# data[].attributes.body
green anacondas are the biggest snake on earth. green anacondas can weigh up to 215 pounds. green anacondas are carnivores they eat pigs, deer, caiman, birds, fish, rodents. it  takes 3 to 4 months for a green anaconda to digest a big meal. the green anaconda is also called the water boa.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A member of the boa family, South America's green anaconda is, pound for pound, the largest snake in the world. Its cousin, the reticulated python, can reach slightly greater lengths, but the enormous girth of the anaconda makes it almost twice as heavy.

Green anacondas can grow to more than 29 feet, weigh more than 550 pounds, and measure more than 12 inches in diameter. Females are significantly larger than males. Other anaconda species, all from South America and all smaller than the green anaconda, are the yellow, dark-spotted, and Bolivian varieties.

Anacondas live in swamps, marshes, and slow-moving streams, mainly in the tropical rain forests of the Amazon and Orinoco basins. They are cumbersome on land, but stealthy and sleek in

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A member of the boa family, South America's green anaconda is, pound for pound, the largest snake in the world. Its cousin, the reticulated python, can reach slightly greater lengths, but the enormous girth of the anaconda makes it almost twice as heavy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Anaconda Facts: 14 Facts about Green Anacondas

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Here are 14 facts about the Giant Green Anacondas, the largest snake in the world and one that has the largest girth. It is a killer snake, that is not venomous but can suffocate with great force and power. See the corresponding post here http://goo.gl/3auw2T Synopsis Green anacondas are the largest snakes in the world measuring 550 pounds (227 kilograms).

# data[].attributes.body
the black mamba is the second largest venomous snake.
black mambas live in woods with rocks and fallen trees.
black mambas eat rodents and squirrels and sometimes birds.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Although the black mamba had been known to missionaries and residents before 1860, the first formal description was made in 1864 by German-born British zoologist Albert Günther, who spelt the name Dendraspis polylepis. A single specimen was one of many species of snake collected by John Kirk, a naturalist who accompanied David Livingstone on the 1858-1864 Second Zambesi expedition.

# data[].attributes.body
some king cobras can spit venom.  king cobras live south and southeast Asia.
king cobras eat mammal, lizards and birds.
king cobras have a toxic bit.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a maximum record of 5.85 m (19.2 ft),[2] it is the world's longest venomous snake. Coloration of this species varies across habitats, from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, it is not taxonomically a true cobra despite its common name. The king cobra inhabits forests from South to Southeastern Asia where it preys chiefly on other snakes, including those of its kind. A female king cobra builds a nest to hold its eggs which will be protected throughout the incubation period.

Resembling a true cobra, the threat display of this elapid includes spreading its neck-flap, raising its head upright, making eye contact, puffing, hissing and occasionally charging. Despite its fearsome reputation, it avoids confrontation with humans whenever possible. Altercations usually only arise from a cobra inadvertently exposing itself or being chased; if, however, provoked or cornered, it is capable of striking long in range and high in position. Bites from this species could involve a large quantity of medically significant neurotoxic venom which may lead to a rapid fatality unless antivenom is administrated in time.

Threatened by habitat destruction, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of India, it has an eminent position in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.

Taxonomy

The king cobra is also referred to by the common name " hamadryad", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens, three captured in the Sundarbans and one in the vicinity of Kolkata.[3]Naja bungarus was proposed by Hermann Schlegel in 1837 who described a king cobra zoological specimen from Java.[4] In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and Bungarus.[5]Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near Chennai that was floating in a basket.[6]Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the Philippines and Borneo. Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata a variety of H. elaps.[7] The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864.[8] The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.[9]

Naja ingens proposed by Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt in 1882 was a king cobra captured near Tebing Tinggi in northern Sumatra.[10]

Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species.[11] A genetic analysis using cytochrome b,[12] and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a genetic lineage giving rise to the mambas, rather than the Naja cobras.[13]

A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surattani and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply divergent clade from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.[14]

Description

The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3-5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black.[3] It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head.[15] Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft).[2][16] Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.[17]

The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb). Females captured had a maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb).[18] The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand.[19] It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.[20]

Distribution and habitat

The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.[1]

In northern India, it has been recorded in Garhwal and Kumaon, and in the Shivalik and terai regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.[21][22][23] In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.[24][25] In the Eastern Ghats, it occurs from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to coastal Odisha, and also in Bihar and southern West Bengal, especially the Sundarbans.[3][24][26] In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra, and also in Gujarat.[24][27][18][28] It also occurs on Baratang Island in the Great Andaman chain.[29]

Behaviour and ecology

Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor ( Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth.[2] When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft) away.[citation needed ]

Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.[2]

Diet

The king cobra is an apex predator and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons.[30] Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, including Indian cobra, banded krait, rat snake, pythons, green whip snake, keelback, banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake.[31] It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails.[32] In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a clouded monitor.[33] When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.[2][34]

Defense

The king cobra is not considered aggressive.[35] It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly.[31][36] Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.[37]

The king cobra possesses a potent neurotoxic venom and death can occur in as little as 30 minutes after being bitten.[38] Most victims bitten by king cobras are snake charmers.[38] Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.[39][40]

The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.[41]

Growling hiss

The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.[42]

Reproduction

The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days.[16] The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter, starting from late March to late May.[43] Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the center and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.[44] Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).[43]

The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.[20]

The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.[45]

Venom

The king cobra's venom consists of cytotoxins and neurotoxins, including alpha-neurotoxins and three-finger toxins.[46][47][48][49] Other components have cardiotoxic effects.[50] Its venom is produced in anatomical glands named postorbital venom glands.[51]

It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400-600 mg overall) per bite,[52] with a LD₅₀ toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection,[53] 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection,[54] and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.[52][55][56] For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking.[57]

The toxins affect the victim's central nervous system, resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventually paralysis. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation.[38] Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in mammals.[58] Large quantities of antivenom may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.[41]

Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India.[59] A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralize venom of the king cobra.[60] In Thailand, a concoction of turmeric root has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested.[61][62] Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.[38]

Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered for medical importance.[63] Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement. A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species.[64] The Department of Clinical Toxinology of the University of Adelaide gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50-60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.[65]

Threats

In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by poaching for its meat, skin and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.[1]

Conservation

The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam.[1] In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.[66] In the Philippines, king cobras (locally known as banakon) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalizes the killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of ₱20,000.[67][68][69]

Cultural significance

The king cobra has an eminent position in the mythology and folklore of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.[70] A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual.[71] Members of the Pakokku clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would protect them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.[34][72]

It is regarded as the national reptile of India.[73]

References

1. ^ Stuart, B.; Wogan, G.; Grismer, L.; Auliya, M.; Inger, R.F.; Lilley, R.; Chan-Ard, T.; Thy, N.; Nguyen, T.Q.; Srinivasulu, C.; Jelić, D. (2012). "Ophiophagus hannah". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012: e.T177540A1491874. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T177540A1491874.en.

2. ^ Mehrtens, J. (1987). "King Cobra, Hamadryad (Ophiophagus hannah)". Living Snakes of the World. New York: Sterling. p. 263-. ISBN 0-8069-6461-8.

3. ^

4. ^

5. ^

6. ^ Günther, A. (1858). Catalogue of colubrine snakes in the collection of the British Museum. London: Printed by order of the Trustees. p. 219.

7. ^

8. ^

9. ^

10. ^ Slowinski, J. B.; Keogh, J. S. (2000). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 15 (1): 157-164. doi:10.1006/mpev.1999.0725. PMID 10764543. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 March 2019.

11. ^ Figueroa, A.; McKelvy, A. D.; Grismer, L. L.; Bell, C. D.; Lailvaux, S. P. (2016). "A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus". PLOS ONE. 11 (9): e0161070. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1161070F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161070. PMC 5014348. PMID 27603205.

12. ^

13. Chanhome, L.; Cox, M. J.; Vasaruchapong, T.; Chaiyabutr, N.; Sitprija, V. (2011). "Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand". Asian Biomedicine 5 (3): 311-328.

14. ^ Martin, D. L. (2012). "Identification of Reptile Skin Products Using Scale Morphology". In J. E. Huffman, J. R. Wallace (ed.). Wildlife Forensics: Methods and Applications. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 161-199. ISBN 9781119954293. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023.

15. ^ Burton, R. W. (1950). "The record hamadryad or king cobra [Naja hannah (Cantor)] and lengths and weights of large specimens". The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 49: 561-562.

16. ^

17. ^ Wallach, V.; Williams, K.L.; Boundy, J. (2014). Snakes of the world: A catalogue of living and extinct species. Florida: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 507-508. ISBN 9781482208481.

18. ^ Manchi, S.; Sankaran, R. (2009). "Predators of swiftlets and their nests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands". Indian Birds. 5 (4): 118-120.

19. Wall, F. (1924). "The Hamadryad or King Cobra Naja hannah (Cantor)". The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 30 (1): 189-195.

