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the muscles need a high demand of oxygen within a very short period of time

and their breathing rate and heart are not fast enough to transport the oxygen to the

respiring muscle cells for increased rate of aerobic respiration. [1]

The muscle cells will therefore undergo anaerobic respiration, in the absence of

oxygen (along with aerobic respiration) to release more energy for the muscle

cells.[1]

During anaerobic respiration, lactic acid is produced where it is built up in the muscle

cells and incur an oxygen debt. [1]

The accumulated lactic acid results in fatigue and muscular pains. [1]

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Co-dominance refers to effects/phenotype being expressed by both alleles

controlling that trait and;

neither of the alleles are dominant over the other;

The human ABO blood group is controlled by three types of allele namely,

IA, IB and IO;

The IA and IB alleles are co-dominant, while IO is recessive;

When an offspring inherits both IA and IB alleles, both antigen A and antigen

B proteins will be expressed/found on the RBC of the offspring;

The person is said to have AB blood group

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1. Substrate acts as a key to the enzyme which acts as the key
2. This is because the shape of the active site of enzyme is complementary to the shape of substrate
3. Substrate fits and binds to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex
4. Enzyme remains chemically unchanged after product is released

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Crossing over between homologous chromosomes during prophase I creates variation in combination of alleles along chromosomes

Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I where one chromosome of each homologous pair can combine with either chromosome of other pair resulting in each gamete containing different combinations of chromosomes

Random fertillisation of nuclei of sperm and nuclei of egg

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1. Ribosomes attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum in liver cells synthesis (protein)
2. (Synthesised protein) is transported to golgi apparatus in small vesicle from RER
3. At golgi apparatus, It is processed and modified
4. Secretory vesicles containing modified fibrinogen then pinches off Golgi Apparatus and are transported to cell membrane and release the fibrinogen into the surrounding tissue fluid
5. Fibrinogen then diffuse into bloodstream

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When asking for adaptation derived from diagram

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When asking for adaptation derived from diagram

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-Ensure it can be seen from diagram

--> If only show 1 part, cannot derive there is large SA to Vol ratio (eg of alveolus)

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Fats and Carbohydrates will be stored as fatty deposits in Coronary arteries
This narrows lumens and increase blood pressure
This also creates a rough inner surface and narrow lumen which increases risk of blood clots forming, thrombosis
This leads to supply of glucose and oxygen in heart to be cut off if thrombosis occurs and can lead to angina

Resulting in higher risk of heart attack

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When exercising:
-Increase muscular contraction (more aerobic respiration req)
-Shortness of breathe(compensate for increased use of O2 and decreased conc of O2)
-Muscle Fatigue (Build up of lactic acid as anaerobic respiration release more energy due to insufficent amount of oxygen)

Aerobic and Anerobic respiration
-Aerobic occurs in mitochondria
-Anerobic occurs in cytoplasm

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Excrete- Removal of toxic substances
Egestion- Removal of unwanted substance(not needed and not process) --Digestion only

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1. Circular Biconcave shape which increases surface area to volume ratio allowing higher rate of diffusion of oxygen into and out of the cell
2. No Nucleus which provides more space for haemoglobin to bind to more oxygen allowing oxygen to be transported at a faster rate
3. Contains Haemoglobin which can reversibly bind with oxygen to form oxy-haemoglobin which helps RBC transport oxygen
4. Elastic and flexible which allows it to change into a bell shape to squeeze into capillaries to transport oxygen

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Above set norm- When body temperature is above normal
Stimulus-Thermoreceptors in skin sends nerve impulse to hypothalamus in brain which also has thermoreceptors that detect rise in temperature
Corrective mechanism: Hypothalamus sends nerve impulse to different parts of body whcih causes
Effector: Hair errector muscle relaxes- Allows more heat loss via radiation convection and conduction
Sweat glands becomes more active and release more sweat --> More latent heat of vapourisation lost via evaporation
Vasodilation of arteriole near skin
Metabolic rate of body slows down
E: This occurs until body temperature is back to normal

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When blood glucose level increase above set normal, Pancreas detects rise in blood glucose levels and Islet of langerhan cells in pancreas produce insulin which travels through bloodstream and transported to the liver and muscle cells. This stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen for storage until blood glucose level returns to set norm

