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Earthenware from Banpo Village on the left and earthenware from Middle Jōmon on the right.

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Painted Pottery, Banpo Village, Neolithic China, 5000 BCE vs. Abstract Earthenware, Middle Jōmon, Neolithic Japan, 2500-1500 BCE

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Painted Pottery, Banpo Village, Neolithic China, 5000 BCE vs. Abstract Earthenware, Middle Jōmon, Neolithic Japan, 2500-1500 BCE

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In Neolithic China, along the Wei River, the fishing village of Bampo was situated. This north-western community domesticated millet and was characterized by painting their pottery for the burials of their members. The production of this pottery was done on the perimeter of the village and was made out of gray or red clay. The painted pottery only accounted for three percent of the pieces found during the excavation of the site. These pieces would only be found in the burial sites, and the purpose served as offerings for the afterlife. The piece shown above has theriomorphic, shaman masks and geometric fish.

In Neolithic Japan, the period is characterized as the Jōmon, or "cord marking" period, is the earliest known culture to create pottery. While the Chinese fired their pottery in kilns, the Japanese would fire their pottery in outdoor bonfires. The people of the Jōmon period were partially nomadic and participated in no agricultural activity. While the Chinese were domesticating millet and rice, the Japanese relied entirely on hunting and gathering.

Both of these East Asian cultures used clay to create their earthen wares. The piece shown above is from the Middle Jōmon period of Neolithic Japan. This is when archeologists suggest that religious beliefs and practices begin in this region. The earthenware piece in particular probably served for some religious practice in the community.

The two pieces were constructed by hand, with the Bampo piece being made using the coil method and the Jōmon piece being made using the additive method. While the Bampo piece is very simple, the Jōmon shape is unique and intricate. The Bampo piece has a smooth surface, while the Jōmon piece is textured with its groove detailing.

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Seated Figure made out of Steatite Stone, Indus Valley Civilization.

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Steatite Seal, Indus Valley Civilization, South Asia, 2600-1900 BCE

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Steatite Seal, Indus Valley Civilization, South Asia, 2600-1900 BCE

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Steatite, which is a stone characterized by its soft quality, would regularly be used to create seals in the Indus Valley Civilization. Cross-cultural comparison with ancient Mesopotamia suggests that these seals would be used for transaction and correspondence purposes. These steatite seals are considered the most important artifacts found in the excavations of the Indus Valley Civilizations. They are considerably small, about an inch by an inch, but contain a great amount of detail. They would be intricately carved into the stone, coat with alkali, and baked to glaze.

This seal (dated 2600-1900 BCE), in particular, is incredibly interesting, because it appears to portray a seated figure, in the yogi pose, with a bull-horned headdress, and three different heads/faces. The figure is adorned with what could be assumed to be bronze jewelry, and surrounded by various different animals, including: an elephant, a tiger, a bull, and a rhinoceros. At the top of the seal is a series of characters that archaeologists assume to be a title or name.

This holds great significance because this figure resembles later images of Shiva, the Hindu god. The earliest known depiction of Shiva is dated back to 500 CE and was found on Elephanta Island. What is so fascinating is that the known time difference between these two relics is at least 2,400 years. Even though it cannot be claimed that the seal is a depiction of Shiva, it still demonstrates that the idea of a deity like Shiva was already considered over a millennium before his first known appearance in history. Shiva is considered one of the principal deities in Hinduism, and is known as the Lord of the Beasts. Shiva's three heads resemble three parts of Shiva's nature: Shiva the Maintainer (of the universe), Shiva the Creator (of the universe), and Shiva the Destroyer (of the universe). Shiva has both masculine and feminine attributes, with the Creator/left side being considered Shiva's feminine nature, and the Maintainer/center and Destroyer/right being the masculine natures.

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Underside shell of a tortoise with holes drilled into it for the purpose of divination. 

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Oracle Bone, Late Shang Dynasty, Modern Day North-East China, 1300-1000 BCE

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Oracle Bone, Late Shang Dynasty, Modern Day North-East China, 1300-1000 BCE

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The Shang Dynasty appears in history around 2000 BCE, with the rise of the Chinese Bronze Age. This era is the first known use of metallurgy and writing in Chinese history. With this Bronze Age saw the appearance of cities, social stratification, and a very well-documented religion.

