the food security of children and adolescents now and shortly. Food security determines dignity, justice, life, and sustainable development. 1

9. COVID-19 epidemic and food system

The world population is estimated to reach 10 billion by 2050, which raises significant concerns about food safety and adequate supply, hence the demand for foods such as meat, dairy products, as well as processed foods. 12 Before the epidemic, more than 80% of the Yemeni population was dependent on food aid and faced severe food insecurity. In Syria, 9.3 million people are insecure due to unprecedented inflation in food prices. Sudan is currently facing a strict travel ban, while food prices rose 82% in April from a month earlier. This will make it less likely to achieve the zero hunger target by 2030. 12

Social justice and the goals of environmentally sustainable development are focused on reducing hunger, but the COVID-19 crisis has unprecedentedly affected these goals and disrupted the global food system. COVID-19 has tested the depth of global commitment to social justice and food sustainability and security. 36

In addition, there is no specific system for the proper distribution of food in pandemic conditions. The COVID-19 pandemic made the defect more apparent. In general, based on food consumption, there are two types of food systems: one system that deals with the preparation and consumption of home food from grocery stores, farmer markets, and food centers, and the other system that is for consumption in institutions and outside the home like restaurants, schools, and businesses. The closure of restaurants, businesses, schools, and many institutions due to COVID-19 increased the demand for food at home, disrupting food supply in grocery stores. 95 Because food was originally prepared for use by farmers outside the home, and the consumption pattern changed due to COVID-19, large amounts of food were wasted. 96

The food industry is a very important sector economically. However, the food sector faces various challenges compared to other areas of daily life, including tourism and aviation. The epidemic could lead to $ 113 billion in aviation losses and $ 80 billion in tourism. 97 Some food companies face various challenges due to declining revenues, while others work hard to meet retailers' growing demand. The fact is that this epidemic clearly shows that different companies from different industries around the world are closely related to each other. Hence, supply management strategies are also important to meet consumer needs. Maintaining the flow of food and goods across the supply chain must be ensured with the participation of all stakeholders. Ensuring consumer confidence is also essential for food safety and security. 97

The vulnerability of food supply chains in food systems varies according to their priorities and structure. Their four important features can be as follows:

(i) Governments worldwide have made it a priority to ensure the delivery of staple foods to consumers.

(ii) In developing countries, traditional labor-focused food supply chains are more affected than modern ones.

(iii) Even modern food supply chains and systems can be severely affected by the closure or unemployment of labor and the severance of international connections.

(iv) COVID-19 has affected public food distribution systems. School closures, for example, deprive many poor children in the United States of public meals. Farmers and other suppliers struggle to find markets to replace institutions such as restaurants and schools, resulting in a significant amount of wasted milk and other micronutrient-fortified foods. Other food supply networks are also affected, including general nutrition programs for pregnant and lactating mothers.24

In high-income countries, perishable foods and their products have been significantly affected by COVID-19 due to their short shelf life and reliance on workers for storage and processing. Many farms employing migrant labor have faced labor shortages due to government restrictions on transportation to prevent the release of COVID-19, and the agricultural production cycle has been disrupted. 36 In summary, four major issues in the food industry and food supply chain have been addressed during the outbreak of COVID-19. First, people tend to follow a healthy diet to protect themselves and their immune systems. Second, food safety has received increasing attention among manufacturers, retailers, and consumers to prevent coronavirus transmission. Third, food security concerns have arisen due to traffic restrictions. Fourth, concerns about food stability have emerged during the epidemic. 97

Thus the coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic has shown how global food systems can become vulnerable, leading to increased food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty, especially among vulnerable groups. 98

10. Strategies to deal with the food crisis in the COVID-19 epidemic

Creating a global response to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food insecurity and its consequences, including prolonged starvation and malnutrition, requires science-based solutions, informing policymakers, including governments, global organizations, and stakeholders. 1 However, various factors such as climate, geography, socioeconomic systems, healthcare systems, educational systems, and political structures must be considered for epidemics. 1

Selective government policies to reduce the effects of COVID-19 on food security can include programs for food production, estimating food demand, appropriate methods of food distribution and storage, food processing and preparation, and a global food supply chain. 4

Given that various issues affect food security, it is recommended to use the following approaches to create a food-resistant system against various threats:

Provide innovation and low-cost or cost-effective methods to produce agricultural products that can increase production flexibility to be used against shocks and unpredictable consequences such as crop loss, epidemic conditions, market failure, etc.