When blood glucose level decrease below set normal, Pancreas detects drop in blood glucose levels and production of glucagon by islet of langerhans cells in pancreas. Glucagon travels into bloodstream and stimulates liver to convert glycogen into glucose to raise glucose levels. Glucagon also stimulates the conversion of fats and amino acids into glucose. This occurs until blood glucose level returns to set norm

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Down Syndrome
Change in chromosome number- has 3 chromosome 21--> slower physical and mental development
Sickle Cell Anemia
Mutated gene- results in production of HbS instead of HbA resulting in change in shape of RBC--> Leads to lower oxygen carying capacity
Albinism
Mutated gene- causes absence of pigment in skin hair and eyes --> Sensitive to sunlight and skin is easily sunburnt

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Ciliary muscles relaxes/contracts, pulling/loosening pull suspensory ligament making it taut/slacken(NOT CONTRACT AND RELAX!) this pulls the edge of lens

Lens becomes thinner and less convex/thicker and more convex, increasing/decreasing focal length and allowing light rays to produce focused image on retina
Photoreceptors in retina are stimulated and generate nerve impulses to brain where the pulses are interpreted to form image which is seen by person

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Chronic Bronchitis:
-Inflamed airway
-Coughing-->Damage of Alveoli--> Emphysema

Emphysema:
-holes in walls of alveoli
-larger and fewer alveoli
--> Lesser surface area to volume ratio of walls of aveoli-> Slower rate of gaseous exchange(not just oxygen) which can lead to breathlessness
-less elastic walls
-->Breathing becomes difficult ->Breathlessness

All these->Lesser O2 transported to body cells for aerobic respiration which decreases ability of person to participate in strenuous activity

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1. Primary consumer does not excrete chemical and accmulates in body as it is non-biodegradable
2. Secondary consumer feed on primary consumer to gain energy leading to chemical also accumulatinf in flesh of secondary consumer

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Refers to the feeding position of a organism in the food chain in which the organisms are grouped according

to their mode of nutrition.

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1. Lost in the form of chemical energy in egested Faeces
2. Lost in form of chemical energy in uneaten body parts such as bones
3. Lost in the form of thermal energy during cellular respiration
4. Lost in form of Kinetic energy through movement of organism

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1. Choose organisms with desired features
2. Breed these organism by (transferring pollen grains)
3. Grow organisms and check for desired features in offspring
4. Only cross plants that show desired feature of original organisms
5. Keep crossing and selecting plant for future generations

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Individual must have (Dominant allele) as her phenotype is (dominant)

SInce Individual has a offspring with (homozygous recessive genotype), offspring must have inherited one of the recessive allele from individual in order for trait to be expressed

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What is it?
It is an organism which has obtained a foreign gene artificially through the use of plasmid or vector.
Desired gene is transferred from one organism to another leading transferred gene to be expressed in the other organism

Describe process
Desired traits gene is isolated and cut open fragment of DNA containing desired gene with restriction enzyme, forming sticky ends

Same restriction enzyme is used to cut open plasmid forming complementary sticky ends

Plasmid and DNA fragment containing desired gene is mixed together which causes sticky ends of each component to bind through complementary base pairing which is sealed by DNA ligase

Recombinant plasmid is introduced to organism such as bacteria using t emporary electric or heat shock

FOR ANIMALS
Organism containing foreign gene is known as transgenic organism

FOR PLANTS
Insert bacterium into plant cell, infecting it. This causes foreign gene to be inserted into the plant's chromosomes
Allow the plant to reproduce, expressing desired trait of foreign gene in it. This is a transgenic plant

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Definition of Gene &Allele& Structure of DNA 

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Definition of Gene &Allele& Structure of DNA 

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A gene is segment of DNA of sequence of DNA nucleotides that controls the formation of a single polypeptide bond which can be used to make proteins

Allele is the alternative forms of the same gene.

