# data[].attributes.headline
1. Oral literature: epic narratives, creation myths, stories, poems, songs.

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Oral literature: epic narratives, creation myths, stories, poems, songs.

# data[].attributes.headline
Use stories to teach moral lessons and convey practical information about the natural world.

# data[].attributes.subject
Use stories to teach moral lessons and convey practical information about the natural world.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: their stories often conveyed important information concerning survival and food. They also conveyed a deep respect for all living things and showed that all things had a basic place. For example, the raven was often accosiated with the north.

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: their stories often conveyed important information concerning survival and food. They also conveyed a deep respect for all living things and showed that all things had a basic place. For example, the raven was often accosiated with the north.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Native Americans still keep some of these stories today and tribes try very hard to preserve the tales as they hold traditional values. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Native Americans still keep some of these stories today and tribes try very hard to preserve the tales as they hold traditional values. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

# data[].attributes.subject
Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

# data[].attributes.headline
1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.

# data[].attributes.headline
1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestow

# data[].attributes.subject
1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestow

# data[].attributes.headline
1651: Of Plymouth Plantation William Bradford

# data[].attributes.subject
1651: Of Plymouth Plantation William Bradford

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: writing's percieved purpose was "To educate and not to entertain."

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: writing's percieved purpose was "To educate and not to entertain."

# data[].attributes.headline
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.

# data[].attributes.subject
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.

# data[].attributes.headline
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.

# data[].attributes.subject
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.

# data[].attributes.headline
1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

# data[].attributes.subject
1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

# data[].attributes.headline
fact: complex writings were seen as wrong and simplicity in writing came out of a need to reach people of all classes. 

# data[].attributes.subject
fact: complex writings were seen as wrong and simplicity in writing came out of a need to reach people of all classes. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"

# data[].attributes.subject
Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"

# data[].attributes.headline
1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

# data[].attributes.headline
1775: Patrick Henry —"Speech to the Virginia Convention"-

# data[].attributes.subject
1775: Patrick Henry —"Speech to the Virginia Convention"-

# data[].attributes.headline
2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

# data[].attributes.subject
2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Rationalism has been adopted in today's Christianity and used in modern Theology and apologetics

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Rationalism has been adopted in today's Christianity and used in modern Theology and apologetics

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.britannica.com/topic/rationalism/Religious-rationalism#ref68599

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Stirrings of religious rationalism were already felt in the Middle Ages regarding the Christian revelation. Thus, the skeptical mind of Peter Abelard (1079-1142) raised doubts by showing in his Sic et non ("Yes and No") many contradictions among beliefs handed down as revealed truths by the Church Fathers. Aquinas, the greatest of the medieval thinkers, was a rationalist in the sense of believing that the larger part of revealed truth was intelligible to and demonstrable by reason, though he thought that a number of dogmas opaque to reason must be accepted on authority alone.

Expansion of religious rationalism

Religious rationalism did not come into its own, however, until the 16th and 17th centuries, when it took two chief forms: the scientific and the philosophical.

Galileo was a pioneer in astronomy and the founder of modern dynamics. He conceived of nature as governed throughout by laws statable with mathematical precision; the book of nature, he said, is "written in mathematical form." This notion not only ruled out the occasional appeal to miracle; it also collided with dogmas regarding the permanent structure of the world-in particular with that which viewed the Earth as the motionless centre of the universe. When Galileo's demonstration that the Earth moves around the Sun was confirmed by the work of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and others, a battle was won that marked a turning point in the history of rationalism, since it provided a decisive victory in a crucial case of conflict between reason and apparently revealed truth.

The rationalism of Descartes, as already shown, was the outcome of philosophical doubt rather than of scientific inquiry. The self-evidence of the cogito, seen by his "natural light," he made the ideal for all other knowledge. The uneasiness that the church soon felt in the face of such a test was not unfounded, for Descartes was in effect exalting the natural light into the supreme court even in the field of religion. He argued that the guarantee against the possibility that even this natural light might be deceptive lay in the goodness of the Creator. But then to prove this Creator, he had to assume the prior validity of the natural light itself. Logically, therefore, the last word lay with rational insight, not with any outside divine warrant ( see Cartesian circle). Descartes was inadvertently beginning a Copernican revolution in theology. Before his time, the truths regarded as most certain were those accepted from revelation; afterward these truths were subject to the judgment of human reason, thus breaking the hold of authority on the European mind.

Four waves of religious rationalism

The rationalist attitude quickly spread, its advance forming several waves of general interest and influence. The first wave occurred in England in the form of Deism. Deists accepted the existence of God but spurned supernatural revelation. The earliest member of this school, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1583-1648), held that a just God would not reveal himself to a part of his creation only and that the true religion is thus a universal one, which achieves its knowledge of God through common reason. The Deistic philosopher John Toland (1670-1722), in his Christianity Not Mysterious (1696), sought to show that "there is nothing in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it"; any doctrine that is really above reason would be meaningless to humans. Attacking revelation, the freethinking polemicist Anthony Collins (1676-1729) maintained that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) failed of fulfillment; and the religious controversialist Thomas Woolston (1670-1733) urged that the New Testament miracles, as recorded, are incredible. Matthew Tindal (1657-1733), most learned of the English Deists, argued that the essential part of Christianity is its ethics, which, being clearly apparent to natural reason, leaves revelation superfluous. Thus the Deists, professing for the most part to be religious themselves, did much to reconcile their public to the free play of ideas in religion.