20. ^ Kurniawan, A.; Lee, G.; bin Tohed, N.; Low, M.-R. (2018). "King cobra feeding on a monitor lizard at night" (PDF). Singapore Biodiversity Records. 2018: 63. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2019.

21. ^ Tweedie, M. W. F. (1983). The Snakes of Malaya. Singapore: Singapore National Printers Ltd. p. 142. OCLC 686366097.

22. ^ Greene, H. W. (1997). "Antipredator tactics of snakes". Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 103-111. ISBN 0-520-22487-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023.

23. ^ Lim, K. K. P.; Leong, T. M.; Lim, L. K. (2011). "The king cobra, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor) in Singapore (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae)" (PDF). Nature in Singapore. 4: 143-156. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2019.

24. ^

25. Davidson, T. "Immediate First Aid". University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original on 30 June 2010.

26. Whitaker, N.; Shankar, P. G.; Whitaker, R. (2013). "Nesting ecology of the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) in India" (PDF). Hamadryad. 36 (2): 101-107.[dead link ]

27. ^ Hrima, V. L.; Sailo, V. H.; Fanai, Z.; Lalronunga, S.; Lalrinchhana, C. (2014). "Nesting ecology of the King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah, (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) in Aizawl District, Mizoram, India". In Lalnuntluanga; Zothanzama, J.; Lalramliana; Lalduhthlana; Lalremsanga, H. T. (eds.). Issues and Trends of Wildlife Conservation in Northeast India. Aizawl: Mizo Academy of Sciences. pp. 268-274. ISBN 9788192432175.

28. ^ "King Cobra". National Geographic Society. 10 September 2010. Archived from the original on 22 February 2022.

29. ^ Li, J.; Zhang, H.; Liu, J.; Xu, K. (2006). "Novel genes encoding six kinds of three-finger toxins in Ophiophagus hannah (king cobra) and function characterization of two recombinant long-chain neurotoxins". Biochemical Journal. 398 (2): 233-342. doi:10.1042/BJ20060004. PMC 1550305. PMID 16689684.

30. ^ Roy, A.; Zhou, X.; Chong, M. Z.; d'Hoedt, D.; Foo, C. S.; Rajagopalan, N.; Nirthanan, S.; Bertrand, D.; Sivaraman, J.; Kini, R. M. (2010). "Structural and Functional Characterization of a Novel Homodimeric Three-finger Neurotoxin from the Venom of Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra)". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 285 (11): 8302-8315. doi:10.1074/jbc.M109.074161. PMC 2832981. PMID 20071329.

31. ^ Rajagopalan, N.; Pung, Y. F.; Zhu, Y. Z.; Wong, P. T. H.; Kumar, P. P.; Kini, R. M. (2007). "β-Cardiotoxin: A new three-finger toxin from Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra) venom with beta-blocker activity". The FASEB Journal. 21 (13): 3685-3695. doi:10.1096/fj.07-8658com. PMID 17616557. S2CID 21235585.

32. ^ Vonk, Freek J.; Casewell, Nicholas R.; Henkel, Christiaan V.; Heimberg, Alysha M.; Jansen, Hans J.; McCleary, Ryan J. R.; Kerkkamp, Harald M. E.; Vos, Rutger A.; Guerreiro, Isabel; Calvete, Juan J.; Wüster, Wolfgang (17 December 2013). "The king cobra genome reveals dynamic gene evolution and adaptation in the snake venom system". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (51): 20651-20656. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11020651V. doi:10.1073/pnas.1314702110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3870661. PMID 24297900.

33. Séan Thomas & Eugene Griessel - Dec 1999. "LD50 (Archived)". Archived from the original on 1 February 2012.

34. ^ Broad, A. J.; Sutherland, S. K.; Coulter, A. R. (1979). "The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom" (PDF). Toxicon. 17 (6): 661-664. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(79)90245-9. PMID 524395. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2022.

35. ^ Engelmann, Wolf-Eberhard (1981). Snakes: Biology, Behavior, and Relationship to Man. Leipzig; English version NY, USA: Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982). pp. 222. ISBN 0-89673-110-3.

36. ^

37. ^ Tan, Choo Hock; Tan, Kae Yi; Fung, Shin Yee; Tan, Nget Hong (10 September 2015). "Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)". BMC Genomics. 16 (1): 687. doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1828-2. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 4566206. PMID 26358635. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023.

38. ^ Whitaker, R.; Whitaker, S. (2012). "Venom, antivenom production and the medically important snakes of India" (PDF). Current Science. 103 (6): 635-643. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2019.

39. ^ Leong, P. K.; Sim, S. M.; Fung, S. Y.; Sumana, K.; Sitprija, V.; Tan, N. H. (2012). "Cross Neutralization of Afro-Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom (Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom)". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 6 (6): e1672. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001672. PMC 3367981. PMID 22679522.

40. ^ Ernst, C. H.; Evelyn, M. (2011). "Treatment of envenomation by reptiles". Venomous Reptiles of the United States, Canada, and Northern Mexico. Vol. 1: Heloderma, Micruroides, Micrurus, Pelamis, Agkistrodon, Sistrurus. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 33-46. ISBN 978-0-8018-9875-4.

41. ^ Mathew, Gera, JL, T. "Ophitoxaemia (Venomous snakebite)". MEDICINE ON-LINE. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014.

42. ^ Norris MD, Robert L. "Cobra Envenomation". Medscape. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013.

43. ^ "Ophiophagus hannah". University of Adelaide. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.

44. ^ Sivakumar, B. (2012). "King cobra under threat, put on red list". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013.

45. ^ "Republic Act No. 9147". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines.

46. ^ "How venomous is a king cobra and what should you do if you see one? Kuya Kim answers". GMA News Online. 26 March 2023.

47. ^ Garcia, Danilo (23 December 2021). "5 King Cobra nakumpiska sa NBI entrapment". Pilipino Star Ngayon.

48. ^ Minton, S.A. Jr. and M.R. Minton (1980). Venomous reptiles. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 9780684166261.

49. ^ Platt, S.G.; Ko, W.K.; Rainwater, T.R. (2012). "On the Cobra Cults of Myanmar (Burma)". Chicago Herpetological Society. 47 (2): 17-20.

50. ^ Murphy, J. C. (2010). Secrets of the Snake Charmer: Snakes in the 21st Century. iUniverse. ISBN 978-1-4502-2127-6.

51. ^ "King Cobra - National Reptile of India". indiamapped. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah ) is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a maximum record of 5.85 m (19.2 ft),[2] it is the world's longest venomous snake.

# data[].attributes.body
rattlesnakes have a rattle at the end of its tail if you hear that rattle you know to go the other way. rattlesnakes eat mice, rats, small birds and small animals. ravens, crows, roadrunners and raccoons eat rattlesnakes.
,

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that form the genera and of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such as birds and rodents.

Rattlesnakes receive their name from the rattle located at the end of their tails, which makes a loud rattling noise when vibrated that deters predators. Rattlesnakes are the leading contributor to snakebite injuries in North America, but rarely bite unless provoked or threatened; if treated promptly, the bites are seldom fatal.

The 36 known species of rattlesnakes have between 65 and 70 subspecies, all native to the Americas, ranging from British Columbia through Ontario in southern Canada, to central Argentina. The largest rattlesnake, the eastern diamondback, can measure up to 8 ft (2.4 m) in length.

Rattlesnakes are preyed upon by hawks, weasels, kingsnakes, and a variety of other species. Rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon as neonates, while they are still weak and immature. Large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans. Rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened by habitat destruction, poaching, and extermination campaigns.

The scientific name Crotalus is derived from the Greek κρόταλον, meaning " castanet". The name Sistrurus is the Latinized form of the Greek word for "tail rattler" (Σείστρουρος, seistrouros) and shares its root with the ancient Egyptian musical instrument the sistrum, a type of rattle.

Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox), responsible for the majority of venomous snakebites in North America, coiled in defensive posture with rattle erect

Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas from southern Canada to central Argentina, with the majority of species inhabiting arid regions. The large majority of species live in the American Southwest and Mexico. Four species may be found east of the Mississippi River, and two in South America. In the United States, the state with the most types of rattlesnakes is Arizona, with 13.

Rattlesnakes are found in almost every habitat type capable of supporting terrestrial ectothermic vertebrates, but individual species may have extremely specific habitat requirements, living where certain plant associations occur or within a narrow range of elevations. Most species live near open, rocky areas. Rocks offer them cover from predators, plentiful prey (e.g. rodents, lizards, insects, etc. that live amidst the rocks), and open basking areas. However, rattlesnakes can also be found in a wide variety of other habitats, including prairies, marshes, deserts, and forests. Rattlesnakes prefer a temperature range between 80 and 90 °F (26 and 32 °C), but can survive temperatures below freezing, recovering from brief exposure to temperatures as low as 4 °F (−16 °C), and surviving for several days in temperatures as low as 37 °F (3 °C).

The most probable ancestral area of rattlesnakes is the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Mexico. The most probable vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area appears to be pine-oak forests.