Structure of DNA
DNA is made up of aa repeating unit called nucleotide

Nucleotide contains 1 sugar, 1 phosphate and 1 nitrogenous base

There are 4 types of nitrogenous base. Namely Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine,

The DNA is made of 2 strands of nucleotides twisted around each other forming a DNA helix structure

Nitrogenous base of one strand pairs up with nitrogenous base of the other strand through the nitrogenous base pairing rule. Namely, Adenine pairs with Thymine and Cytosine pairs with Guanine

A segment of DNA of DNA sequence responsible for the formation of a single polypeptide bond is known as a gene

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Features and Functions in uterus which enable fetus to survive

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Features and Functions in uterus which enable fetus to survive

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Placenta
-Allows NUTRIENTS such as glucose and amino acids to be transported from mother to fetus
-Allows EXCRETORY WASTE such as Carbon Dioxide and Urea to be transported from fetus to mother
-Transport ANTIBODIES into fetus
Umbilical Cord
-connects placenta to fetus allowing exchange of substances
Ammonic Sac:
-Encloses fetus in a fluid filled space called amniotic cavity filled wish amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid:
-Supports fetus
-Absorb shock
-Allow Fetus to move freely
-Acts as lubricant in vagina during birth

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Fertillisation & early development of embryo 

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Fertillisation & early development of embryo 

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During sexual intercouse, millions of sperm is ejaculated into the vagina
Sperm swims up along the uterus towards oviduct where it meet and fertillise female ovum.
This is done by when sperm's acrosome containing an enzyme which can break the membrane of ovum breaks the membrane of ovum allowing sperm to enter and its haploid nuclei fusing with the ovum's haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote

Fertillised egg/Zygote is swept towards uterus for implantation by cillia lining along walls of oviduct. As it travels, zygote undergoes mitosis forming a ball of cells called embryo

At uterus, embryo is implanted onto uterine lining

Fingerlike projections called villi grows from embryo into uterine lining forming the placenta

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Definition of Asexual repro and Sexual repro 

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Definition of Asexual repro and Sexual repro 

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Asexual- Refers to the method of reproduction where only 1 parent is required and offspring is genetically identical. It involves the mitotic division of parent cell

Sexual- Refers to the method of reproduction involving the fusion of a haploid nucleus of one male gamete and haploid nucleus of one female gamete to form a diploid zygote resulting in an offspring which is genetically dissimilar. Gametes are a result of meiosis in parents.

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How is a insect&wind pollinated plant adapted for pollination

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How is a insect&wind pollinated plant adapted for pollination

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Insect:
Pollen grain has rough surface- allows it to cling onto hairy body of insects
Petals are large and brightly coloured with nectar guide+ sweet smelling- attracts insects
Nectar stored at bottom of stamen which attracts insects

Wind:
Pollen grains have smooth surfaces reducing air resistance
Long pendulous stamen- pollen grain can be easily blown by the wind to stigma of another plants
Feathery stigma-catch pollen grains in wind

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1. When pollen grain lands on stigma, it germinates in response to sugary sticky fluid secreted by mature stigma
2. This causes a pollen tube to be formed which growth is controlled by 2 male nuclei
3. Cytoplasm and nuclei enters pollen tube and it secretes enzymes breaking down and digesting walls of stigma and style towards the ovary
4. Pollen tube grows down the stigma and style, enters ovule through micropyle. In ovule, pollen tube bursts, releasing 2 male nuclei
5. One of these nucleus of male gamete fuses with nucleus of female gamete in ovule to form a zygote. This is the process of fertilisation.

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It is a ductless gland
When hormone produced by gland is secreted directly into bloodstream to transport hormone to other organs to exert its effects.
Eg. Pancreas is an endocrine gland as it directly secretes insulin and Glucagon into blood stream to regulate blood glucose conc
When glucose level decrease, pancreas secrete glucagon into blood stream which is transported to liver. When Glucose level increase, Pancreas secretes insulin into blood stream which is transported to liver and muscles

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Similarity and differences of voluntary action and reflex action

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Similarity and differences of voluntary action and reflex action

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Similarity:
Both voluntary action and reflex action send messages in form of nerve impulse through neurons

Both voluntary action and reflex action passes through central nervous system

Difference:
A reflex action happens almost instantaneously while voluntary action takes a longer time

A reflex action occurs is an instant response without conscious control while voluntary action is consciously controlled by the brain

A voluntary action does not require a sensory neuron but a reflex action requires sensory neurone

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Stimulus: High temperature/Tendon under kneetap is tapped, stretching upper thigh/ Bright light
Receptor: Thermoreceptors detect extreme heat/Stretch receptor is stimulated/Photoreceptors in retina detect bright light
Corrective Mechanism: Nerve impulse is generated by sensory neurone which travels to relay neurone in (spinal cord/brain) Relay neurone than transmit nerve impulse to the effector, arm muscle, thigh muscle(DIRECTLY FROM SENSORY NEURONE, KNEE JERK NO RELAY NEURONE), iris muscles
Effector: Hand withdraws from hot object / Knee jerks upwards/ Radial muscle relax and circular muscle contract, making pupil size smaller

