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- Part of the peripheral nervous system (all nervous tissue outside of CNS)
- Autonomic, involuntary functions (Heart, digestion, sexual, breathing)
- Glands
- Smooth muscle
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic
- Sensory receptors - Moniter internal conditions
- Sensory neurons (afferent)- Convey input from receptors to the integration centre
- Control centre (brain stem) develop responses (reflexes, which are then relayed to motor neurons)
- Motor neurons

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- Doesn’t go through brain (hot stove)
- Spinal chord
- Spinal nerves, connected to spinal chord Connected to CNS to sensory receptors and effectors
- Mixed nerve
- Receptor (ouch) - to the sensory neuron to the spinal chord/integration centre (gray matter) - motor neuron, carries nerve impulse to effector which responds to motor nerve impulse.
- Monosynaptic reflex - only one, direct communication between sensory neuron
- Polysynaptic reflex, interneuron
- Patellar reflect - tap kneecap, somatic reflex
- Absence of patellar reflex could be nerve damage

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Functional areas of the cerebral cortex 

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Functional areas of the cerebral cortex 

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Sensory areas - receive and process sensory information, including sight, touch, taste, smell and hearing.

Motor areas - control of voluntary movements

Association areas - complex integrative functions (e.g. memory, emotions, reasoning, personality traits and intelligence)

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Involved in behavioural and emotional responses.
- Frontal lobe
- Thalamus
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala, paired, pleasure, fear, danger
- Hypothalamus, damage causes alzheimers, schizophrenia, ptsd
- Offactory bulb

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Thick nerve tract connecting brain hemispheres
A Genesis of the corpus callosum - related medical issue

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Cerebrum
- Largest part of the brain
- Left and right hemisphere
- Many layers
- Gray matter made up of cell bodies
- Cortex, outer layer of neural tissue
- Sulcus, a depression in the cerebrum
- Gyrus, forms primary motor
- Fissure,
Diencephalon
- Thalamus, between brain stem and cerebrum, extensive nerve connections, relay station for sensory impulses.
- Hypothalamus, base, maintains homeostasis
- Pineal gland, produces melatonin
Coordination with endocrine system, relaying signals,
Cerebellum
- ‘Little brain ‘
- Coordinates movement and balance
- Damage can result in loss of muscle movements
- Ataxia
Brain stem
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongada
- Controls respiration
- Autonomic centres

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- Protects cells from harmful substances and pathogens
- prevents passage of many substances from blood into brain tissue
- Consists very tightly sealed blood capillaries - assisted by astrocytes

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Function of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) 

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Function of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) 

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- Mechanical protection - Shock absorption and buoyancy. Brain floats in CSF
- Homeostasis - allows for regulation of the distribution of substances between the cells of the brain. E.g. nutrients, waste, hormones.
- Circulation - adjusts intracranial pressure (pressure in brain and skull) to facilitate blood flow.

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Because the myelin sheath is largely composed of an insulating fatty substance, the nodes of Ranvier allow the generation of a fast electrical impulse along the axon.

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The cerebral cortex is made up of cell bodies, dendrites and synapse of neurons.

Collectively, your cerebral cortex is responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain, including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence and personality.

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Processes visual information, enables visual processing, perception and recognition.

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Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory formation, interpret emotions/visual

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Involved in processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain and spatial awareness.

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Responsible for decision making, problem solving and controlling voluntary movement.

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Tetrodotoxin interferes with the transmission of signals from the nerves to the muscles by blocking sodium channels.
- Blocks voltage gate, no depolarisation = no nerve signalling, numbness, rapid weakening, paralysis of muscles including respiratory tract.
- Sensory receptors cat reach CNS, no action potentials.

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- What are voltage gated sodium channels, and where are they found in the nervous system?
Protein - allows sodium to flow into the cell.
In neurons (cells)

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Sensory - Conveys sensory information from body to CNS.
Motor - Transmits signals from the CNS to muscles and glands controlling voluntary and involuntary movements

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- Spinal chord will reflex without going through the brain, survival mode

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The sodium ion (Na⁺) is the major cation in extracellular space. With its entry into the cell, Na⁺ can act as a critical intracellular second messenger that regulates many cellular functions.

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The bulbs at the end of a neuron that store and release neurotransmitter molecules.