The second wave of religious rationalism, less moderate in tone and consequences, was French. This wave, reflecting an engagement with the problem of natural evil, involved a decay in the natural theology of Deism such that it merged eventually with the stream that led to materialistic atheism. Its moving spirit was Voltaire (1694-1778), who had been impressed by some of the Deists during a stay in England. Like them, he thought that a rational person would believe in God but not in supernatural inspiration. Hardly a profound philosopher, he was a brilliant journalist, clever and humorous in argument, devastating in satire, and warm in human sympathies. In his Candide and in many other writings, he poured irreverent ridicule on the Christian scheme of salvation as incoherent and on the church hierarchy as cruel and oppressive. In these attitudes he had the support of Denis Diderot (1713-84), editor of the most widely read encyclopaedia that had appeared in Europe. The rationalism of these thinkers and their followers, directed against both the religious and the political traditions of their time, did much to prepare the ground for the explosive French Revolution.

The next wave of religious rationalism occurred in Germany under the influence of Hegel, who held that a religious creed is a halfway house on the road to a mature philosophy, the product of a reason that is still under the sway of feeling and imagination. This idea was taken up and applied with learning and acuteness to the origins of Christianity by David Friedrich Strauss (1808-74), who published in 1835, at the age of 27, a remarkable and influential three-volume work, Das Leben Jesu (The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, 1846). Relying largely on internal inconsistencies in the Synoptic Gospels, Strauss undertook to prove these books to be unacceptable as revelation and unsatisfactory as history. He then sought to show how an imaginative people innocent of either history or science, convinced that a messiah would appear, and deeply moved by a unique moral genius, inevitably wove myths about his birth and death, his miracles, and his divine communings.

Strauss's thought as it affected religion was continued by the philosophical historian Ernest Renan (1823-92) and as it affected philosophy by the humanist Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-72) of the Hegelian left. Renan's Vie de Jésus (1863; Life of Jesus) did for France what Strauss's book had done for Germany, though the two differed greatly in character. Whereas Strauss's work had been an intellectual exercise in destructive criticism, Renan's was an attempt to reconstruct the mind of Jesus as a wholly human person-a feat of imagination, performed with a disarming admiration and even reverence for its subject and with a felicity of style that gave it a large and lasting audience. Feuerbach's Wesen des Christentums (1841; Essence of Christianity) applied the myth theory even to belief in the existence of God, holding that "man makes God in his own image."

The fourth wave occurred in Victorian England, following the publication in 1859 of Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (1809-82). This book was taken as a challenge to the authority of Scripture because there was a clear inconsistency between the Genesis account of creation and the biological account of humans' slow emergence from lower forms of life. The battle raged with bitterness for several decades but died away as the theory of evolution gained more general acceptance.

Status of rationalism

Religious

With increasing freedom of thought and wider acceptance of scientific views, rationalism in religion lost its novelty and much of its controversial excitement. To the contemporary mind, it is too obvious to warrant debate that reason and revelation cannot both qualify as sources of ultimate truth, for, were they to conflict, truth itself would become self-contradictory. Hence theologians sought accommodation through new interpretative principles that discern different grades of authenticity within the Scriptures and through new views of religious truth, existential rather than cognitive, that turn from propositional dogmas to the explication of lived human existence. Criticism of supernaturalism, however, was still carried on by such societies as the Rationalist Press Association, in Great Britain, and the Humanist Association, in the United States.

Ethical

Rationalism in ethics suffered its share of criticism. Regarding its lists of rules-on the keeping of promises, the return of loaned goods, etc.-it was argued, for example, that if they were specific enough to be useful (as in the rule against lying or stealing), they would tend to have exceptions-which no rule laid down by reason ought to have. On the other hand, if without exceptions, they would often prove to be tautologies: the rule of justice, for example, that one should give all persons their due, would then mean only that one should give them what is justly theirs. After enduring a period of eclipse, however, during which noncognitive theories of ethics ( emotive and existential) and relativism had preempted the field, rationalistic views, which agree in holding that moral standards do not depend upon the varying attitudes of persons or peoples, received renewed attention in the mid-20th century. Prominent among these developments was the " good-reasons" approach taken by the broadly gauged scholar Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009), the contemporary philosopher Kurt Baier, and others, which examined the contexts of various moral situations and explored the kinds of justification appropriate for each.

Metaphysical

Typical of the ways of reasoning employed by rationalists were two approaches taken to the metaphysical doctrine that all things are connected by internal relations: one a logical, the other a causal argument. An internal relation is one that could not be removed without affecting the terms themselves between which the relation holds. The argument runs: Everything is related to everything else at least by the relation "A is different from B." But difference is itself an internal relation, since the terms could not remain the same if it were removed. Hence everything is so connected with everything else that it could not be what it is unless they were what they are. The appeal to internal relations played an important part in the philosophies of Hegel, F.H. Bradley, and A.N. Whitehead (1861-1947).