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A reflex action is the immediate reaction to a specific stimulus without conscious control

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The maintenance of constant internal environment through self-regulatory corrective mechanism

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-High hydrostatic pressure at glomerulus which is due to the difference in diameter between the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole forces water and very small molecules to pass through the partially permeable basement memberane
-One cell thick wall of bowman's capsule allows substances to pass through it easily due to short distance (CEA: NOT DIFFUSION DISTANCE! substances move due to pressure not diffusion)

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1. Blood is drawn from veins into dialysis machine tubing and pumped through the machine
2. In the machine, the tubing is bathed in a special dialysis fluid which contains the same concentration of essential substances such as glucose, ammino acids and mineral salts as healthy blood
3. This prevents essential substances such as glucose to not move out of blood as it travels through the tubing. If patient’s blood concentration is below normal, glucose can also be diffused into blood through partially permeable dialysis tubing to restore blood glucose levels to set norm.  Large cells such as red blood cells and white blood cells also remain in tubing
4. As blood travels through tubing, waste products such as urea move out of the tubing via diffusion through partially permeable dialysis tubing, down the concentration gradient as there is a higher concentration of waste products in blood than fluid
5. Flow of blood is opposite to that of fluid to maintain high concentration gradient
6. Filtered blood is then returned into the vein of patient arms
5. Excess water in blood move out via osmosis through ppm dialysis tubing

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Osmoregulation of blood water potential 

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Osmoregulation of blood water potential 

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When there is an increase water potential:
- Hypothalamus in brain detects increase in water potential which sends nerve impulses to pituitary gland
-this causes pituitary gland to secret less ADH
-This cause walls of collecting duct to be less permeable to water resulting in less water reabsorbed at collecting duct. This results in higher and more diluted urine produced

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Oxygen taken in, enters lungs and diffuses into thin layer of moisture surrounding alveoli as there is a concentration gradient of oxygen btw alveoli and air
Oxygen diffuses into blood capillaries and combines with haemoglobin to form  oxyhaemoglobin
When blood passes through oxygen-poor respiring tissue, concentration of oxygen in cell is lower than in red blood cell, which leads to oxyhaemoglobin releasing the red blood cell which diffuses into the respiring tissue down conc gradient through capillary wall

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1. Nicotine
-Causes addiction and increases risk of blood clots leading to increased risk of coronary heart disease

2. Tar
-causes uncontrolled cell division which can lead to tumor and risk of cancer in lungs
- Also paralyses cillia lining in air passgae

3. Carbon monoxide
-reduce ability for red blood cells to transport oxygen as it combines with haemoglobin irreversibly

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During respiration:
-Tissue cells have a higher concentration of Carbon dioxide than blood in blood capillaries
-Therefore Carbon dioxide is diffused into blood and enters the red blood cell
-Carbon dioxide and water in red blood cell is than converted into carbonic acid in red blood cells which is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase in it.
- carbonic acid is then converted into Hydrogen carbonate ions which diffuses out of red blood cell and into the plasma.
-When blood travel to lungs, hydrogen carbonate is converted back into carbonic acid which than converts back to water and carbon dioxide which diffuse out of blood capillaries into alveoli where it is expelled

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1. Blood flow reduced
2. O2 nutrients entering region reduced
3. Brain cells might die and cause stroke

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eg. Blood from the lungs into the aorta (italic words should be changed under different circumstances)
1. When oxygenated blood from lungs enter the left Atrium of the heart, the muscle wall of left atrium contracts, causing an increase in pressure in left atrium
2. When pressure in left atrium is higher than pressure in left ventricle, Bicuspid valves is forced open, forcing blood to enter left ventricle.
3. When thick muscular wall of left ventricle contracts, it causes a rise in pressure in the left ventricle.
4. When pressure in left ventricle is higher than that of left atrium, it forces the bicuspid valves to close
5. When pressure in muscular walls of left ventricle is higher than that of Aorta, it forces open the aortic valve, forcing blood to flow through the aorta and to the body

Talk about:
Contraction of muscular walls leading to pressure increase
Direction of blood flow
Opening and closing of valves