Rattlesnakes typically consume mice, rats, rabbits, squirrels, small birds, and other small animals. They lie in wait for their prey, or hunt for it in holes. The rattlesnake's defence and hunting mechanisms are bound to its physiology and its environment. More importantly environmental temperature can influence the ability of ectotherms. The prey is killed quickly with a venomous bite as opposed to constriction. If the bitten prey moves away before dying, the rattlesnake can follow it by its scent. When it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of smell. Once the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth. The prey is then ingested head first, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner that minimizes the girth of the meal. The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of flesh and bone. Optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature between 80 and 85 °F (25 and 29 °C). If the prey is small, the rattlesnake often continues hunting. If the meal was adequate, the snake finds a warm, safe location in which to coil up and rest until the prey is digested. Feeding habits play an important ecological role by limiting the size of rodent populations, which prevents crop damage and stabilizes ecosystems.

Newborn rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon by a variety of species, including cats, ravens, crows, roadrunners, raccoons, opossums, skunks, coyotes, weasels, whipsnakes, kingsnakes, and racers. Young of the smaller crotaline species are frequently killed and eaten by small predatory birds, such as jays, kingfishers, and shrikes. Some species of ants in the genus are known to prey upon neonates, and Solenopsis invicta (fire ants) likely do, as well. On occasion, hungry adult rattlesnakes cannibalize neonates. The small proportion (often as few as 20%) of rattlesnakes that make it to their second year are heavily preyed upon by a variety of larger predators, including coyotes, eagles, hawks, owls, falcons, feral pigs, badgers, indigo snakes, and kingsnakes.

The common kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula), a constrictor, is immune to the venom of rattlesnakes and other vipers, and rattlesnakes form part of its natural diet. Rattlesnakes sense kingsnakes' presence by their odor. When they realize a kingsnake is nearby, they begin enacting a set of defensive postures known as "body bridging". Unlike its normal erect and coiled defensive-striking posture, the rattlesnake keeps its head low to the ground in an attempt to prevent the kingsnake from gaining a hold on it (the head being the first part of the rattlesnake to be ingested). The rattlesnake jerks its body about, while bridging its back upwards, forming an elevated coil that faces the kingsnake. The elevated coil is used to strike the attacker, and is also used to shield the head from the kingsnake.

Like all pit vipers, rattlesnakes have two organs that can sense radiation; their eyes and a set of heat-sensing "pits" on their faces that enable them to locate prey and move towards it, based on the prey's thermal radiation signature. These pits have a relatively short effective range of about 1 ft, but give the rattlesnake a distinct advantage in hunting for warm-blooded creatures at night.

Heat-sensing pits located in blue circle on a rattlesnake specimen: Location of the pit is the same in all Viperidae.

Aside from their eyes, rattlesnakes are able to detect thermal radiation emitted by warm-blooded organisms in their environment. Functioning optically like a pinhole camera eye, thermal radiation in the form of infrared light passes through the opening of the pit and strikes the pit membrane located in the back wall, warming this part of the organ. Due to the high density of heat-sensitive receptors innervating this membrane, the rattlesnake can detect temperature changes of 0.003 °C or less in its immediate surroundings. Infrared cues from these receptors are transmitted to the brain by the trigeminal nerve, where they are used to create thermal maps of the snake's surroundings. Due to the small sizes of the pit openings, typically these thermal images are low in resolution and contrast. Nevertheless, rattlesnakes superimpose visual images created from information from the eyes with these thermal images from the pit organs to more accurately visualize their surroundings in low levels of light. Research conducted recently on the molecular mechanism of this ability suggests the temperature sensitivity of these pit organs is closely linked to the activity of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1, a temperature-sensitive ion channel saturated in the pit membrane.

Rattlesnake eyes, which contain many rod cells, are well adapted to nocturnal use. Rattlesnakes, though, are not exclusively nocturnal, and their vision is more acute during daylight conditions. Rattlesnakes also possess cone cells, which means they are capable of some form of color vision. The rattlesnake eye lacks a fovea, making vision of sharply defined images impossible. Instead, they mostly rely on the perception of movement. Rattlesnake eyes are capable of horizontal rotation, but they do not appear to move their eyeballs to follow moving objects.

Rattlesnakes have an exceptionally keen sense of smell. They can sense olfactory stimuli both through their nostrils and by flicking their tongues, which carry scent-bearing particles to the Jacobson's organs in the roof of their mouths.

Rattlesnake fangs are connected by venom ducts to large venom glands near the outer edge of the upper jaw, towards the rear of the head. When the rattlesnake bites, muscles on the sides of the venom glands contract to squeeze the venom through the ducts and into the fangs. When the fangs are not in use, they remain folded against the palate.

Rattlesnakes are born with fully functioning fangs and venom, and are capable of killing prey at birth. Adult rattlesnakes shed their fangs every 6-10 weeks. At least three pairs of replacement fangs lie behind the functional pair.

The venom is hemotoxic, destroying tissue, causing necrosis and coagulopathy (disrupted blood clotting). In the U.S., the tiger rattlesnake ( C. tigris) and some varieties of the Mojave rattlesnake ( C. scutulatus) also have a presynaptic neurotoxic venom component known as Mojave type A toxin, which can cause severe paralysis. However, most North American rattlesnakes are not neurotoxic. Although it has a comparatively low venom yield, the venom toxicity of C. tigris is considered to be among the highest of all rattlesnake venoms, and among the highest of all snakes in the Western Hemisphere based on studies conducted on laboratory mice. C. scutulatus is also widely regarded as producing one of the most toxic snake venoms in the Americas, based on studies in laboratory mice.

Rattlesnake venom is a mixture of five to fifteen enzymes, various metal ions, biogenic amines, lipids, free amino acids, proteins, and polypeptides. More specifically, there are three main families of toxins in rattlesnakes: phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs). It contains components evolved to immobilize and disable the prey, as well as digestive enzymes, which break down tissue to prepare for later ingestion. The venom is very stable, and retains its toxicity for many years in storage.

Snake venom, in general, has a complex and ongoing evolutionary process, and rattlesnake venom is no different. The primary mechanisms of evolution are both gene duplication and gene loss events. The duplication events provided material for neofunctionalization to create the novel toxin genes, while gene loss influenced speciation and helped lead to such a wide variety of "chemical cocktails" in rattlesnake venoms. The prevailing theory for the driving force of this evolution is directional selection, where efficacy on prey is selected for. Diversity in prey leads to less specificity in toxins, while highly specialized toxins are more likely to develop when there are few key prey species. However, recently, balancing selection has been indicated to better explain the maintenance of adaptive genetic diversity in venom-related genes, potentially allowing for the rattlesnakes to better keep up in the evolutionary arms race with their prey.

Older snakes possess more potent venom, and larger snakes are frequently capable of storing larger volumes of it.

Video of a timber rattlesnake shaking its rattle

The rattle serves as a warning for predators of the rattlesnake. The rattle is composed of a series of hollow, interlocked segments made of keratin, which are created by modifying the scales that cover the tip of the tail. The contraction of special "shaker" muscles in the tail causes these segments to vibrate against one another, thus making the rattling noise (which is amplified because the segments are hollow) in a behavior known as tail vibration. The muscles which cause rattling are some of the fastest known, firing 50 times per second on average, sustainable for a duration up to three hours.

In 2016, Allf et al published a paper proposing behavioral plasticity as the mechanism by which the rattling system evolved in rattlesnakes. In the case of rattlesnakes, Allf et al proposed that tail vibration in response to predator threat could be the precursor for the rattling system in rattlesnakes, an example of behavioral plasticity. To investigate this hypothesis, the researchers analyzed tail vibration and relatedness to rattlesnakes among snakes in the families Viperidae and Colubridae. Their results demonstrated that the more closely related a species was to rattlesnakes, the more similar that species was to rattlesnakes in both duration and rate of tail vibration. These results strongly support the hypothesis that tail vibration preceded the rattling system as a behavior and allowed for the rattle to be selected for once developed. Even a small, underdeveloped rattle early in the evolution of the rattling system could have been advantageous if tail vibration was an ancestral behavior.

At birth, a "prebutton" is present at the tip of the snake's tail; it is replaced by the "button" several days later when the first skin is shed. However, no sound can be made by the rattle until a second segment is added when the skin is shed again. A new rattle segment is added each time the snake sheds its skin, and the snake may shed its skin several times a year, depending on food supply and growth rate.

Rattlesnakes travel with their rattles held up to protect them from damage, but in spite of this precaution, their day-to-day activities in the wild still cause them to regularly break off end segments. Because of this, the number of rattles on its tail is not related to the age of a rattlesnake.

Compared to females, males have thicker and longer tails (because they contain the inverted hemipenes). Also, the tails of males taper gradually from the body, whereas the tails of females narrow abruptly at the vent.

Rattlesnakes, like other members of the Squamata order, have a circulatory system that is powered by a three-chambered heart composed of two atria and one ventricle. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from veins coming from the systemic circuit. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs in the pulmonary circuit and pumps it to the ventricle and through the systemic circuit via capillaries and arteries.