The faith of the Shang was the worship of ancestors through offerings of grain and alcohol, as well as sacrifices of animals and humans (usually young adult males). A practice of divination to the Shang ancestors is predominantly seen practiced by one Late Shang king in particular: King Wu Ding. Historians believe the frequency at which King Wu Ding would divine could be described as a type of compulsion. The divination would work by first collecting the tortoise plastrons or cattle scapulae, then creating hollow spaces along the bone to be purposely cracked when a hot, bronze poker would be placed inside.

The divination would be statements that would be said in the positive and also the negative. The king(s) would divine on offerings, sacrifices, health related issues, dreams, harvests, prayer, diplomatic issues, hunts, and so much more. The role of diviner existed to state the two statements in the positive and negative and create the cracks with the hot poker.

On each oracle bone, there would be writing that describes what was the interpretation of the cracks and the topic of the ritual. King Wu Ding's favorite diviner was known as Que, and he performed the majority of the king's rituals.

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The Early Western Zhou Li Gui (Left) and the Middle Western Zhou You (Right).

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Li Gui, Early Western Zhou, China, 1000-771 BCE vs. You, Middle Western Zhou, China, 1000-771 BCE

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Li Gui, Early Western Zhou, China, 1000-771 BCE vs. You, Middle Western Zhou, China, 1000-771 BCE

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The bronze cast seen on the left's inspiration was created eight days after the Zhou captured Anyang, the capital city of the Shang Dynasty. It was created for the diviner, Li Gui, who encouraged the Zhou king to attack the Shang. This bronze cast was a physical representation of the achievement made by Li Gui to be passed down to generations of his family.

It is known that the Zhou captured Shang casters in order to create bronze pieces for the Zhou king. In the Early Western Zhou period, the Zhou were heavily influenced by the motifs and styles of the Shang caster's bronze pieces. This meant using the taotie masks, gui dragons, and the thunder pattern. What differs from the Shang is the preference for square shapes, as seen in the square base in the piece pictured above. The Early Western Zhou pieces are more dramatic in its detailing compared to its conquered predecessor.

Analyzing the Middle Western Zhou period, it holds little semblance to its Early Western Zhou counterpart. As seen in the You pictured above, the Middle Western Zhou prefers round shapes and emphasizes bird motifs in their castings. There are no more taotie and gui dragons, but the birds are still a motif originally used by the Shang casters. The Late Western Zhou prefers rounder shapes, but the motifs are geometric instead of being theriomorphic or anthropomorphic.

While in both Shang and Zhou Dynasties only the King had access to bronze, how these bronze pieces were used differed. While it is known that the Shang used bronze pieces as funerary offerings, the Zhou did not use any of their bronze in their celebration of the dead. As mentioned previously, bronze pieces were used as heirlooms in the Zhou noble elite.

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The Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng or Zenghouyi Bells found in Marquis tomb. 

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Bells of the Marquis Yi of Zeng, Warring States Eastern Zhou, China, 433 BCE

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Bells of the Marquis Yi of Zeng, Warring States Eastern Zhou, China, 433 BCE

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This impressive, two and a half metric ton instrument was excavated from the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng in 1978 in the Hubei Province of China. This piece was created in 433 BCE in order to be played at parties and banquets hosted by the Marquis. Every bell in the set is not a replica of another bell, and every bell can play two different notes if struck in different areas (the middle and the side). There is a three degree interval between every bell, and the tonal range falls between C2 to D7. The set can play a full chromatic scale (twelve notes) over three octaves. The set totals 64 bells and are hung on two racks, one being taller than the other. The bells would be played by five musicians, two in the front and three in the back. One bell differs from the others, being a funerary gift from the King of Chu to the recently deceased Marquis.

Each bell was made using the section-mold technique, using stone molds that would be destroyed after every bronze pour. The frames holding the bells are supported by bronze warriors and are embellished by lacquer paintings of red, yellow, and black and are embossed. The bells and structure feature multiple dragon motifs, tiger motifs, and the thunder spiral motif as well. If it was not for the surprise discovery of this tomb in 1978, archaeologists would have not been aware of the minor vassal state of Zeng. Engraved into the set is the quote: "Marquis Yi of Zeng made this. Cherish it."