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1. When there is a wound, Thrombokinase is release by platelets, which converts inactive Prothrombin into thrombin in the Prescence of Calcium ions
2. Thrombin then converts soluble Fibrinogen in the blood into insoluble Fibrin threads which will create a mesh which tangles red blood cells at site of wound preventing further blood loss

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How does water/substance move from soil to leaves

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How does water/substance move from soil to leaves

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1. Substance is dissolved in water in soil
2. which diffuses into root hair cell down the concentration gradient
3. Substance than is diffused into neighbouring root hair cell until it reaches xylem where it moves up due to transpiration pull, root pressure and capillary action
4. Dissolved substance reaches leaves where it is diffused into it

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1.Chlorophyll in mesophyll cells absorbs light energy which is converted into chemical energy in glucose
2. The raw materials required in water and carbondioxide
3. Oxygen and glucose is produced as the products

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When cold, enzyme and substrates are inactive and hence effective collision between enzyme and substrate is low

As temperature increases, enzymes and substrates gain more kinetic energy, hence colliding each other with more energy and more frequently, hence speading up rate of reaction

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Cuticle- A waxy layer that reduces water lost
Epidermis- Thin transparent cells that allow light to pass through
Pallisade mesophyll- Contain numerous chloroplast--> Maximum photosynthesis + Closely packed--> Maximum photosynthesis due to most surface area
Interceulluar air spaces - Waterplants: Allow them to float by reducing density
- exchange of gases (specify and elaborate )
Stomata- Allow exchange of gases (specify)

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When stomata is open in the day,
1. Carbon dioxide will diffuse into intercellular air spaces of the leaf and dissolve into thin moisture around mesophyll cells which can be used for photosynthesis
2. Oxygen produced from photosynthesis which is a by-product can also diffuse out of stomata from intercellular air spaces into surrounding air
3. Open stomata can also draw up more water due to transpiration pull. When stomata is open, water vapour that is in high concentration in intercellular airspaces diffuse out into the surrounding air through stomata. This creates a transpiration pull that allows more water to be drawn up by roots and xylem for photosynthesis

3 main points when asked about stomata:
Movement of CO2
Movement of O2
Movement of H2O

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How does water move from vasucular bundle to out of the leaf 

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How does water move from vasucular bundle to out of the leaf 

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1. Water potential in xylem is highest causing it to move into surrounding cell sap of surrounding spongy mesophyll cells
2. This leads to spongy mesophyll cells having a higher water potential then intercellular air spaces surrounding the spongy mesophyll cell. This causes water to move out of spongy mesophyll cell, creating a thin film of moisture around the cell.
3. Thin film of moisture evaporates into intercellular airspaces causing water vapour to accumulate and intercellular airspaces to be saturated with water vapour.
4. Concentration of water vapour in intercellular spaces is higher than that of atmosphere leading water vapour to be diffused out of the cell into surrounding air down the conc gradient through the stomata.

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1. Catalysts-Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of reaction between biological molecules by lowering the activation energy required
2.They have a specific 3D shape with a active site that only certain substrates that are complementary to it can fit inside the enzyme
3. These substrates will bind to the enzyme's active site, forming a enzyme-substrate complex, in which the enzyme catalyse the chemical reaction causing substrates to be converted into its products
4. Catalysts remains unchanged at the end of the chemical reaction while products leave active site

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1.  Enzymes are biological catalysts
2. which have specific 3D shape and an active site that binds to specific substrates.
3.It will speed up the reactions between these substrates by lowering the activation energy required
4. It also sensitive to changes in ph and temperature and functions best at optimal temperature and pH
5. They are protein in nature
6. They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction

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A has a higher conc of XXX than B
Hence XXX moves AGAINST concentration gradient causing a net movement of XXX from B to A

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A has a higher concentration of XXX than B
Therefore there is a net movement of XXX from A to B down the concentration gradient via diffusion until equilibrium is reached

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A has a higher water potential of XXX than B.
Therefore there is a net movement of XXX from A to B across the partially permeable _____ membrane, down the concentration gradient via osmosis until equilibrium is reaches

things to note for osmosis
-When talking about movement in cells:
      - Animal cell: Water potential in cytoplasm
      - Plant cell: Water potential in large central vacuole

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When breathing:
Internal Intercostal Muscle relaxes
External Intercostal Muscles Contract
This causes diaphragm muscle to contract, and ribcage to be raised upwards and outwards
. Thoracic volume increases causing air pressure in lungs to fall below atmospheric pressure. This causes air to be forced into the lung