Creating associations of individuals and communities to effectively manage various innovations in agriculture.

Interacting with decision-makers to support the implementation of robust political mechanisms that support appropriate agricultural solutions can increase flexibility in food systems.

Support research that raises awareness of producers and consumers to strengthen the flexibility of food systems because it can, in addition to farmers' livelihoods and promote sustainable agricultural approaches, make healthy and nutritious food available to the community. 99

11. Conclusion

COVID-19 showed that global food systems can become vulnerable, resulting in increased food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty, especially among vulnerable groups. Therefore it is necessary to link the pathology of access to food and food insecurity, especially in children and adolescents during pandemics. In poor countries, agricultural production, from planting to harvesting, is done by labor. In these countries, health systems are usually weaker, and existing health challenges may increase people's vulnerability to epidemics such as COVID-19. Therefore many agricultural producers face labor shortages.

Due to the fact that in severe poverty there is not enough income to buy food to prevent hunger and malnutrition, poor people close to the poverty line turn to cheaper and less nutritious food. Although access to sources of income is short lived, the effects of malnutrition can be long lasting, especially for young children and adolescents. However, in these circumstances, among the four dimensions of food security, access to food is the most important.

International Labor Organization (ILO) surveys show that COVID-19 has affected more than 80% of the workforce due to complete or partial closure of the workplace. Although the timing of the epidemics is unclear, the identification of factors that exacerbate inequality in income, employment, and thus access to food should be considered to protect the food security of children and adolescents now and in the future.

Also, better management of food supply and demand can prevent an immediate food crisis for millions. During the crisis, various restrictions forced farmers to sell their products and dairy products while food banks faced shortages. Food distribution channels designed to bring fresh farm food to commercial customers could not easily feed the food banks, leaving farmers discarding the crop for not selling and leaving people hungry.

In an epidemic, the cooperation of most organizations in the distribution system and access to food is also very important. As the crisis has clarified, cooperation is much more vital in areas that are on the outskirts of cities or in rural areas. Because of these collaborations, the rate of food waste will reduce.

Responding to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food insecurity and its consequences, including poverty, prolonged starvation and malnutrition, seems to require science-based solutions, informing policymakers, including governments and global organizations as well as stakeholders. However, various factors such as climate, geography, socioeconomic systems, healthcare systems, educational systems, and political structures must be considered for epidemics.

References

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26. International Monetary Fund . World economic outlook update. IMF; 2020. A crisis like no other, an uncertain recovery. [ Google Scholar]

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50. Weiser S.D., Palar K., Hatcher A.M., Young S.L., Frongillo E.A. Food insecurity and public health. CRC Press; 2015. Food insecurity and health: a conceptual framework; pp. 23-50. [ Google Scholar]

52. Hamid M.Z.B.S.A., Karri R.R. COVID-19: systemic risk and resilience. Springer; Cham: 2021. Overview of preventive measures and good governance policies to mitigate the COVID-19 outbreak curve in Brunei; pp. 115-140. [ Google Scholar]

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93. CDC COVID-19 Response Team Preliminary estimates of the prevalence of selected underlying health conditions among patients with coronavirus disease 2019-United States, February 12-March 28, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(13):382-386. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6913e2. [[ PMC free article] [ PubMed] [ CrossRef] Google Scholar]

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Effect of COVID-19 on food security, hunger, and food crisis

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Guest Editor (s): Mohammad Hadi Dehghani Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran Institute for Environmental Research, Center for Solid Waste Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Guest Editor (s): Rama Rao Karri Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam Guest Editor (s): Sharmili Roy School of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States COVID-19 affected the world's socioeconomic and food security more than other infectious diseases.