The other line of argument is causal. Every event, it is maintained, is connected with every other, either directly or indirectly. Sir James Jeans (1877-1946), an astrophysicist and popularizer of science, argued that if the law of gravitation is valid, people cannot crook their little fingers without affecting the fixed stars. Here the causal relation is direct. It can also be shown that seemingly unrelated events are joined indirectly through their common connection with some remote historical event, by a chain of events leading back, for example, to Columbus's landing on the North American continent. But if this had been different, all its consequences would presumably have been different; thus, an indirect and internal relation proves to have been present.

Many rationalists held with Spinoza that the causal relation is really a logical one-that a causal law, if precisely stated, would reveal a connection in which the character of the cause logically necessitates that of its effect; and if this is true, they maintained, the facts and events of the world must thus compose a single rational and intelligible order.

In the 20th century, such rationalism met with a new and unexpected difficulty presented by quantum mechanics. According to the indeterminacy principle, formulated in 1927 by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901-76), it is impossible to discover with precision both the position and the velocity of a moving electron at the same time. This implies that definite causal laws for the behaviour of these particles can never be attained, but only statistical laws governing the behaviour of immense aggregates of them. Causality, and with it the possibility of rational understanding, seemed to be suspended in the subatomic world. Some interpreters of the new physics, however, notably Max Planck (1858-1947), Albert Einstein (1879-1955), and Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), sustained the hopes of the rationalists by insisting that what was excluded by the indeterminacy principle was not the fact of causality in this realm but only the precise knowledge of it.

Indeed, some leaders of 20th-century science took the new developments in physics as on the whole supporting rationalism. Protons and electrons, they contended, though beyond the reach of the senses, can still be known, and their behaviour, at least in groups, is increasingly found to conform to mathematical law. In 1932 Jeans said, with a curious echo of Galileo, "The universe appears to have been designed by a pure mathematician."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rationalism - Thomas Aquinas, Galileo, Descartes, and Deists

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Stirrings of religious rationalism were already felt in the Middle Ages regarding the Christian revelation. Thus, the skeptical mind of Peter Abelard (1079-1142) raised doubts by showing in his Sic et non ("Yes and No") many contradictions among beliefs handed down as revealed truths by the Church Fathers.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Government and Religion were the two most talked about topics during this era of writing

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Government and Religion were the two most talked about topics during this era of writing

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: American Renaissance literature was originally based on English poetic styles

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: American Renaissance literature was originally based on English poetic styles

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.britannica.com/art/American-Renaissance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit.

The literary scene of the period was dominated by a group of New England writers, the " Brahmins," notably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell. They were aristocrats, steeped in foreign culture, active as professors at Harvard College, and interested in creating a genteel American literature based on foreign models. Longfellow adapted European methods of storytelling and versifying to narrative poems dealing with American history. Holmes, in his occasional poems and his "Breakfast-Table" series (1858-91), brought touches of urbanity and jocosity to polite literature. Lowell put much of his homeland's outlook and values into verse, especially in his satirical Biglow Papers (1848-67).

One of the most important influences in the period was that of the Transcendentalists ( see Transcendentalism), centred in the village of Concord, Massachusetts, and including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Bronson Alcott, George Ripley, and Margaret Fuller. The Transcendentalists contributed to the founding of a new national culture based on native elements. They advocated reforms in church, state, and society, contributing to the rise of free religion and the abolition movement and to the formation of various utopian communities, such as Brook Farm. The abolition movement was also bolstered by other New England writers, including the Quaker poet John Greenleaf Whittier and the novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) dramatized the plight of the black slave.

Apart from the Transcendentalists, there emerged during this period great imaginative writers- Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman-whose novels and poetry left a permanent imprint on American literature. Contemporary with these writers but outside the New England circle was the Southern genius Edgar Allan Poe, who later in the century had a strong impact on European literature.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Many enlightenment writers were Diests

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Many enlightenment writers were Diests

# data[].attributes.headline
1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

# data[].attributes.headline
2. People can use their intuition to behold God's spirit revealed in nature or in their own souls.

# data[].attributes.subject
2. People can use their intuition to behold God's spirit revealed in nature or in their own souls.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: disliked the general conformity people exibitioned in critical thought.

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: disliked the general conformity people exibitioned in critical thought.

# data[].attributes.headline
3. Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

# data[].attributes.subject
3. Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

# data[].attributes.headline
4. Important social and political movements include the Abolitionist, Utopian, and Women's Suffrage Movements

# data[].attributes.subject
4. Important social and political movements include the Abolitionist, Utopian, and Women's Suffrage Movements

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: This period stemmed from German romantiscism 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: This period stemmed from German romantiscism 

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Transedentalism is against materialism and has lost much influence on today's society. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Transedentalism is against materialism and has lost much influence on today's society. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.ipl.org/essay/Role-Of-Transcendentalism-In-Modern-Society-PJ9H66GYV

