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Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, giving the judiciary the right to review laws passed by Congress and actions by the president and to declare them unconstitutional if found so. The case involved William Marbury, who had been appointed a justice of the peace by President John Adams, but his commission was not delivered before Adams left office. When Thomas Jefferson took office, his Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to deliver the commission. Marbury sued, seeking a writ of mandamus to compel Madison to deliver the commission.

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Thomas Jefferson's popularity was very high during his re-election bid in 1804, as he enjoyed a very successful first term that saw the Louisiana Purchase and the reduction of national debt. He was the Democratic-Republican candidate against Federalist Charles C. Pinckney and won in a landslide with 162 electoral votes to Pinckney's 14. Jefferson's policies of small government and westward expansion were appealing to the public, and by all counts, he would win a second term. This election also marked the first under the 12th Amendment, which required separate electoral votes for president and vice president.

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This Louisiana Purchase, between the United States and France in 1803, added some 828,000 square miles west of the Mississippi River to the United States territory, costing the U.S. some $15 million or less than four cents an acre. The Louisiana Purchase effectively doubled the size of the young United States, adding land that would become part or all of 15 new states, including all or parts of Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. President Thomas Jefferson viewed the Louisiana Purchase as one of the chief accomplishments of his presidency. Yet, the Louisiana Purchase also created some problems in terms of constitutional authority.

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Jefferson responded to British and French depredations on American trade during the Napoleonic Wars with the Embargo Act, which barred all American exports. The Embargo Act hurt the American economy and proved extremely unpopular, especially in New England.

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The Lewis and Clark Expedition was an American exploration led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson after the Louisiana Purchase. Their mission was mapping and exploring the newly acquired western territory, finding a practical route across the continent, and establishing American presence before European powers could lay claims to the land. They would go from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean under the leadership of Shoshone interpreter Sacagawea, who was instrumental in the journey that the expedition team had to make. The expedition gathered information regarding geography, plant and animal life, and Indigenous tribes of the region that had been very useful for the westward expansion.