Rattlesnake skin has a set of overlapping scales that cover the entire body, providing protection from a variety of threats, including dehydration and physical trauma. The typical rattlesnake, genus Crotalus, has the top of its head covered with small scales, except, with a few species, a few crowded plates directly over the snout. The skin of snakes is highly sensitive to contact, tension, and pressure; they are capable of feeling pain.

An important function of the skin is the sensation of changes in air temperature, which can guide the snakes towards warm basking/shelter locations. All snakes are ectotherms. To maintain a stable body temperature, they exchange heat with their external environments. Snakes often move into open, sunny areas to absorb heat from the sun and warmed earth, a behavior known as basking. Nerves in the skin regulate the flow of blood into the veins near the surface.

The skin of rattlesnakes is intricately patterned in a manner that camouflages them from their predators. Rattlesnakes do not generally have bright or showy colors (reds, yellows, blues, etc.), instead relying on subtle earth tones that resemble the surrounding environment.

Creases in the epidermal tissue connect the scales of rattlesnakes. When ingesting large prey, these creases can unfold, allowing the skin to expand to envelop a much greater volume. The skin appears to tightly stretch to accommodate the meal, but in reality, the skin is simply smoothing out from its creased state and is not under very high tension.

Two male northern Pacific rattlesnakes (C. oreganus oreganus) engage in a "combat dance"

Everted hemipenis of a male C. adamanteus

Most rattlesnake species mate during the summer or fall, while some species mate only in the spring, or during both the spring and fall.

Females secrete small amounts of sex pheromones, which leave a trail the males follow using their tongues and Jacobson's organs as guides. Once a receptive female has been located, the male often spends several days following her around (a behavior not common outside of the mating season), frequently touching and rubbing her in an attempt to stimulate her.

The males of some species, such as timber rattlesnakes ( C. horridus), fight each other during the mating season, in competition over females. These fights, known as "combat dances", consist of the two males intertwining the anterior portion of their bodies, often with their heads and necks held vertically. The larger males usually end up driving the smaller males away.

Although many kinds of snakes and other reptiles are oviparous (lay eggs), rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous (give birth to live young after carrying eggs inside). The female produces the ova ("eggs") in her ovaries, after which they pass through her body cavity and into one of her two oviducts. The ova are arranged in a continuous chain in a coiled section of the oviduct, known as the "tuba". Male rattlesnakes have sexual organs known as hemipenes, located in the base of the tail. The hemipenis is retracted inside of the body when mating is not occurring. The hemipenis is similar to the human penis. Females can store semen for months in internal recesses known as spermathecae, which permits them to mate during the fall, but not fertilize the ova until the following spring. The Arizona black rattlesnake ( C. oreganus cerberus), has been observed to exhibit complex social behavior reminiscent of that in mammals. Females often remain with their young in nests for several weeks, and mothers have been observed co-operatively parenting their broods.

Rattlesnakes generally take several years to mature, and females usually reproduce only once every three years.

In the colder winter months, some rattlesnake species enter a period of brumation, which is dormancy similar to hibernation. They often gather together for brumation in large numbers (sometimes over 1,000 snakes), huddling together inside underground "rattlesnake dens" or hibernacula. They regularly share their winter burrows with a wide variety of other species (such as turtles, small mammals, invertebrates, and other types of snakes).

Species with long periods of brumation tend to have much lower reproductive rates than those with shorter brumation periods or those that do not brumate at all. Female timber rattlesnakes in high peaks in the Appalachian Mountains of New England reproduce every three years on average; the lance-headed rattlesnake (C. polystictus), native to the warm climate of Mexico, reproduces annually.

Like most other snakes, rattlesnakes aestivate during very hot or dry periods, which is why they are rarely seen during the hottest and driest months of summer.

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid developed areas, preferring undisturbed, natural habitats. Rapid habitat destruction by humans, mass killings during events such as rattlesnake round-ups, and deliberate extermination campaigns all pose threats to rattlesnake populations in many areas. Several species, such as the timber rattlesnake, massasauga, and canebrake rattlesnake, are listed as threatened or endangered in many U.S. states.

Many rattlesnakes die from being run over by cars.

In more heavily populated and trafficked areas, reports have been increasing of rattlesnakes that do not rattle. This phenomenon is falsely attributed to selective pressure by humans, who often kill the snakes when they are discovered. However, snake experts have dismissed this theory, stating that snakes simply do not rattle as often as laymen expect them to, and that snakes that live near populated areas simply get used to people passing by, only rattling when a person lingers too long or gets too close.

Rattlesnakes are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in North America and a significant cause in Central and South America.

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid wide-open spaces where they cannot hide from predators, and generally avoid humans if they are aware of their approach. Rattlesnakes rarely bite unless they feel threatened or provoked. A majority of victims (about 72%) are males. Around half of bites occur in cases where the victim saw the snake, yet made no effort to move away.

Harassing or attacking a rattlesnake, illegal in some jurisdictions, puts one at much higher risk of a bite. Rattlesnakes seek to avoid humans and other predators or large herbivores that themselves pose lethal danger. Dogs, often much more aggressive than humans, are much more likely to experience a snakebite, and are more likely to die of a rattlesnake bite although they can be vaccinated against them.

Caution is advised even when snakes are believed to be dead; rattlesnake heads can sense, flick the tongue, and inflict venomous bites reflexively for up to an hour after being severed from the body.

An estimated 7,000 to 8,000 people are bitten by venomous snakes in the United States each year, with about five deaths. The most important factor in survival following a severe envenomation is the time elapsed between the bite and treatment. Most deaths occur between 6 and 48 hours after the bite. If antivenom treatment is given within two hours of the bite, the probability of recovery is greater than 99%.

When a bite occurs, the amount of venom injected is under voluntary control by the snake. The amount released depends on a variety of factors, including the condition of the snake (e.g., having long, healthy fangs and a full venom sack) and its temperament (an angry, hungry snake that has just been stepped on vs. a satiated snake that was merely surprised by walking near it). About 20% of bites result in no envenomation at all. A lack of burning pain and edema in (1 cm) away from the fang marks after one hour suggests either no or minimal envenomation occurred. A lack of edema or erythema in the area of the bite after eight hours indicates a lack of envenomation for most rattlesnake bites.

Common symptoms include swelling, severe pain, tingling, weakness, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, hemorrhaging, perspiration, and (rarely) heart failure. Local pain following envenomation is often intense, increasing with the ensuing edema. Children generally experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per unit of body mass.

Antivenom, or antivenin, is commonly used to treat the effects of local and systemic pit viper envenomations. The first step in the production of crotaline antivenom is collecting ("milking") the venom of a live rattlesnake-usually from the western diamondback (Crotalus atrox), eastern diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus), South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissis terrificus), or fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox). The extracted venom is then diluted and injected into horses, goats, or sheep, whose immune systems produce antibodies that protect from the toxic effects of the venom. These antibodies accumulate in the blood, which is then extracted and centrifuged to separate the red blood cells. The resulting serum is purified into a lyophilized powder, which is packaged for distribution and later use by human patients.

Because antivenom is derived from animal antibodies, people generally display an allergic response during infusion, known as serum sickness.

In the United States, more than 15,000 domesticated animals are bitten by snakes each year. Rattlesnake envenomations account for 80% of the deadly incidents.

Stone sculptures of feathered serpents on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City

Aztec paintings, Central American temples, and the great burial mounds in the Southern United States are frequently adorned with depictions of rattlesnakes, often within the symbols and emblems of the most powerful deities.

The Feathered Serpent of Mesoamerican religion was depicted as having the combined features of the quetzal and rattlesnake. The Ancient Maya considered the rattlesnake to be a "vision serpent" that acted as a conduit to the "otherworld".

Rattlesnakes are a key element in Aztec mythology and were widely represented in Aztec art, including sculptures, jewelry, and architectural elements.

Snake handling at the Pentecostal Church of God in the town of Lejunior, Harlan County, Kentucky, September 15, 1946

Members of some Christian sects in the Southern United States are regularly bitten while participating in " snake handling" rituals. Snake handling is when people hold venomous snakes, unprotected, as part of a religious service inspired by a literal interpretation of the Bible verses Mark 16:17-18, which reads, "In my name ... They shall take up serpents ...."

Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition described in 1805 how a hired interpreter, who lived for 15 years with the Mandan, used the rattlesnake's rattle to speed up the delivery of Sacagewea's son Jean Baptiste Charbonneau:

The party that were ordered last evening set out early this morning. the weather was fair and could wind N. W. about five o'clock this evening one of the wives of Charbono was delivered of a fine boy. It is worthy of remark that this was the first child which this woman had boarn and as is common in such cases her labour was tedious and the pain violent; Mr. Jessome informed me that he had freequently administered a small portion of the rattle of the rattle-snake, which he assured me had never failed to produce the desired effect, that of hastening the birth of the child; having the rattle of a snake by me I gave it to him and he administered two rings of it to the woman broken in small pieces with the fingers and added to a small quantity of water. Whether this medicine was truly the cause or not I shall not undertake to determine, but I was informed that she had not taken it more than ten minutes before she brought forth perhaps this remedy may be worthy of future experiments, but I must confess that I want faith as to it's efficacy.