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Transcendental ideals are relevant to transcendentalists, but no longer valued in modern American life; transcendentalists are against materialism and hierarchies in society, whereas modern American life is built on hierarchies and the unremitting desire to acquire more and live a garish lifestyle. Transcendentalists live minimally, while most modern Americans strive to be successful and gain as much as possible. There is nothing wrong with pursuing success and wealth, but many transcendentalists see that type of lifestyle as monotonous and insignificant. Due to the hunt for prosperity and materials in modern America, transcendentalism is no longer relevant.
In today's society, there are numerous structures that are relied on to keep America...show more content...
The ones with the most experience and work ethic make it. As an adult, there is no time for acting childish, you must be mature. These are a few of the philosophies believed by modern American adults that you must contain to be a successful individual. Transcendentalists believe the opposite, which can be seen in Ralph Waldo's essay, "Nature", "The lover of nature is he whose inward and outward senses are truly adjusted to each other; who has retained the spirit of infancy even into the era of manhood," ( Emerson).Transcendentalists believe those closest to nature are actually the most successful, and in order to be close to nature you must have kept your childish spirit into adulthood. Being close to nature is the ultimate objective of a transcendentalist. They see it as better than anything you could ever buy or acquire by working a job. They also believe to be close to nature you must have the heart of a child, which is not something many adults in modern America long to possess. Transcendentalists pursue purity by trying to not be influenced by man and materialistic things; they live minimally off of nature and believe materialistic objects are gratuitous. Most modern Americans chase materialistic things, making the transcendental idea of purity through nature and the countenance of minimal materials irrelevant to most modern ...show more content...
A friend of Bryant, Thomas Cole, is moving from the vast nature filled plains of America to the crowded streets of Europe. Bryant is telling his friend to enjoy the new scenery and opportunities, but to not forget his home. It seems that the poet almost puts a negative connotation on Europe, calling it "fair but different," showing his penchant for American transcendentalism (Bryant 554). Thomas Cole's move to learn about new things and gain knowledge can almost show the abandonment of transcendental ideals and the shift to modern American life, where most people pursue jobs and social opportunities. He is leaving behind the nature of America and joining the hustle and bustle of the cities of Europe. This transition shows how over time transcendental ideals have become less and less valuable, because of people's desire to gain opportunities and have

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Role Of Transcendentalism In Modern Society

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Transcendental ideals are relevant to transcendentalists, but no longer valued in modern American life; transcendentalists are against materialism and hierarchies in society, whereas modern American life is built on hierarchies and the unremitting desire to acquire more and live a garish lifestyle.

# data[].attributes.body
1800-1860

# data[].attributes.headline
1. Valued feeling, intuition, idealism, and inductive reasoning.

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Valued feeling, intuition, idealism, and inductive reasoning.

# data[].attributes.headline
2. Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

# data[].attributes.subject
2. Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

# data[].attributes.headline
3. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

# data[].attributes.subject
3. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

# data[].attributes.headline
4. Championed individual freedom and the worth of the individual

# data[].attributes.subject
4. Championed individual freedom and the worth of the individual

# data[].attributes.headline
5. Saw poetry as the highest expression of the imagination

# data[].attributes.subject
5. Saw poetry as the highest expression of the imagination

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Emotion was regarded over intellect as a higher form of truth. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Emotion was regarded over intellect as a higher form of truth. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: McCarthyism is so named because of one Senator McCarthy who started the red scare and was a leader in the anti communist fear mongering. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: McCarthyism is so named because of one Senator McCarthy who started the red scare and was a leader in the anti communist fear mongering. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1061/mccarthyism

# data[].attributes.headline
1850: The scarlet letter- Hawthorne & Emily Dickinson's first poem. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1850: The scarlet letter- Hawthorne & Emily Dickinson's first poem. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: McCarthyism has a different modern meaning, which is to restrict or withhold civil rights in court or to make a court unfavorable to a person or persons. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: McCarthyism has a different modern meaning, which is to restrict or withhold civil rights in court or to make a court unfavorable to a person or persons. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1061/mccarthyism

# data[].attributes.headline
6. Dark Romantics: used dark and supernatural themes/settings (Gothic style)

# data[].attributes.subject
6. Dark Romantics: used dark and supernatural themes/settings (Gothic style)

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: It was very similar to the transcendentalists and it also was born as a sort of reaction against the enlightenment 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: It was very similar to the transcendentalists and it also was born as a sort of reaction against the enlightenment 

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact: Nathaniel Hawthorn was well known for his good writings during his time, but made little money off the endevour. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact: Nathaniel Hawthorn was well known for his good writings during his time, but made little money off the endevour. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nathaniel-Hawthorne

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Nathaniel Hawthorne (born July 4, 1804, Salem, Massachusetts, U.S.-died May 19, 1864, Plymouth, New Hampshire) is one of the greatest fiction writers of 19th-century American literature. A master of the allegorical and symbolic tale, he remains best known for the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).

Ancestry and early years

Hawthorne's ancestors had lived in Salem, Massachusetts, since the 17th century. His earliest American ancestor was William Hathorne, a magistrate who was a staunch defender of Puritan orthodoxy, with its zealous advocacy of a "pure," unaffected form of religious worship, its rigid adherence to a simple, almost severe, mode of life, and its conviction of the "natural depravity" of "fallen" humankind. (Hawthorne added a w to his surname when he began to write.) Among Hathorne's actions as magistrate was sentencing a Quaker woman to public whipping.

Hawthorne was later to wonder whether the decline of his family's prosperity and prominence during the 18th century, while other Salem families were growing wealthy from the lucrative shipping trade, might not be a retribution for this act and for the role of William Hathorne's son John as one of three judges in the Salem witchcraft trials that began in 1692.

When Nathaniel's father-a ship's captain-died during one of his voyages, he left his young widow without means to care for her two girls and Nathaniel, who was four years old. She moved in with her affluent brothers, the Mannings. Hawthorne grew up in their house in Salem and, for extensive periods during his teens, in Raymond, Maine, on the shores of Sebago Lake.