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Great Stupa of Sanchi, made burnt brick, Eastern View is what is pictured above. 

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Great Stupa of Sanchi, Mauryan Empire, South Asia, 3rd Century BCE

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Great Stupa of Sanchi, Mauryan Empire, South Asia, 3rd Century BCE

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After Alexander the Great's death, Chandragupta founded the Maurya Empire and reclaimed the Indian lands that were originally ruled by Alexander's men. This meant that this region would be united to become one political state under one monarch. When the next heir, Ashoka, inherited the throne, the Mauryan Empire was a large and prosperous state.

Following an extremely violent battle against the Kalingas, Ashoka spiraled into an identity crisis. He was appalled by the harm inflicted upon the Kalingas and became devoted to pacifism and Buddhism.

Due to his new-found devotion to Buddhism and the Dharma, Ashoka began to erect several stupas containing holy relics of the deceased Buddha's various bones. According to a legend, Ashoka commanded to have 84,000 stupas built, which is an important number in Indian culture.

One of the greatest stupas, the Stupa of Sanchi was first built in the third century BCE, comprised of burnt bricks. The one we see today is actually the renovated version that encases the original. This renovated version was built in the first century BCE by the Andra Dynasty.

On the top of the dome of the stupa, lies an umbrella made up of three stones, each representing the Three Jewels of Buddhism. The first symbolizes the Buddha, the second symbolizes the Dharma, and the third symbolizes the Sangha. Buddhists on their pilgrimage will practice pradakshina, which is the act of ritual circumambulation. The dome itself represents the hemisphere of heaven enclosing the planet earth. The most intricate aspect of this stupa are its gateways, which demonstrate continuous and conflated narratives of the Buddha's life.

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Terra cotta warrior from the First Emperor's tomb (left) compared to a Haniwa musician from the Tomb of Emperor Nintoku. 

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Tomb of the First Emperor, Qin Dynasty, China, 221-206 BCE vs. Tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Kofun Period, Japan, 4th century CE

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Tomb of the First Emperor, Qin Dynasty, China, 221-206 BCE vs. Tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Kofun Period, Japan, 4th century CE

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Even though the reign of the Qin Dynasty was short-lived, the first emperor of China still unified the country and standardized the parameters of civilization. He also left behind his grand, now iconic tomb that consisted of many things, but most well-known being the terra-cotta army. This army was found in three pits, separate from the actual burial site itself. This massive devotion to the emperor consists of over eight thousand soldiers with horses, real weapons, and chariots, lined in battle formation. The burial site of the emperor was made of two walls which were excavated, the tomb itself still has not, which is covered by a large mound of piled earth. In the inner wall, bronze chariots were found and in-between the two walls were a total of 331 animals sacrificed and buried. A burial site about a mile away from the tomb contained individuals who must have built the site, and were executed to avoid the populace knowing about the site and its contents.

The tomb of Emperor Nintoku was also discovered in the 1970s, along with the First Emperor's tomb. This tomb is a lot more recent, being constructed around 600 years after the construction of the First Emperor's tomb. This tomb also has a mound of earth that covers the underground burial site. From the fourth to the eighth centuries in Japan, this style of burial was common, making this period in Japanese history known as the Kofun period. Emperor Nintuko was buried in a wooden coffin and with an assortment of goods for the afterlife, like his Chinese counterpart.

The most profound difference between the two emperor's tombs is the terra-cotta army and the haniwa that decorated Emperor Nintoku's tomb. While the terra-cotta soldiers were incredibly detailed, over six feet tall, and of an organic style. On the other hand, the haniwa (clay cylindrical decorations) have minimal details, are at most around four feet, and of a formal style. It is apparent that molds were used in the creation of the First Emperor's terra-cotta army, while the haniwa of the Kofun period were created solely by hand.

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The three nested lacquer-painted coffins of Lady Dai at Mawangdui.