Journalist Alistair Cooke claimed that rattlesnake tastes "just like chicken, only tougher". Others have compared the flavor to a wide range of other meats, including veal, frog, tortoise, quail, fish, rabbit, and even canned tuna. Methods of preparation include barbecueing and frying; author Maud Newton, following a recipe by Harry Crews, described the taste, "at least when breaded and fried, like a sinewy, half-starved tilapia."

The rattlesnake became a symbolic animal for the Colonials during the Revolutionary War period, and is depicted prominently on the Gadsden Flag. It continues to be used as a symbol by the United States military, and political movements within the United States.

1. ^ Fox, William Sherwood (1988). The Bruce beckons: the story of Lake Huron's great peninsula. University of Toronto Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-8020-6007-5.

2. ^ Place, Arron J.; Abramson, Charles I. (2004). "A Quantitative Analysis of the Ancestral Area of Rattlesnakes". Journal of Herpetology. 38 (1): 151-156. doi:10.1670/103-03N. S2CID 86252575.

3. ^ Whitefold, 2020 The rattlesnakes movement is bound to its physical makeup and the environment. Environmental temperature can influence the ability of ectotherms to capture prey and/or defend themselves against predators

4. ^ Whitford, Malachi (2020). "The effects of temperature on the defensive strikes of rattlesnakes" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 223 (Pt 14). doi:10.1242/jeb.223859. PMID 32561628. S2CID 219951376.

5. ^ Campbell, Angela L.; Naik, Rajesh R.; Sowards, Laura; Stone, Morley O. (2002). "Biological Infrared Imaging and Sensing". Micron. 33 (2): 211-225. doi:10.1016/S0968-4328(01)00010-5. PMID 11567889.

6. Newman, Eric A.; Hartline, Peter H. (March 1982). "The Infrared "Vision" of Snakes". Scientific American. 246 (3): 116-127. Bibcode:1982SciAm.246c.116N. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0382-116.

7. ^ Lynn, W. Gardner (September 1931). "The Structure and Function of the Facial Pits of Pit Vipers". American Journal of Anatomy. 49: 97-139. doi:10.1002/aja.1000490105.

8. ^ Weinstein, Scott A.; Smith, Leonard (1990). "Preliminary fractionation of tiger rattlesnake (Crotalus tigris) venom". Toxicon. 28 (12): 1447-1455. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(90)90158-4. PMID 2128566.

9. Glenn, J. L.; R. C. Straight. 1982. "The rattlesnakes and their venom yield and lethal toxicity". In: Tu, A. (ed) ^ Rattlesnake Venoms, Their Actions and Treatment. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

10. ^ Schaeffer, Romane; Pascolutti, Victoria J.; Jackson, Timothy N. W.; Arbuckle, Kevin (2023-03-29). "Diversity Begets Diversity When Diet Drives Snake Venom Evolution, but Evenness Rather Than Richness Is What Counts". Toxins. 15 (4): 251. doi:10.3390/toxins15040251. ISSN 2072-6651. PMC . PMID 37104189.

11. ^ Levis, Nicholas A.; Pfennig, David W. (2021-05-31). "Innovation and Diversification Via Plasticity-Led Evolution". Phenotypic Plasticity & Evolution. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 211-240. doi:10.1201/9780429343001-12. ISBN 978-0-429-34300-1. S2CID 233563740.

12. ^ Moon, Brad R. (2001). "Muscle Physiology and the Evolution of the Rattling System in Rattlesnakes". Journal of Herpetology. 35 (3): 497-500. doi:10.2307/1565969. ISSN 0022-1511. JSTOR 1565969.

13. ^ Myers, Bob (1991). "Rattles". American International Rattlesnake Museum. Albuquerque, New Mexico. Archived from the original on 2022-06-30.

14. ^ Jensen, Bjarke; Moorman, Antoon F. M.; Wang, Tobias (2014). "Structure and function of the hearts of lizards and snakes". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 89 (2): 302-336. doi:10.1111/brv.12056. ISSN 1469-185X. PMID 23998743. S2CID 20035062.

15. ^ Jensen, Bjarke; Abe, Augusto S.; Andrade, Denis V.; Nyengaard, Jens R.; Wang, Tobias (2010). "The heart of the South American rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus". Journal of Morphology. 271 (9): 1066-1077. doi:10.1002/jmor.10854. ISSN 1097-4687. PMID 20730920. S2CID 206091017.

16. Ditmars, Raymond L. ^ Reptiles of the World. The MacMillan Company, New York, 1936, p. 255.

17. ^ Amerello, Melissa; Smith, Jeffrey; Slone, John (2011). "Family values: Maternal care in rattlesnakes is more than mere attendance". Nature Precedings. doi:10.1038/npre.2011.6671.1.

18. ^ O'Neil ME, Mack KA, Gilchrist J, Wozniak EJ (2007). "Snakebite injuries treated in United States emergency departments, 2001-2004". Wilderness Environ Med. 18 (4): 281-7. doi:10.1580/06-WEME-OR-080R1.1. PMID 18076294.

19. ^ Henkel, John. "For Goodness Snakes! Treating and Preventing Venomous Bites" (PDF). Reptiles. USDA / emergency response. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-01-10.

20. ^ Read, Kay A.; González, Jason J., eds. (2002). "Feathered Serpents". Mesoamerican Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs of Mexico and Central America. Oxford University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-19-514909-8.

21. ^ Cooke, Alistair (1980). The Americans: fifty talks on our life and times. Knopf. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-394-50364-6. OCLC 5311048. To the goggling unbeliever Texans say-as people always say about their mangier dishes-'but it's just like chicken, only tenderer.' Rattlesnake is, in fact, just like chicken, only tougher.

22. ^ "Recipe: Barbecued rattlesnake". The Seattle Times. November 30, 2004 [Woodall Publications Corp. ©1998]. Archived from the original on 2014-12-18.

Cornett, James W. (1998). Rattlesnakes: Answers to Frequent Questions. Palm Springs, California: Nature Trails Press. ISBN 0-937794-23-6.

Dalstrom, Harl A. "'Snake Hunting Has Been Shamefully Neglected': A. M. Jackly and Rattlesnake Abatement in South Dakota," South Dakota History 43 (Fall 2013), 177-217.

Hubbs, Brian & Brendan O'Connor (2012). A Guide to the Rattlesnakes and other Venomous Serpents of the United States. Tricolor Books. Tempe, Arizona. ISBN 978-0-9754641-3-7.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that form the genera and of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such as birds and rodents.

# data[].attributes.body
bull snakes live in North America and the United States.
bull snakes eat mice, moles, rats and birds. bull snakes
are powerful constrictors.  bull snakes
breed in march and April.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The bullsnake ( Pituophis catenifer sayi) is a large, nonvenomous, colubrid snake. It is a subspecies of the gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer). The bullsnake is one of the largest/longest snakes of North America and the United States, reaching lengths up to 8 ft.

The subspecific name, sayi, is in honor of American naturalist Thomas Say.
In Mexico, bullsnakes are called cincuate, (/sentli/; Náhuatl: corn, /coatl/; Náhuatl: snake).

The bullsnake ( Pituophis catenifer sayi) occurs throughout the Great Plains and parts of the Midwestern United States, ranging from southern Saskatchewan, and Alberta, Canada south, into Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas, Mexico. States in the USA include Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

Adult bullsnakes average about 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m) in length, and specimens of up to 8 ft 4 in (2.5 m) have been recorded. Possibly being the largest subspecies of gopher snake on average, mature specimens can have an average weight in the range of 1-1.5 kg (2.2-3.3 lb), though the heavier known specimens can attain 3.6-4.5 kg (7.9-9.9 lb), with larger specimens being quite bulky for a colubrid snake. This makes bullsnakes among the largest snakes native to Canada and the United States, although they are generally not as long as indigo snakes nor as heavy or as large in diameter as rattlesnakes. They are usually yellow, with brown, white, black, or sometimes reddish blotching. The blotching pattern is large blotches on top, three sets of spots on the sides, and bands of black on the tail. Many color variations have been found, including albinos and white varieties. A scale count is required to distinguish juvenile bullsnakes from other juvenile gopher snakes.

Bullsnakes are very powerful constrictors that eat small mammals, such as mice, moles, rats, pocket gophers, ground squirrels, as well as ground-nesting birds, birds' eggs and lizards. Their climbing proficiency enables them to raid bird nests (and birdhouses) to eat the nestlings or sitting mother. One snake can eat five small birds within 15 minutes. Juvenile bullsnakes depend on small lizards, frogs, and baby mice.