He returned to Salem in 1825 after four years at Bowdoin College, in Brunswick, Maine. Hawthorne did not distinguish himself as a young man. Instead, he spent nearly a dozen years reading and trying to master the art of writing fiction.

First works and the Transcendentalists

In college Hawthorne had excelled only in composition and had decided to become a writer. Upon graduation, he wrote Fanshawe, a novel that he published at his own expense-and then tried to destroy all copies after deciding it was unworthy of him.

Hawthorne, however, soon found his own voice, style, and subjects, and within five years of his graduation he had published "The Hollow of the Three Hills" and "An Old Woman's Tale", both notable short stories. By 1832, "My Kinsman, Major Molineux" and "Roger Malvin's Burial," considered two of his greatest tales, had been published. "Young Goodman Brown," a gripping tale of witchcraft, appeared in 1835.

His increasing success in placing his stories brought him a little fame. Unwilling to depend any longer on his uncles' generosity, he turned to a job in the Boston Custom House, which he held from 1839 to 1840, and for six months in 1841 he was a resident at the agricultural cooperative Brook Farm, a utopian experiment in West Roxbury, Massachusetts. Even when the first book to be published under his name, Twice-Told Tales, was released in 1837, he gained gratifying recognition but no dependable income.

By 1842, however, Hawthorne's writing had brought him a sufficient income to allow him to marry Sophia Peabody. The couple rented a house called the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, and they began a happy three-year period that Hawthorne would later record in his essay "The Old Manse."

The presence in Concord of some of the leading social thinkers and philosophers of his day, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Thoreau, and Bronson Alcott, made the village the center of the philosophy of Transcendentalism, which encouraged individuals to transcend the materialistic world of experience and facts and become conscious of the pervading spirit of the universe and the potentialities for human freedom. Hawthorne welcomed the companionship of his Transcendentalist neighbors, but he had little to say to them. Artists and intellectuals never inspired his full confidence, but he thoroughly enjoyed the visit of his old college friend and classmate Franklin Pierce, later to become president of the United States.

At the Old Manse, Hawthorne continued to write stories, with the same result as before: literary success, monetary failure. His new short-story collection, Mosses from an Old Manse, appeared in 1846.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Nathaniel Hawthorne | Biography, Books, Short Stories, & Analysis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64) is one of the greatest fiction writers of 19th-century America. A novelist and short-story writer, he was a master of the allegorical and symbolic tale. Hawthorne is best known for the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).

# data[].attributes.body
- He was once described as "a man with a most infectious laugh"

- He had a rivalry with another rapper called Big E smalls.

- His first Album came out in 1991 and was called "2Pacalypse Now"

https://www.biography.com/musicians/tupac-shakur

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: He, like many other veterans, tried to re-create the experience of war in his writings.

Fact: His first
publication was under a pseudonym because it was very controversial.

Fact: He is revered
for his portayal of the human phsyche.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Stephen-Crane

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Stephen Crane, (born Nov. 1, 1871, Newark, N.J., U.S.-died June 5, 1900, Badenweiler, Baden, Ger.), American novelist, poet, and short-story writer, best known for his novels Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and The Red Badge of Courage (1895) and the short stories "The Open Boat," "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky," and "The Blue Hotel."

Stephen's father, Jonathan Crane, was a Methodist minister who died in 1880, leaving Stephen, the youngest of 14 children, to be reared by his devout, strong-minded mother. After attending preparatory school at the Claverack College (1888-90), Crane spent less than two years at college and then went to New York City to live in a medical students' boardinghouse while freelancing his way to a literary career. While alternating bohemian student life and explorations of the Bowery slums with visits to genteel relatives in the country near Port Jervis, N.Y., Crane wrote his first book, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), a sympathetic study of an innocent and abused slum girl's descent into prostitution and her eventual suicide.

At that time so shocking that Crane published it under a pseudonym and at his own expense, Maggie left him to struggle as a poor and unknown freelance journalist, until he was befriended by Hamlin Garland and the influential critic William Dean Howells. Suddenly in 1895 the publication of The Red Badge of Courage and of his first book of poems, The Black Riders, brought him international fame. Strikingly different in tone and technique from Maggie, The Red Badge of Courage is a subtle impressionistic study of a young soldier trying to find reality amid the conflict of fierce warfare. The book's hero, Henry Fleming, survives his own fear, cowardice, and vainglory and goes on to discover courage, humility, and perhaps wisdom in the confused combat of an unnamed Civil War battle. Crane, who had as yet seen no war, was widely praised by veterans for his uncanny power to imagine and reproduce the sense of actual combat.

Crane's few remaining years were chaotic and personally disastrous. His unconventionality and his sympathy for the downtrodden aroused malicious gossip and false charges of drug addiction and Satanism that disgusted the fastidious author. His reputation as a war writer, his desire to see if he had guessed right about the psychology of combat, and his fascination with death and danger sent him to Greece and then to Cuba as a war correspondent.