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A common concern when it comes to food insecurity is the inability of states to participate. Governments tend to rely on nongovernmental organizations to do the work for them and solve world hunger. While there is no denying that nongovernmental hunger relief organizations do a great job at helping and assisting those in need, these organizations are limited in scope, money, and resources. In this article published by the White House, the authors argue that the "federal government has a greater ability to marshal available resources and better coordinate actions across the nation than the nonpublic sector can do on its own". The solution cannot be achieved by NGO's alone and solving the issue will not be possible until governments are willing to coordinate as a unified international body and get involved. Their lack of participation is evident in their low treaty participation and lack of legally binding law on the matter. For example, the Food Assistance Convention only has 16 parties out of 193 countries (see Treaty's subsection Food Assistance Convention for more information).

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By Chair Cecilia Rouse and Brandon Restrepo

Hunger is an ongoing challenge in the United States, particularly in times of economic distress. U.S. food assistance programs are countercyclical and help stabilize the U.S. economy when it experiences a contraction.

In this blog, we provide analysis showing that the activation of pandemic relief programs was followed by improvements in food security among households that experienced financial hardship since the pandemic began. Likewise, as relief has subsided, hunger is now on the rise, demonstrating that the Federal government plays a critical role in helping needy families avoid food insecurity.[1] Fortunately, additional aid to families is imminent through the expansion of the Child Tax Credit (CTC), which policymakers expect will once again help reduce food insecurity.
Background
Upon its arrival, the novel coronavirus delivered a rapid and significant blow to the U.S. economy and workforce, immediately sparking a hunger crisis across the nation. Research from Northwestern University's Institute for Policy Research indicates that in April 2020, when the effects of the pandemic took hold, the overall household food insecurity rate doubled relative to the rate that researchers predicted for March 2020.[2] This was especially true among households with children-a vulnerable population whose food insecurity rate jumped to a level that was three times higher in April 2020 relative to the predicted March 2020 food insecurity rate. Children did not just face food insecurity at home; with school closures, many lost access to free or reduced-price school meals.
Government aid helps decrease food insecurity rates in times of economic stress
While nongovernmental hunger relief organizations can and do significantly help to ensure that families meet basic needs during economic downturns, their support cannot substitute a robust response by a more resourceful public sector during major public health emergencies. The Federal government has a greater ability to marshal available resources and better coordinate actions across the nation than the nonpublic sector can do on its own. The public sector can, therefore, play an important role in promoting the food and nutrition security of needy families during tough economic times, which serves to complement and enhance the charitable actions of nonpublic actors.

The idea that government aid in times of economic distress helps reduce hunger is not new. For example, according to the USDA's Economic Research Service, yearly household food insecurity rates spiked at the onset of the Great Recession (Figure 1). Yet when the federal government increased Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program(SNAP) benefits with the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, food spending increased, and food insecurity rates in the low-income population fell. Moreover, the aid had a positive multiplier effect on GDP, which in turn supported additional jobs.

In the decade following, food insecurity dropped as the economy improved. Indeed, while 14.7 percent of households were food insecure in 2009, the food insecurity rate dropped to 10.5 percent in 2019. Over the same decade, the improvement was even larger among households with children: food insecurity dropped by almost 8 percentage points, from 21.3 percent to 13.6 percent.

The same pattern has held during the COVID-19 pandemic. After the pandemic struck and hunger went up dramatically, there were temporary reductions in food insecurity rates following the passage of the CARES Act in March 2020-when the first round of stimulus checks were released to many Americans. Food insecurity rates increased again in the fall and winter of 2020 as COVID-19 cases climbed and Federal aid waned. Starting in January 2021, food deprivation started to decrease again as a second round of stimulus payments were sent out under the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021[3]. A third infusion of cash made its way to households under the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, with checks going out starting in March 2021.