The idea that bullsnakes occasionally eat rattlesnakes is sometimes given as a reason for humans not to harm bullsnakes when encountering them in the wild; however, a study of 1000 bullsnakes found only 2 had rattlesnake in their stomach contents, and so this is a very rare occurrence.

Though some bullsnakes can be docile, and with some time become accustomed to handling, most are quite defensive.

When bullsnakes detect live objects too big to be prey, they seem to perceive the object as a predator and take defensive action. Their first action is to remain quiet, not moving. Then, when they feel they are able to move away from the object, their next line of defense is to move away as quickly as possible. Bullsnakes, however, are not fast movers and often must take other defensive actions. When threatened by anything as large as a human, a bullsnake's next defensive action is to rear up and make itself look as large as possible, while at the same time hissing at the perceived threat. It typically then begins lunging and retreating at the same time to escape.[citation needed ]

Bullsnakes can sometimes be mistaken for rattlesnakes and killed. Owing to its coloration, dorsal pattern, and semikeeled scalation, it superficially resembles the western diamondback rattler (Crotalus atrox), which is also common within the same range. The bullsnake capitalizes on this similarity by performing an impressive rattlesnake impression when threatened. First, it hisses, or forcibly exhales through a glottis or extension of the windpipe. The end of the glottis is covered by a piece of cartilage known as the epiglottis, which flaps back and forth when air is exhaled from the right lung, producing a convincing rattling sound. It also adopts a rattlesnake-like "S-curve" body posture as though about to strike. It commonly vibrates its tail rapidly in brush or leaves, and flattens its head to resemble the characteristic triangular shape of the rattlesnake. These defensive behaviors are meant to scare away threats, however, and not to sound an attack.[citation needed ]

In contrast to rattlesnakes, which usually keep their tails elevated to sound the most efficient rattle, bullsnakes tend to keep their tails in contact with the ground, where they can be vibrated against leaves, for example.[citation needed ]

Bullsnakes breed in March or April (depending upon their location) and usually lay their eggs in April, May, or June (again, depending upon when the snakes breed.) They typically lay 12 eggs in sand or other protected areas and leave the eggs to incubate unprotected. Clutches of five to 22 eggs have been observed. The eggs are elliptical, leathery, rough, sticky, and up to 70 mm ( in) long. The eggs typically hatch in August or September. Baby bullsnakes are 20-46 cm (7.9-18.1 in) at hatching. Their color is grayish until after their first shed.[citation needed ]

Schlegel H (1837). Essai sur la physionomie des serpens, Volume II., Partie Descriptive. Amsterdam: M.H. Schonekat. 606 + xv pp. (Coluber sayi, new species, pp. 157-158.) (in French).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The bullsnake ( Pituophis catenifer sayi) is a large, nonvenomous, colubrid snake. It is a subspecies of the gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer ). The bullsnake is one of the largest/longest snakes of North America and the United States, reaching lengths up to 8 ft.

# data[].attributes.body
corn snakes eat mice, rats and insects.
corn snakes live in Florida.
corn snakes can live up to 23 yearsold

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Corn snakes are a species of snake in the rat snake family. They live in the eastern United States, and are moderately more colorful than their other rat snake cousins.

These snakes have reddish-orange colored scales with large blotchy patterns. However, pet corn snakes have a variety of different colors and patterns. Read on to learn about the corn snake.

Description of the Corn Snake

Corn snakes are relatively large snakes, and most are between two feet long and six feet long. However, most individuals do not grow any larger than four feet long.

They have reddish colored scales with large blotches of red, orange, or brown. Their abdomens have a black and white checkered pattern. Like all rat snakes, they are not venomous, nor dangerous to humans in any way.

Interesting Facts About the Corn Snake

These snakes are common and relatively widespread. They live as far north as New Jersey, and as far south as Florida. Learn more about these snakes and their unique adaptations below.

Constrictor - Because corn snakes do not have venom, they need another method to incapacitate prey. When a corn snake catches a rat or mouse, they wrap coils of their long body around the prey. Once they have secured their meal they squeeze until it suffocates, then they can safely eat it.

What's in a Name? - Yes, corn snakes get their name from the popular crop, but why? Well, there are two different theories for this. The first theory is that corn snakes got their name from the corn-like pattern on their bellies. The second theory is that people simply found this species near corn frequently, because they like to hunt the mice and rats near the corn.

Popular Pets - This species of snake is one of the most popular exotic pets in the world. They are incredibly docile and come in a variety of different colors. These snakes are so popular that they are the most widely owned reptiles in the world.

Long Lived - These snakes live for a very long time when properly cared for. Corn snakes in captivity can live to the ripe age of 20 years old, or more! This species doesn't fare nearly as well in the wild. Its average wild lifespan is just 6 - 8 years old.

Habitat of the Corn Snake

In the wild, this species lives in a number of different habitats. Some of their favorite ecosystems are pine and oak forests, rocky outcroppings, wetland areas, and more.

They also live in and around human habitation, which they like because of the various rats and mice that live near us. Some of their hiding places include barns, urban parks, dumps, and abandoned buildings.

Distribution of the Corn Snake

Though they live as far north as New Jersey, this species prefers the southern regions of the United States. They are incredibly common in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. Their range does, however, spread further into the rest of the southeast United States.

Humans have introduced corn snakes into areas outside of its native range, and in some of these areas breeding populations have established. Because of this, they now live in the U.S. Virgin Islands, portions of the Bahamas, and the Lesser Antilles.

Diet of the Corn Snake

Let's face it, rats and mice thrive near places where we live. Because of this, they are some of the easiest prey around. Foxes, owls, hawks, and a variety of other predators take advantage of this, and corn snakes are no exception.

While rats and mice are easy to find, corn snakes also eat small birds, lizards, frogs, and more. One thing they don't eat? Corn!

Corn Snake and Human Interaction

Unless he has small poultry around, corn snakes are a farmer's best friend! Rats and mice are incredibly destructive animals, and their droppings can contaminate animal feed. Corn snakes and other species are great at catching pesky rats and mice.

Sadly, people commonly mistake this species for the venomous copperhead, and this results in some unnecessary deaths. Thankfully we haven't impacted their overall population, which the IUCN lists as Least Concern.

Domestication

Even though humans have selectively bred a wide variety of colors and patterns, corn snakes are not a domesticated species. However, because we have bred these snakes for color and temperament, some could consider them partially domesticated.

Does the Corn Snake Make a Good Pet

Yes, corn snakes make great pets, but you should always choose captive-bred animals for pets. Wildlife Divisions of many states protect wild snakes in many regions. Also, they can potentially carry and spread disease. Captive-bred snakes can also carry disease, which means humans should never release them into the wild.

Corn Snake Care

Before purchasing a new pet, it is important that you consider all that goes into their care. Choose a responsible breeder with healthy, well-cared-for snakes. You should handle your pet gently and frequently, so it becomes accustomed to you.

All snakes need heat and light sources; and your veterinarian or breeder can help you choose the best setup for your snake. Speaking of veterinarians, remember that you will need to find one that is knowledgeable about snakes, and this might cost you an arm and a leg.

Behavior of the Corn Snake

Like most snakes, this species is solitary. Corn snakes hibernate during the winter, and are less active during cold weather. When it is warm, they emerge from their hiding places and search for prey.

Corn snakes have a very good sense of smell, and use this to find food. They hunt on the ground, in tunnels underground, and even up in the trees.

Reproduction of the Corn Snake

Corn snakes reproduce in March, April, and May, and lay their eggs about 2 months later. They like to lay their eggs in leaf piles or rotting logs, because the decomposition produces heat to incubate the eggs.

The female lays anywhere from 10 to 30 eggs per clutch, and they usually hatch in around 2 months if the temperature is warm enough. The hatchlings are fully self-sufficient, and begin hunting on their own immediately.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Corn Snake - Description, Habitat, Image, Diet, and Interesting Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Corn snakes are a species of snake in the rat snake family. They live in the eastern United States, and are moderately more colorful than their other rat snake cousins. These snakes have reddish-orange colored scales with large blotchy patterns. However, pet corn snakes have a variety of different colors and patterns.

# data[].attributes.body
my name is MAX my favorite  food is pizza my favorite treat is candy and ice cream and i love snakes

# data[].attributes.body
when a rat snake gets frightening it may freeze. which is why rat snakes die in traffic. rat snakes live in  the northern hemisphere.
rat snakes eat rodents and birds.

# data[].attributes.body
tiger snakes live in western Australia.
tiger snakes eat frogs, tadpoles, bats, insects and lizards. tiger snakes venom is dangers to humus.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Most Australians know of tiger snakes and are aware of their fearsome reputation, though few people will ever encounter one. Unfortunately this species is much maligned because of its aggressive nature and toxic venom; however the tiger snake should be recognised as a great survivor, superbly adapted to some of the most inhospitable environments in Australia.

Identification

In the past, two species of tiger snakes were commonly recognised: the Eastern Tiger Snake Notechis scutatus, and the so-called Black Tiger Snake Notechis ater. However, morphological differences between the two appear inconsistent, and recent molecular studies have shown N. ater and N. scutatus to be genetically similar, hence it would seem that there is now just one wide-ranging species that varies greatly in size and colouration - Notechis scutatus.