His first attempt in 1897 to report on the insurrection in Cuba ended in near disaster; the ship Commodore on which he was traveling sank with $5,000 worth of ammunition, and Crane-reported drowned-finally rowed into shore in a dinghy with the captain, cook, and oiler, Crane scuttling his money belt of gold before swimming through dangerous surf. The result was one of the world's great short stories, "The Open Boat. "

Unable to get to Cuba, Crane went to Greece to report the Greco-Turkish War for the New York Journal. He was accompanied by Cora Taylor, a former brothel-house proprietor. At the end of the war they settled in England in a villa at Oxted, Surrey, and in April 1898 Crane departed to report the Spanish-American War in Cuba, first for the New York World and then for the New York Journal. When the war ended, Crane wrote the first draft of Active Service, a novel of the Greek war. He finally returned to Cora in England nine months after his departure and settled in a costly 14th-century manor house at Brede Place, Sussex. Here Cora, a silly woman with social and literary pretensions, contributed to Crane's ruin by encouraging his own social ambitions. They ruined themselves financially by entertaining hordes of spongers, as well as close literary friends-including Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford, H.G. Wells, Henry James, and Robert Barr, who completed Crane's Irish romance The O'Ruddy.

Crane now fought a desperate battle against time, illness, and debts. Privation and exposure in his Bowery years and as a correspondent, together with an almost deliberate disregard for his health, probably hastened the disease that killed him at an early age. He died of tuberculosis that was compounded by the recurrent malarial fever he had caught in Cuba.

After The Red Badge of Courage, Crane's few attempts at the novel were of small importance, but he achieved an extraordinary mastery of the short story. He exploited youthful small-town experiences in The Monster and Other Stories (1899) and Whilomville Stories (1900); the Bowery again in George's Mother (1896); an early trip to the southwest and Mexico in "The Blue Hotel" and "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky"; the Civil War again in The Little Regiment (1896); and war correspondent experiences in The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure (1898) and Wounds in the Rain (1900). In the best of these tales Crane showed a rare ability to shape colourful settings, dramatic action, and perceptive characterization into ironic explorations of human nature and destiny. In even briefer scope, rhymeless, cadenced and "free" in form, his unique, flashing poetry was extended into War Is Kind (1899).

Stephen Crane first broke new ground in Maggie, which evinced an uncompromising (then considered sordid) realism that initiated the literary trend of the succeeding generations- i.e., the sociological novels of Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, and James T. Farrell. Crane intended The Red Badge of Courage to be "a psychological portrayal of fear," and reviewers rightly praised its psychological realism. The first nonromantic novel of the Civil War to attain widespread popularity, The Red Badge of Courage turned the tide of the prevailing convention about war fiction and established a new, if not unprecedented, one. The secret of Crane's success as war correspondent, journalist, novelist, short-story writer, and poet lay in his achieving tensions between irony and pity, illusion and reality, or the double mood of hope contradicted by despair. Crane was a great stylist and a master of the contradictory effect.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Stephen Crane | American Author & Civil War Poet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Stephen Crane, American novelist, poet, and short-story writer, best known for his novels Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and The Red Badge of Courage (1895) and the short stories "The Open Boat," "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky," and "The Blue Hotel." Stephen's father, Jonathan Crane, was a

# data[].attributes.body
-At the time of the Civil War, Alcott enlisted as an army nurse.

- She was the first
female voter registered in Connecticut

-After her most
famous work was finished, Alcott continued to write about the characters in
"Little Women".
https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/louisa-may-alcott

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Famed author Louisa May Alcott created colorful relatable characters in 19 th century novels. Her work introduced readers to educated strong female heroines. As a result, her writing style greatly impacted American literature.

Alcott was born on November 29, 1832 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Alcott's parents were a part of the 19 th century transcendentalist movement, a popular religious movement. Their religious and political beliefs deeply inspired Alcott as child. Her father, Bronson Alcott, was a popular educator who believed that children should enjoy learning. Therefore, at an early age, Alcott took to reading and writing. While most of her schooling came from her parents she also studied under famed philosopher Henry David Thoreau and popular authors Ralph Waldo Emerson and Nathanial Hawthorne. Much like her novel Little Women,Alcott was one of four daughters and she remained close with her sisters throughout her life. Many times, Alcott's family suffered from financial woes, forcing her to attend school irregularly. She took many jobs to help alleviate financial struggles, working as teacher and washing laundry. She turned to writing for both emotional and financial support.

Her first poem, "Sunlight," was published in a magazine under a pseudonym. Her first book, a compilation of short stories, was published in 1854. When the Civil War started in 1861, Alcott served as a nurse in a Union hospital. Unfortunately, in the middle of her assignment she contracted typhoid fever. Her experience in the hospital as a patient and a nurse, inspired the novel Hospital Sketches. After the war, Alcott published several other works and gained a following. Her audience included both adults and children. She also released many of her earlier works under the name, A.M. Barnard.

During this time, one of Alcott's publishers asked her to write a novel for young women. To do so, she simply reflected back on to her childhood with her sisters. In 1868, Alcott published her most popular work, Little Women. The novel was published in a series of short stories, but was eventually compiled into one book. Little Women was an instant success and the book cemented Alcott as one of the foremost novelist of the 19 th and early 20 th century. In 1870, with one successful book, Alcott moved to Europe with her sister May. There she published, another classic Little Men. She also joined the women's suffrage movement. Throughout her life, she would contribute to several publications which promoted women's rights. She was also the first woman to register to vote in Concord, Connecticut.