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‘The three primary roles of the spinal cord are to send motor commands from the brain to the body, send sensory information from the body to the brain, and coordinate reflexes.’

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The cerebellum is primarily responsible for muscle control, including balance and movement. Whilst the cerebellum is very small, compared to the rest of the brain, it holds more than half the neurons in your whole body.

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Your cerebrum is the largest part of your brain and handles conscious thoughts and actions.

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2 lateral ventricles
1 ventricle in between lateral ventricles
1 ventricle in between cerebellum and brain stem

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Three layers of connective tissue that extend around the spinal cords and brain.

Meninges - Protective membrane - Under the bones of the skull
- Dura mater (outer) Thick and tough
- Arachnoid mater (middle) Spider web - Spongey web structure, cerebral cortex
- Pia mater (inner) adheres to the surface of spinal chord and brain. Cerebral spinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid - Clear, colourless fluid that protects from trauma
- Protects against chemical and physical damage.
- Moves nutrients and waste between blood and cells of nervous system
- In between brain and the skull
- Choroid plexus, network of capillaries in ventricles
Blood brain barrier - Prevents harmful substances from entering the brain and spinal chord.

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Clinical connection - Multiple sclerosis 

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Clinical connection - Multiple sclerosis 

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Myelin disruption
Chronic disease
Can lead to death

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Na+ channels close. K+ channels open. K+ moved out of neuron.

Membrane potential goes more negative than original resting phase. Slow to close means we may lose more k+ than needed

Returns to resting phase. Becomes more negative

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Voltage gated Na+ channels open. Na+ rushes into the cell. Voltage gated K+ channels slowly start to open. Membrane potential becomes more positive
Causes voltage gated channels to open
Sodium rushed into cell, using passive transport

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Causes depolarisation to threshold.
If not reached, there will be no action potential.

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Na+ and K+ channels closed, little movement of ions.
Voltage gated.
More potassium on the inside - More sodium on the outside

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Is the difference in electrical charge inside and outside the cell.

Action potentials depends on membrane potential.

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Open in response to binding of a ligand i.e ion, chemical, hormone and neurotransmitter

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- Open in responses to membrane potential

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- Randomly switches between open and closed.

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- Allow specific ions to diffuse across plasma membrane
- Open and close due to the presence of gates
- Gates open in response to specific stimuli

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Active & passive transport
Active - High to low
Passive - Low to high

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Insulates axon and therefore increases speed of conduction.

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‘Controlling the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), brain metabolism, and waste clearance’

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‘Responsible for normal maintenance of CNS tissue as well as the local response to injury or infection’

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‘Regulate blood flow, but also transfer mitochondria to neurons, and supply the building blocks of neurotransmitters, which fuel neuronal metabolism’

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‘Oligodendrocytes are the myelinating cells of the CNS that allow the fast and efficient transfer of neuronal communication through the myelination of axons’

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‘A type of glial cell that surrounds neurons, keeping them alive and sometimes covering them with a myelin sheat’

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‘Satellite cells are precursors to skeletal muscle cells and are responsible for the ability of muscle tissue to regenerate.’

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A site of transmission between neurons, muscles or glands.
- Pre synaptic, occurs before synapse
- Post synaptic, occurs after synapse

2 types:
- Chemical
- Electrical

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Neurons - Communication
- Functional unit of the nervous system
- Has mitochondria etc
-Transmit nerve impulses (action potential)
- Dendrites, receive information and relay
- Soma/Cell body, contains cellular organelles suspended in cytoplasm.
- Axon, deliver nerve impulse to axon terminals.

Neuroglia - Support cells
- Don’t propagate or transmit
- Protection and support

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Rest and digest response

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Fight or flight response

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Involuntary
Cardiac muscle, gland
Stimulate sweat glands = involuntary

Brain stem

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Voluntary control
Skeletal muscle
Put on coat, open window = voluntary control

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From the spine

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From the brain

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- Nervous tissue outside of CNS (e.g. nerves and sensory receptors)
- Connected to spinal chord

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- Brain
- Spinal cord

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Sensory - Detect internal and external stimulus (e.g. raise in blood pressure)
Integrative - Process sensory information, analyse, decide on response. (E.g move out of sun because too hot)
Motor - Elicit an appropriate motor response by activating effectors. (Muscles = contract & glands = secrete)