The food insufficiency rate for households overall reached 8 percent in mid-April 2021 (Figure 2),[4] which was the lowest point recorded during the pandemic, and more than 5 percentage points lower than the peak in food insufficiency seen in mid-December 2020. Over that same period, the decrease in food insufficiency among households with children-from 18 percent to 11 percent-was even more substantial.

According to near real-time survey data from the Census Bureau, the number of households reporting that they sometimes or often did not have enough food to eat in the past week fell by 4.5 million from mid-December 2020 to early June 2021. About half of this reduction (2.3 million) occurred among households with children. With Federal aid payments now decreasing, however, it is not surprising that food insecurity is again on the rise (Figure 2).

Personal income data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) provide suggestive evidence that the patterns in Figure 2 are at least partially attributable to personal income effects from Federal income support programs. BEA found there was a 10 percent increase in personal income from December 2020 to January 2021, and a 21 percent increase from February 2021 to March 2021. The decreases in food insufficiency in January and troughs in April shown in Figure 2 are consistent with positive personal income effects on food adequacy. Similarly, data from BEA that showed month-to-month decreases in personal income in April 2021 and May 2021, may help to explain the upward tick in food insufficiency rates starting in mid-April 2021.

Both the improvements and declines in food adequacy can be attributable to a multitude of factors. But, the analysis presented below suggests that elevated income support by the Federal government has played an important role in reducing food hardship; additionally, a fall in support-at a time when pandemic-related economic hardships have not ended-has arguably led to an increase in food insecurity.
New analysis of pandemic relief on food insecurity
In 2021 thus far, two pieces of legislation aimed at reducing economic hardship have been enacted. First, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021 provided a round of Economic Impact Payments (EIP)-one-time $600 direct cash payments (known as stimulus checks) for qualifying adults and children-that were officially disbursed to the majority of Americans on January 4 th, 2021. On March 11, 2021, President Biden signed a second piece of legislation, the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARP), which provided even larger one-time stimulus checks-$1,400 for qualifying adults and children-that were officially disbursed on March 17, 2021.

Research from the University of Michigan's Poverty Solutions shows that food insufficiency dropped in the months after the two COVID relief bills were signed, especially for lower-income households. Below, we explore the potential hunger-reducing impacts of the stimulus checks with a more nuanced analysis to see if there is indeed solid evidence that food adequacy rose as a result of the income support provisions in the two COVID relief bills.

For each survey period from June 2020 to March 2021, Figures 3a and 3b plot trends in food insufficiency rates for three groups of households[5]: 1) Those that experienced a loss of employment income in the household since March 2020 and used EIP funds in the past week to meet spending needs ("Income Loss, EIP"); 2) Those that experienced a loss in employment income from March 2020 onwards but did not use stimulus check funds in the previous week to meet spending needs ("Income Loss, No EIP"); and 3) Those that experienced no loss in employment income in the household since March 2020 and did not use stimulus check funds in the previous week to meet spending needs ("No Income Loss, No EIP").[6]

Food insufficiency rates for the last group of households-those that neither experienced a loss in employment income, nor relied on stimulus checks in the past week to meet their spending needs-were relatively stable throughout the study period. The smaller variation in food security over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic is not surprising, since these households likely experienced less pandemic-linked financial instability.

By contrast, food insufficiency rates for households that had experienced a loss of employment income and relied on stimulus checks in the past week to meet their spending needs were generally increasing from June to December 2020. Their food insufficiency rates then fell dramatically from December 2020 to January 2021. The approximately 8.5 percentage-point drop in food insufficiency rates occurred among all households (including those with children), which suggests that adults and children alike benefitted from boosting the income of financially strained households. In particular, food insufficiency rates dropped to 18 percent for households overall and 22 percent for households with children, from mid-December 2020 rates of 27 percent and 30 percent, respectively. Food insufficiency rates for these households reached their lowest points at the end of March 2021 (16 and 18 percent, respectively), which is the first survey period after the ARP stimulus checks were distributed.