Alcott never married nor had any children, however, when her sister died, she adopted her niece. Afterwards she moved to Boston, Massachusetts and continued publishing more works that followed the characters from Little Women. Alcott suffered from bouts of illness throughout her life. She attributed her poor health to mercury poisoning which she believed she contracted while she worked as a nurse during the Civil War. In 1888, she died at the age of 56 in Boston, Massachusetts. Today, readers continue to enjoy Alcott's writings and her novels still appear on bestseller list throughout the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Famed author Louisa May Alcott created colorful relatable characters in 19th century novels. Her work introduced readers to educated strong female heroines. As a result, her writing style greatly impacted American literature.

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: She married at 15.

Fact: She won the pulitzer prize in 1966.

Fact: Unlike many other realism authors, Porter saw the harshness of life as a fault and not a challenge to be overcome.

https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/katherine-anne-porter-about-katherine-anne-porter/686/

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: Wrote in a few different genres including realism, expressionism, and symbolism. Her mediums also span across plays(Mostly single act), novels, and short stories.
Fact: She started her own theater group and began to do plays she wrote with some of her friends.
Fact: her stories were usually inspired by the country or city she lived in at the time.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Susan-Glaspell

# data[].attributes.headline
Sense of disillusionment and loss of faith in the "American Dream": the independent, self-reliant, individual will triumph.

# data[].attributes.subject
Sense of disillusionment and loss of faith in the "American Dream": the independent, self-reliant, individual will triumph.

# data[].attributes.headline
Modernism was a response to the changing times. Many writers moved to europe to attend bars and restaurants made just for creatives. The movement was also spurned on by the end of WWI which made people trust tradition even less. The fragmentation of modernism stories was to represent the fragmented world. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Modernism was a response to the changing times. Many writers moved to europe to attend bars and restaurants made just for creatives. The movement was also spurned on by the end of WWI which made people trust tradition even less. The fragmentation of modernism stories was to represent the fragmented world. 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/guidepages/Modernism2.html#:~:text=Modernism%20is%20a%20period%20in,verse%20from%20the%2019th%20century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is Modernism?

Modernism is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Modernist writers in general rebelled against clear-cut storytelling and formulaic verse from the 19th century. Instead, many of them told fragmented stories which reflected the fragmented state of society during and after World War I.

Many Modernists wrote in free verse and they included many countries and cultures in their poems. Some wrote using numerous points-of-view or even used a "stream-of-consciousness" style. These writing styles further demonstrate the way the scattered state of society affected the work of writes at that time.

Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are thought to be the mother and father of the movement because they had the most direct influence on early Modernists. Some time after their deaths, the Imagist poets began to gain importance. The University of Toledo's Canaday Center has a rich collection of poetry and critical work from that era.

Imagist poets generally wrote shorter poems and they chose their words carefully so that their work would be rich and direct. The movement started in London, where a group of poets met and discussed changes that were happening in poetry. Ezra Pound soon met these individuals, and he eventually introduced them to H.D. and Richard Aldington in 1911. In 1912, Pound submitted their work to Poetry magazine. After H.D.'s name, he signed the word "Imagiste" and that was when Imagism was publicly launched. Two months later, Poetry published an essay which discusses three points that the London group agreed upon. They felt that the following rules should apply when writing poetry:

1. Direct treatment of the "thing," whether subjective or objective.

2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.

3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.

In the following month's issue, Pound's two-line poem "In a Station at the Metro" was published. In addition to the previously published works of Aldington and H.D., it exemplifies the tenets of Imagism in that it is direct, written with precise words, and has a musical tone which does not depend on a specific rhythm:

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.
Over the next four years, four anthologies of Imagist poetry were published. They included work by people in that London group (Pound, F.S. Flint, H.D., and Aldington), but they also contained the works of Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams, James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, and Marianne Moore.

World War I broke out soon after the height of Imagism. Some poets, like Aldington, were called to serve the country, and this made the spread of Imagism difficult-as did paper shortages as a result of the war. Eventually, war poets like Wilfred Owen grew in popularity as people shifted their attention to the state of the world.

After the war ended, a sense of disillusionment grew, and poems like T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" showed the way poetry had shifted. This infamous poem contains various narratives and voices that change quickly from one topic to another. This style of poetry differed greatly from the slow and focused poetry of the Imagists. Visit this link to read the poem in its entirety.

Within a few years, many Modernist writers moved overseas. There was an exciting expatriate scene in Paris which included Pound, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein,and Mina Loy. These writers held and attended literary salons. Poets such as E.E. Cummings, Hart Crane, and William Carlos Williams also attended these salons at times.

Not all Modernist poets followed the writers who were making revolutionary changes to the world of poetics. Marianne Moore, for example, wrote some form poetry, and Robert Frost once said that writing free verse was "like playing tennis without a net." Additionally, writers who had gained popularity toward the end of the Modernist era were inspired by less experimental poets such as Thomas Hardy and W.B. Yeats.