Despite this recent revision, the old classification is still in popular use and a number of subspecies are also recognised:

Notechis ater ater - Krefft's Tiger Snake (Flinders Ranges, South Australia)

Notechis ater humphreysi - Tasmanian Tiger Snake (King Is. and Tasmania)

Notechis ater niger - Peninsular Tiger Snake (lower Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas, offshore islands of South Australia)

Notechis ater serventyi - Chappell Island Tiger Snake (Furneaux Group, Bass Strait)

Notechis scutatus occidentalis (sometimes N. ater occidentalis) - Western Tiger Snake (southwest corner of Western Australia)

Notechis scutatus scutatus - Eastern Tiger Snake (southeastern mainland Australia)

The common name refers to the prominent yellow and black cross-bands typical of some populations of tiger snakes, however not all have this pattern. The most commonly seen form is dark olive brown to blackish-brown, with off-white to yellowish cross-bands that can vary in thickness. Entirely patternless individuals may occur in banded populations, and these types range in colour from yellowish-brown to black. Some populations consist of almost entirely unbanded individuals, e.g. those of the central highlands and southwest of Tasmania. Melanism (dark body colouration) is most strongly developed in populations exposed to highly variable weather conditions and cool extremes, such as those experienced at higher altitudes or on offshore islands. The dark colouration is an adaptation that allows those snakes to absorb heat at a faster rate during the short growing season.
The head is moderately wide and deep and only slightly distinct from the robust, muscular body. The neck and upper body can be flattened to a considerable degree when performing a threat display, exposing the black skin between the relatively large, semi-glossy scales.

Midbody scales 17-21 rows, ventral scales 140-190, single anal and subcaudal scales. A large squarish frontal shield, not or scarcely longer than broad, is characteristic of Notechis.

Habitat

The species is often associated with watery environments such as creeks, dams, drains, lagoons, wetlands and swamps. They can also occur in highly degraded areas e.g. grazing lands, especially where there is water and local cover. Tiger snakes will shelter in or under fallen timber, in deep matted vegetation and in disused animal burrows. Unlike most other Australian elapids, tiger snakes climb well on both vegetation and human constructions, and have been found as high as 10 m above the ground.

Altitudinally, tiger snakes range from sea level to above 1000m (Tasmania).

Get our monthly emails for amazing animals, research insights and museum events.

Sign up today

Distribution

Tiger snakes have a non-continuous distribution within two broad areas; southeastern Australia (including the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania), and southwestern Australia.

Populations occur on the following offshore islands; (counter-clockwise around Australia) Carnac and Garden (Western Australia); Goat, West Franklin and East Franklin in Nuyts Archipelago; Hopkins; Hareby; Reevsby, Marum, Partney, Lusby, Roxby and Spilsby in the Sir Joseph Banks Group; Kangaroo (South Australia); New Year, Christmas and King in western Bass Strait and Badger, Mt Chappell, Flinders, Babel and Cat in eastern Bass Strait (Tasmania). It is not clear whether the population on Carnac Island is of completely indigenous origin or not, as some 80 individuals were released on the island in around 1929 without record of them already being present.

Seasonality

Snakes are typically more active during the warmer months, however tiger snakes may also be found out basking on warm winter days. During cool periods they will aestivate in animal burrows, under large boulders and in standing dead trees, and may go as deep as 1.2m underground. As many as 26 neonates, perhaps all from one late season litter, have been found together in a winter shelter.

Feeding and diet

Tiger snakes in the wild have a broad diet that includes fish, frogs and tadpoles, lizards, birds and mammals, as well as carrion. As the size of the snake increases, so to does the average prey size, however this increase is achieved not by larger snakes giving up on small prey but by them taking more large prey. Tiger snakes are largely diurnal and hunt for prey during the daylight hours; however they will forage on warm evenings. They will readily search underwater and can stay under for at least 9 minutes. A bat was found in the stomach of one museum specimen, demonstrating the tiger snake's ability to climb. Invertebrates have also been found in tiger snake stomachs however these could have been taken as part of carrion; other taxa such as grasshoppers and moths however may have been ingested as prey. Cannibalism amongst wild tiger snakes has also been reported. Prey items are grasped and subdued quickly by the powerful venom, with sometimes constriction being employed as well.

Available prey size is thought to play an important role in dictating the adult size of tiger snakes in some island populations. For example, on Chappell Island the snakes are typically very large and take advantage of the seasonal abundance of fat muttonbird chicks, whereas on Roxby Island where there are no nesting seabirds the dwarf population of snakes survive on mostly small skinks.

Breeding behaviours

In southwestern Australia, females are mature at a snout-vent length of at least 763 mm. On the main island of Tasmania, males can be mature at a mass of 500g and females can be mature at a snout-vent length of 850mm and a mass of at least 325g.

At the beginning of the breeding season males engage in combat that involves each of the two combatants trying to press down the head of the other and generally results in the snakes becoming partially intertwined. Mating has been reported to occur in late summer (March), but it is not clear whether this observation occurred in the wild or in captivity. Such late season mating is advantageous for southern species, giving them a reproductive head-start before spring. On the main island of Tasmania, mating has been observed lasting as long as seven hours. Gravid females may be relatively sedentary, with one gravid female in Tasmania reportedly remaining at its "homesite" for 50 days. In southwestern Australia, females give birth to live young (ovoviviparous) between late summer and mid-autumn (17 March-18 May). Litter size ranges from 10 to 64. The young are born in a membranous sac and once they break free they are totally independent.

Conservation status

Flinders Ranges population (as Notechis ater ater) is listed as vulnerable (Commonwealth, IUCN)

Chappell Island population (as Notechis ater serventyi) is listed as vulnerable (Tasmania)

Predators

The known predators of tiger snakes include the elapid snake Cryptophis nigrescens and certain birds of prey such as butcherbirds, goshawks, harriers, ibises, kites and kookaburras. In one survey taken on Carnac Island, a high proportion of the tiger snakes were blind in one (6.7 percent) or both eyes (7.0 percent) due the attacks by nesting gulls. While this is not predation per se, it does increase the catchability of the snakes by human hunters and hence probably increases the chances of their being taken by non-human predators. Tiger snakes have also been heavily persecuted by humans in the past and are still routinely killed when encountered. Many also become road victims.

Tiger snake are known to be parasitized by ticks, cestodes (tape worms), nematodes (round worms), pentastomids (tongue worms), and trematodes (flukes).

Danger to humans

The snake's large size, often aggressive defence and toxic venom make it extremely dangerous to humans. Although generally shy and preferring escape over conflict, a cornered tiger snake will put on an impressive threat display by holding its forebody in a tense, loose curve with the head slightly raised and pointed at the offender. It will hiss loudly as it inflates and deflates its body, and if provoked further will lash out and bite forcefully. The venom of the tiger snake is strongly neurotoxic and coagulant, and anyone suspected of being bitten should seek medical attention immediately.

Evolutionary relationships

The present-day fragmented distribution of tiger snakes is due to a combination of geologically recent climatic changes (increasing aridity) and sea-level changes (islands cut off from the mainland in the past 6000-10000 years). Populations isolated through these events have undergone changes in their colour patterns, size and ecology in response to various environmental pressures.

References

Cogger, H. (2000) "Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia", Reed New Holland

Greer, A.E. (2006) "Encyclopedia of Australian Reptiles : Elapidae", Australian Museum

Ehmann, H. (1992) "Encyclopedia of Australian Animals : Reptiles", Australian Museum, Angus & Robertson

Mirtshin, P. and Davis, R. (1991) "Dangerous Snakes of Australia", revised edition, Ure Smith Press

Wilson, S. and Swan, G. (2008) "A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia", Reed New Holland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Most Australians know of tiger snakes and are aware of their fearsome reputation, though few people will ever encounter one. Unfortunately this species is much maligned because of its aggressive nature and toxic venom; however the tiger snake should be recognised as a great survivor, superbly adapted to some of the most inhospitable environments in Australia.

# data[].attributes.body
milk snakes ARE NOT VENOMOUS TO HUMANS. milk snakes live on rocky slops.
milk snakes eat lizards, birds, eggs, frogs and fish.
milk snakes lay about 10 eggs. milk snakes mate in early may and late June .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lampropeltis triangulum, commonly known as the or milksnake, is a species of kingsnake; 24 subspecies are currently recognized. Lampropeltis elapsoides, the scarlet kingsnake, was formerly classified as a 25th subspecies ( L. t. elapsoides), but is now recognized as a distinct species. The subspecies have strikingly different appearances, and many of them have their own common names. Some authorities suggest that this species could be split into several separate species. They are not venomous to humans.

Milk snakes can be found from the southeastern extreme of Canada through the eastern half of the United States.