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Coffins of the Tomb of Lady Dai at Mawangdui, Western Han Dynasty, China, 168 BCE

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Coffins of the Tomb of Lady Dai at Mawangdui, Western Han Dynasty, China, 168 BCE

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The tomb of Lady Dai was discovered in the Hunan Province of China in 1972. This tomb included some of the oldest known preserved artifacts from ancient China. The tomb was so well-preserved due to how it was constructed. The tomb was built to be a pit 52 feet underground. At the bottom of the pit was a wooden burial device used to house the body of the deceased as well as all the goods buried with them. Why this wooden structure is so well-preserved is due to being surrounded by charcoal 12–16 inches thick, as well as a 21-inch layer of white clay added on top of the charcoal coat.

The Lady was buried in four coffins, the largest being a plain wooden structure. The other three are all painted lacquer featuring multiple motifs to aid the Lady in the after-life. The largest of the three painted coffins is painted black with cloud imagery embellishing the burial site. Amongst the clouds are mythological creatures, communicating that the scene depicted is of the celestial realm of the East-Asian after-life. The mythological creatures in this realm are supposed to appear unnatural, or uncanny, to help the Lady encounter the strange ways of the journey into the after-life. The next smallest coffin in the series is painted with red lacquer. Like the larger coffin, this one is also decorated with mythological creatures as well as animals of earth. This coffin features deer, tigers, and ram motifs alongside the dragons and other supernatural entities. The smallest of the nesting coffins that held the body of Lady Dai is quite plain in appearance because it was shrouded with satin and silk that contain feather and mythological creature motifs.

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Bodhisattva depiction of the Buddha, Gandhara, gray schist, exact date of creation not known.

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Prince Siddhartha as Bodhisattva, Kushan Dynasty, Modern Day Afghanistan, 30-375 CE

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Prince Siddhartha as Bodhisattva, Kushan Dynasty, Modern Day Afghanistan, 30-375 CE

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When the Yuezhi Clan fled Maodun and his military of the Xiongnu Empire, they came to settle in the Bactrian territories, what is modern day Afghanistan. These people who settled in Bactria formed the Kushan Empire, which would prosper from 30 to 375 CE. The Empire would spread to what is now modern day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India.

When the Yuezhi people arrived in Bactria, there was a large presence of Grecian influence in the culture due to the previous occupation of Alexander the Great's military. This meant that Kushan art would be heavily influenced by the Greco-Roman style found in the area. This led to the cultivation of a new form of style known as Greco-Buddhist art found in this region. This is due to the reign of the fourth Kushan king, Kanishka, who is accredited with the adoption of Buddhism and its spread to Eastern parts of Asia through travel via the Silk Road. In the Kushan Empire, the portrayal of the Buddha in human form is seen for the first time in history.

The statue, pictured above, is made up of gray schist, which is the natural resource found in the Gandhara region. As mentioned previously, the Kushan Empire was the first to portray the Buddha in human form. This is because the people of this Empire adopting this foreign religion were not aware of the concepts of samsara and parinirvana. This Buddha statue has many stylistic characteristics that exemplify the Kushan perspective and adoption of other culture's styles. This statue has a halo, which was originally first seen in depictions of the Persian sun god, Mithra. This statue also features a cranial deformation, which was a practice done by the Kushan royalty to signify their divinity. The Buddha seen here is also portrayed as a prince, which was meant to appeal to the wealthy merchants traveling through the Empire on the Silk Road.

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Buddha preaching his first sermon at the Deer Park at Sarnath, made out of red sandstone.

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Buddha Preaching, Gupta Dynasty, Modern Day India, 5th Century CE

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Buddha Preaching, Gupta Dynasty, Modern Day India, 5th Century CE

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After the Kushans fell to a Persian group known as the Sassanids, the Guptas gained control over north to north-central India. With the reign of King Chandragupta (375-415 CE), there was a re-emergence of artistic interest in this region. This resurrection of artistic activity was a combination of all the previous traditions that originated or were adopted by the Kushans. Under King Chandragupta's reign, two sculpture workshops were formed. One in Mathura, which used red sandstone and the other in Sarnath, which used tan sandstone to create their sculptures.