By the 1950s, a new generation of Postmodern poets came to the forefront. Adding "post" in front of the word "Modern" showed that this new period was different than the one before it, yet was influenced by it. The Modernist ideas of Imagism and the work of William Carlos Williams, for example, continue to have a great influence on writers today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is Modernism? : Canaday Center : The University of Toledo

# data[].attributes.headline
T. S. Eliot-The Waste Land-"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

# data[].attributes.subject
T. S. Eliot-The Waste Land-"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

# data[].attributes.body
The American Dream can be traced back in its basics to the Declaration of Independence, which gave a right to life, liberty, and happiness to all. The dream was that this was true, that anyone from anywhere could achieve anything the the "Land of Opportunities"

https://study.com/learn/lesson/american-dream-history-examples.html#:~:text=Initially%2C%20the%20American%20Dream%20was,to%20achieve%20in%20modern%20times.

# data[].attributes.headline
Emphasis on bold experimentation in style and form over the traditional.

# data[].attributes.subject
Emphasis on bold experimentation in style and form over the traditional.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1931, two years after the great depressions begginings, one James Adams said that the american dream of previous  times had become too materialized. He said that instead of people seeing money as a measure of value, they saw money as value itself.

https://www.bushcenter.org/catalyst/state-of-the-american-dream/churchwell-history-of-the-american-dream
https://www.wmky.org/the-readers-notebook/2021-10-18/the-readers-notebook-james-truslow-adams

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Reader’s Notebook: James Truslow Adams

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
October 18, 2021 -- James Truslow Adams was an American writer and historian. He was a freelance author who helped to popularize the latest scholarship…

# data[].attributes.headline
While modernism itself was a rebellion against traditional writing, Poetry had a similar response but in the opposite direction. Instead of adding more chaos and different perspectives to their poetry, they chose to do less and less. Imagiste was coined by a trio of poets who came up with guidelines concerning how poetry should be made. The first rule states that the subject be directly spoken about, the second that there should be no superfluous language.

# data[].attributes.subject
While modernism itself was a rebellion against traditional writing, Poetry had a similar response but in the opposite direction. Instead of adding more chaos and different perspectives to their poetry, they chose to do less and less. Imagiste was coined by a trio of poets who came up with guidelines concerning how poetry should be made. The first rule states that the subject be directly spoken about, the second that there should be no superfluous language.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/guidepages/Modernism2.html#:~:text=Modernism%20is%20a%20period%20in,verse%20from%20the%2019th%20century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is Modernism?

Modernism is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Modernist writers in general rebelled against clear-cut storytelling and formulaic verse from the 19th century. Instead, many of them told fragmented stories which reflected the fragmented state of society during and after World War I.

Many Modernists wrote in free verse and they included many countries and cultures in their poems. Some wrote using numerous points-of-view or even used a "stream-of-consciousness" style. These writing styles further demonstrate the way the scattered state of society affected the work of writes at that time.

Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are thought to be the mother and father of the movement because they had the most direct influence on early Modernists. Some time after their deaths, the Imagist poets began to gain importance. The University of Toledo's Canaday Center has a rich collection of poetry and critical work from that era.

Imagist poets generally wrote shorter poems and they chose their words carefully so that their work would be rich and direct. The movement started in London, where a group of poets met and discussed changes that were happening in poetry. Ezra Pound soon met these individuals, and he eventually introduced them to H.D. and Richard Aldington in 1911. In 1912, Pound submitted their work to Poetry magazine. After H.D.'s name, he signed the word "Imagiste" and that was when Imagism was publicly launched. Two months later, Poetry published an essay which discusses three points that the London group agreed upon. They felt that the following rules should apply when writing poetry:

1. Direct treatment of the "thing," whether subjective or objective.

2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.

3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.

In the following month's issue, Pound's two-line poem "In a Station at the Metro" was published. In addition to the previously published works of Aldington and H.D., it exemplifies the tenets of Imagism in that it is direct, written with precise words, and has a musical tone which does not depend on a specific rhythm:

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.
Over the next four years, four anthologies of Imagist poetry were published. They included work by people in that London group (Pound, F.S. Flint, H.D., and Aldington), but they also contained the works of Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams, James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, and Marianne Moore.

World War I broke out soon after the height of Imagism. Some poets, like Aldington, were called to serve the country, and this made the spread of Imagism difficult-as did paper shortages as a result of the war. Eventually, war poets like Wilfred Owen grew in popularity as people shifted their attention to the state of the world.

After the war ended, a sense of disillusionment grew, and poems like T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" showed the way poetry had shifted. This infamous poem contains various narratives and voices that change quickly from one topic to another. This style of poetry differed greatly from the slow and focused poetry of the Imagists. Visit this link to read the poem in its entirety.

Within a few years, many Modernist writers moved overseas. There was an exciting expatriate scene in Paris which included Pound, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein,and Mina Loy. These writers held and attended literary salons. Poets such as E.E. Cummings, Hart Crane, and William Carlos Williams also attended these salons at times.

Not all Modernist poets followed the writers who were making revolutionary changes to the world of poetics. Marianne Moore, for example, wrote some form poetry, and Robert Frost once said that writing free verse was "like playing tennis without a net." Additionally, writers who had gained popularity toward the end of the Modernist era were inspired by less experimental poets such as Thomas Hardy and W.B. Yeats.

By the 1950s, a new generation of Postmodern poets came to the forefront. Adding "post" in front of the word "Modern" showed that this new period was different than the one before it, yet was influenced by it. The Modernist ideas of Imagism and the work of William Carlos Williams, for example, continue to have a great influence on writers today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is Modernism? : Canaday Center : The University of Toledo