From December 2020 to January 2021, food insufficiency rates also fell for households that lost employment income, but did not make use of an EIP to meet their past-week spending needs. However, these drops in food insufficiency rates were much smaller-roughly a third of the size-than the drops seen among the households that experienced a loss in employment income and did spend out of EIP funds in the past week. It is important to note that while these improvements in food adequacy may be explained by the use of EIP funds greater than a week prior to the survey, EIP fund usage beyond the past week is not captured in the data.

Establishing causality running from EIP spending to food hardship is difficult but, taken together, the patterns observed in the data after both official stimulus check disbursement dates strongly suggest that income support through the Federal government's EIP program deserves at least partial credit for improvements in food security seen after January 2021.

The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021 also provided supplemental unemployment insurance (UI) benefits ($300 per week) until March 2021, which was further extended by the ARP through September 2021. We now explore the potential effect of UI benefits on hunger in an analysis similar to the one performed above. Figures 4a and 4b plot trends in food insufficiency rates for the following three groups of households: 1) Those that experienced a loss of employment income in the household since March 2020 and used UI benefits in the past week to meet spending needs ("Income Loss, UI"); 2) Those that experienced a loss in employment income from March 2020 onwards, but did not use UI benefits in the previous week to meet spending needs ("Income Loss, No UI"); and 3) Those that experienced no loss in employment income in the household since March 2020 and did not use UI benefits in the previous week to meet spending needs ("No Income Loss, No UI").

The patterns in Figures 4a and 4b are similar to the ones presented in Figures 3a and 3b and thus lead us to draw similar conclusions.

Compared with other households, those that relied on UI benefits to meet their past-week spending needs show steeper increases in food insufficiency rates after the $600 Federal UI benefit boost expired in July 31, 2020, showing even sharper drops in January 2021. In January 2021, the $300 UI benefit boosts began to roll out across U.S. states, which suggests that, like the Federal EIP program, the extra aid paid out to beneficiaries of the Federal UI income support program also helped to reduce food hardship.

Looking forward: food insecurity again on the rise
With the ending of the ARP stimulus monies, food insecurity rates are again increasing. Indeed, the latest Household Pulse Survey data from May 26 to June 7, 2021 indicate that a significant share of the U.S. population is still currently not eating enough. Overall, almost 1 in 10 households (9 percent) said that they sometimes or often did not have enough food to eat in the household over the past week (Figure 5a).

Rates of food insufficiency are higher among lower-income households (those with incomes below $50,000)[7] and higher still for those who are receiving SNAP benefits-a particularly vulnerable low-income subpopulation. Among those receiving SNAP benefits, over 3 in 20 households (18 percent) reported sometimes not having enough food to eat, and 1 in 20 households (5 percent) reported often not having enough to eat.

Figure 5b presents similar data, but focuses on households with children. Among SNAP households with children, the share that reported they sometimes or often did not have enough food to eat in the past week was almost twice as high (23 percent) as households overall (13 percent).

Policymakers expect the ARP Child Tax Credit (CTC) payments-due to begin in July 2021 for nearly all working families and almost 9 in 10 children -will have the same effect as the prior Federal aid for those who receive them.

Under the new law, the maximum CTC in 2021 is $3,600 for children under the age of 6 and $3,000 per child for children between ages 6 and 17.[8] A total of 66 million children in the U.S. will benefit from the CTC expansion, which is the largest contributor to the ARP's projection to this year lift 5 million children out of poverty and cut child poverty by more than 50 percent. Starting next month on July 15 th, about 39 million U.S. households will begin automatically receiving advance monthly payments to help with monthly expenses as the U.S. economy continues to improve. Through these advance monthly payments, U.S. households will receive up to 50 percent of the total CTC amount until next tax season, when households can claim the other half.