The sculpture pictured above depicts the Buddha's first sermon at the Deer Park at Sarnath. In comparison with the sculptures made at the Kushan workshops at Gandhara and Mathura, the sculptures created within the Gupta Dynasty have less Greco-Roman influence. The face of the Buddha pictured above has softer features, with a more prominent mouth and nose. The texture of the hair also differs between the Kushan sculptures and the Guptan sculptures. Both feature the ushnisha hairstyle, which communicates the Buddha's power as an enlightened individual.

The sculpture pictured above shares similarities with the Gandharan styles in the way the eyes are positioned in a half-closed, meditative state. The similarities shared between the Mathuran and the Guptan styles is the featuring of apsaras, or Buddhist angels. The halo featured on this sculpture has more intricate designs compared to its Kushan counterparts. The pose of this sculpture is similar to the Mathura Buddha, with the legs crossed and the feet facing upwards. The clothing of the Mathura Buddha and this Gupta Buddha are also similar with its minimal style and thin fabric.

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38 and 55 meters tall Buddhas that were carved into the sandstone cliffs of the Bamiyan valley in Afghanistan. 

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The Buddhas at Bamiyan, Hephthalite Empire, Modern Day Afghanistan, 5th Century CE

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The Buddhas at Bamiyan, Hephthalite Empire, Modern Day Afghanistan, 5th Century CE

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The Buddhas at Bamiyan were two immense statues carved from the face of the sandstone cliffs of the Bamiyan valley of the Hindu Kush mountain region in Afghanistan. The smaller of the Buddhas was built around 570 CE and the larger was built in 618 CE, according to carbon dating. This site was of importance for those of the Buddhist faith who would travel along the Silk Road.

When the Buddhas were originally made, they were described to be adorned with bright paints, as shown by the photo pictured above, which is supposed to exemplify what they would appear during the time of their creation. The paints used on these statues is the first known use of oil paints in history. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang who visited the site wrote that the Buddhas were decorated with jewels and the skin of the Buddhas were reportedly covered in gold, which would reflect the sun far distances. Xuanzang also wrote that in the surrounding caves, there were more than ten Buddhist monasteries and over a thousand monks made the Bamiyan cliffs their home.

These statues embody influences from Guptan styles, from the clothing that the Buddhas wear, to what can be seen of the facial features, to the physique of the statues. The robe that the Buddhas wear is the string-fold style, which was originally pioneered by the Greeks/Romans. The Bamiyan Buddhas' eyes were hypothesized to rest in a half-closed, meditative state. The physique of the Buddha is also of a slender, muscular build.

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The debate between Yuima and Monju depicted in the Horyuji Pagoda, made of clay over wood.

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Yuima and Monju Debate in the Horyuji Pagoda, Nara Japan, 8th Century CE

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Yuima and Monju Debate in the Horyuji Pagoda, Nara Japan, 8th Century CE

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The last installation of sculptures at Horyuji were made of clay modeled over wood or metal frames and are located at the first floor of the Pagoda. These installations were finished in 711 CE during the Nara Period in Japan. The eastern tableau of this installation is the depiction of the tale of the debate between the experienced Buddhist intellectual, Vimalikirti (Yuima in Japanese), and the bodhisattva of wisdom, Manjushri (Monju in Japanese). Yuima was a wealthy layman, who had a wife, children, and female attendants, but still dedicated his life to dharma. His existence was proof that an individual can be a devout Buddhist and not be a monk or nun.

The story goes that Yuima falls ill and requests Siddhartha's presence, since Yuima was such a learned individual on the philosophy of Buddhism. Siddhartha could not entertain Yuima with his presence, so he requests that Monju, the bodhisattva of wisdom, go as a surrogate in place of Siddhartha. A large audience gathered to watch the debate between Yuima and the bodhisattva of wisdom.

Viewing this installation, Yuima is on the left-hand side. The way that Yuima is depicted is important in showing how foreigners were stylized by the Japanese at that time. Yuima has a long beard, bushy eyebrows, and a large nose, a caricature of someone of south-asian descent. On the right-hand side is Monju seated in a meditative state as Yuima talks. Monju wears jewelry and is sporting a ushnisha. The audience faces outwards to show the details in the sculptures and to include the viewer in the scene. Every sculpture was painted when they were initially created.