Research has shown that the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) program, which also benefits many households with children, is associated with more food spending and greater spending on healthy foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables during the months when EITC refunds are paid out. These findings suggest that, while food insufficiency has ticked upward since mid-April, the forthcoming monthly payments from the CTC should help to further promote food and nutrition security among households with children.
Conclusion
People living in every part of the American landscape-cities, towns, rural communities, and tribal lands-have suffered adverse consequences associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. The beginning of the pandemic-induced recession was deep and caused food hardship to increase dramatically across America.

To promote a robust economic recovery, the Federal government helped needy families through multiple Federal income support programs-including stimulus checks and supplemental UI benefits. The analysis presented in this blog shows that the extra Federal aid was followed by marked improvements in food security among households that had experienced financial hardship and were reliant on those funds to meet their basic spending needs.

While there have been substantial gains in America's fight against the pandemic-induced hunger crisis, more is clearly required to further reduce food deprivation as the U.S. economy recovers from the COVID-19 pandemic shock-particularly when it comes to hunger experienced by lower-income households with children. The Household Pulse Survey data from the Census Bureau indicate that many U.S. households are still deprived of adequate food, particularly among lower-income households with children. Moreover, after decreasing for many months this year from January to March, food insufficiency rates started increasing in mid-April, with a pronounced increase among households with children. These increases may be partly due to households depleting their one-time stimulus payments, as well as reductions in payments from the Pandemic Unemployment Compensation program. Taken together, these patterns signal the need for more action from the Federal government to provide additional hunger relief to families in need. Programs such as the expansion and extension of the CTC in the ARP, the proposed expansions of the CTC, as well as other programs to address food insecurity in the American Families Plan, have the potential to provide an important lifeline to the most vulnerable families and communities.

[1] Households are considered to be food insecure if, during a certain period of time (e.g. past month or past year), they are uncertain of having-or unable to acquire-enough food to meet the needs of all their members because they had insufficient money or other resources for food.

[2] March 2020 food insecurity data were not available, so the researchers calculated what they expected the food insecurity rate to have been based on the March 2020 unemployment rate.

[3] This Act was passed and signed into law in December 2020, with checks distributed in early January 2021.

[4] Food insufficiency is a measure of food adequacy that is related to the concept of food insecurity, although food insufficiency is closer in severity to very low food security than to overall food insecurity.

[5] Figure 3a focuses on households overall, while Figure 3b focuses on households with children.

[6] This analysis is restricted to this period because the Census Bureau did not collect information on whether households lost employment before June 2020 or after March 2021.

[7] This analysis does not adjust for family size.

[8] For the year 2021, the ARP also provides additional economic relief for those without qualifying children, by almost tripling the maximum EITC for these households from $543 to $1,502.

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Federal Income Support Helps Boost Food Security Rates | CEA | The White House

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By Chair Cecilia Rouse and Brandon Restrepo Hunger is an ongoing challenge in the United States, particularly in times of economic distress. U.S. food assistance programs are countercyclical and help stabilize the U.S. economy when it experiences a contraction. In this blog, we provide analysis showing that the activation of pandemic relief programs was followed...

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The Food Assistance Convention (FAC) is a treaty that is legally binding on its signatories. The FAC establishes a framework for international cooperation and coordination in providing food assistance to those in need, specifically those in times of crisis or emergency. The treaty also establishes the obligations and commitments of participating countries regarding the management and oversight of food aid programs. The FAC entered into force on January 1, 2013 following the ratification of 6 states: Canada, Denmark, the European Union, Japan, Switzerland and the United States of America. Today, there are 16 parties one of which is an IGO (European Union). It forces participating countries to give a certain amount of money to the cause, increase it's transparency by providing yearly reports, and keep the movement alive. One of the FAC's key achievements have been the use of cash-based transfers (CBTs). CBTs are when individuals are given cash or vouchers instead of food supplies or meals, allowing them to purchase food items of their choice from local markets. The treaty has been overall successful on keeping the international community accountable on this issue through cooperation and monitoring.