Across the wide range of this species, habitat varies. Typically, milk snakes live in forested regions; however, they can also be found in swamps, prairie, farmland, rocky slopes, and sand dunes/beaches. In some situations, milk snakes also migrate seasonally, during the winter they move to higher and drier habitats for hibernation and moister habitats for the summer. Milk snakes enter hibernation from late October or November to mid-April.

There is a significant amount of variation among milk snakes in terms of size. Depending on subspecies, they can be as small as 14" (36cm) or as large as 72" (183cm) long. Adults in the wild apparently average from 38 to 225 g (1.3 to 7.9 oz) in North America. However, unusually large milk snakes can become rather bulkier than average-sized adults and potentially weigh up to 750 to 1,400 g (1.65 to 3.09 lb), though high weights as such are generally reported from captivity. Males typically are larger than females in maturity, although females can be bulkier than males similar in length as well. Generally more tropical populations, from Mexico and further south, reach larger adult sizes than milk snakes living in the temperate zones.

Milk snakes have smooth and shiny scales and their typical color pattern is alternating bands of red-black-yellow or white-black-red; however, red blotches instead of bands are seen in some populations. Some milk snakes have a striking resemblance to coral snakes, in Batesian mimicry, which likely scares away potential predators. Both milk snakes and coral snakes possess transverse bands of red, black, and yellow. Experts now recognize that common mnemonics that people use to distinguish between the deadly coral snake and the harmless milk snake are not 100% reliable. Some coral snakes do not have the typical banding colors or patterns. Examples of unreliable mnemonics commonly used:

"Red on yellow kill a fellow. Red on black venom lack"

"Red touches black, it's a friend of Jack. Red touches yellow, it's bad for a fellow."

Due to the many colors of the eastern milk snake ( L. t. triangulum), it can resemble the coral snake, corn snake, fox snake, scarlet snake, and most importantly, the venomous snake genera Agkistrodon and . Milk, fox, and scarlet snakes are killed because of a resemblance to the venomous pygmy rattlers. Juvenile milk snakes, which are more reddish than adults, are often killed because they are mistaken for copperheads. Enough distinction exists among the five to make the eastern milk snake fairly easy to identify. The eastern milk snakes also have a light-colored V-shaped or Y-shaped patch on their necks. One subspecies, L. t. gaigeae, is melanistic (almost all black) as an adult.

Milk snakes are mostly nocturnal, especially during summer months. They are primarily terrestrial and attempt to blend in with ground litter. However, they are able to climb and swim. These snakes tend to be secretive and remain hidden. When threatened, a milk snake will usually first try to escape. If cornered or harassed, it may vibrate its tail and strike energetically, though of course they are non-venomous, have only tiny teeth and their tails lack a rattle. Unless frightened, milk snakes move slowly. They are often fairly docile.

Young milk snakes typically eat crickets and other insects, slugs, and earthworms; in the western U.S., juveniles also feed on small lizards. Adults' diet is primarily small mammals, but frequently includes lizards (especially skinks). They are also known to eat birds and their eggs, frogs, fish, and other snakes.

Milk snakes are much more opportunistic eaters than the fox snake or corn snake. Although the diet of adult milk snakes primarily consists of rodents, they also have been known to consume a variety of other animals: birds and their eggs, other reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.

They are nocturnal hunters and are often found resting during the day in old barns and under wood. An old fable about milk snakes is that they suck cow udders to get milk. The story is entirely false, and is discredited by the fact that the milk snake is not physically capable of sucking milk from a cow's udder; however, milk snakes are frequently found in and around barns, making use of the cool and dark environment for a resting-place during the day, and the easily accessible infestations of rodents for a convenient food supply. This preference for barns, and consequently the company of cows, presumably gave rise to the fable.

Milk snakes are oviparous, laying an average of about 10 eggs per clutch, although that number may vary by region. The milk snake mates from early May to late June. In June and July, the female lays three to 24 eggs beneath logs, boards, rocks, and rotting vegetation. The eggs are oval in shape, and white in color. Eggs range from 2.5 cm to 4.2 cm (1 to 1.7 in) in length. The eggs incubate for about two months, and hatch around August or September. The average hatchling in Virginia measures 20.9 cm (8.2 in) in total length and weighs 4.1 g (0.14 oz).

Milk snakes typically live around 12 years, or up to 21 years in captivity. They reach maturity within three or four years.

The milk snake is listed as of least concern by the IUCN (a wildlife conservation union), but in some areas, they may face significant pressure due to pet-trade collection. Because of this species' attractiveness in the pet trade, many subspecies are now being bred in captivity for sale.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lampropeltis triangulum , commonly known as the or milksnake, is a species of kingsnake; 24 subspecies are currently recognized. Lampropeltis elapsoides, the scarlet kingsnake, was formerly classified as a 25th subspecies ( L. t. elapsoides), but is now recognized as a distinct species.

# data[].attributes.body
dice snakes live in Europe and Asia.
dice snakes eat fish , frogs, toads and tadpoles.
dice DON´T HAVE VENOM.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Dice snake

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom: | Animalia
Phylum: | Chordata
Class: | Reptilia
Order: | Squamata
Suborder: | Serpentes
Family: | Colubridae
Genus: | Natrix

Species:

N. tessellata

Binomial name

Natrix tessellata

(Laurenti, 1768)

Distribution of the Natrix tessellata
Synonyms

Coronella tessellata Laurenti, 1768
Coluber tessellatus Bonnaterre, 1790
Tropidonotus tessellatus, part., Wagler, 1830
Natrix tessellata Bonaparte, 1834
Tropidonotus tessellatus Boulenger, 1893[2]

The dice snake (Natrix tessellata) is a Eurasian nonvenomous snake belonging to the family Colubridae, subfamily Natricinae. It is also called water snake.[3]

Brief description[edit]

Illustration of dice snake (top) and grass snake (Natrix natrix) including underside

A dice snake in Umbria, Italy

Females are bigger than males. Their typical size is 1.0–1.3 m (39–51 in) long. Their color may vary from greyish green to brownish or almost black, with dark spots on the back. The belly is sometimes vividly coloured in yellow or orange, with black spots, very similar to dice, hence the name.

Biology[edit]

Living mainly near rivers, streams and lakes, it frequently feeds on fish. Sometimes, it feeds also on amphibians such as frogs, toads, and tadpoles.

Classified as nonvenomous, N. tessellata produces a potent antihemorrhagin in its serum[4] and has been said to produce a neurotoxin through a gland in its mouth.[5] As a defence, it spreads a very bad-smelling secretion from its cloaca. Another defence mechanism is thanatosis, playing dead.

During the mating season (March–May), they congregate in large groups. Egg-laying is usually in July, and one clutch consists of 10–30 eggs. The young snakes hatch in early September.

Dice snake observed along Caspian Sea in northern Iran

Dice snakes hibernate from October to April in dry holes near the water.

Distribution[edit]

The dice snake is found throughout much of Eurasia: Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Pakistan, Poland,[6] Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Yemen. The species is also present in Egypt.

Research projects[edit]

One of the most numerous populations lives in the vicinity of the ruins of Histria, in the Dobruja region, Romania. This population has been recently discovered to be threatened by a parasitic nematode of the genus Eustrongylides. Since 2005, the population from Histria has been receiving researchers' attention. For example, a joint Romanian–Swedish–Czech research program is focused on population biology studies and parasitic threats of this unique coastal population. An overview on Biology, Distribution and Conservation is given by Mebert (2011).[7]

References[edit]

1. ^ Mebert, K., Amr, Z.S.S., Al Johany, A.M.H., Aloufi, A.A.H., Jiang, J., Meyer, A., Sterijovski, B., Baha El Din, S., Pleguezuelos, J., Sá-Sousa, P., Corti, C., Ajtic, R., Tuniyev, S., Orlov, N.L., Ananjeva, N.B., Cogălniceanu, D., Andrén, C., Crnobrnja-Isailović, J., Aghasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Wilkinson, J., Üzüm, N., Podloucky, R., Kaya, U., Vogrin, M., Pérez Mellado, V., Cheylan, M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Schmidt, B., Lau, M., Borkin, L., Milto, K., Golynsky, E., Belouskova, A., Rustamov, A, Nuridjanov, D. & Munkhbayar, K. (2021). "Natrix tessellata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T157256A745071. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T157256A745071.en. Retrieved 21 February 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)

2. ^ Boulenger, G.A. 1893. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History), Volume I. London. pp. 233-234

3. ^ Cryptic diversity in a Eurasian water snake (Natrix tessellata, Serpentes: Colubridae): Evidence from mitochondrial sequence data and nuclear ISSR-PCR fingerprinting Organisms Diversity & Evolution Volume 9, Issue 3, 25 August 2009, Pages 201-214

4. ^ Borkow, Gadi; Gutierrez, Jose Maria; Ovadia, Michael (1994-12-15). "A potent antihemorrhagin in the serum of the non-poisonous water snake Natrix tessellata: isolation, characterisation and mechanism of neutralisation". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 1201 (3): 482–490. doi:10.1016/0304-4165(94)90080-9. ISSN 0304-4165. PMID 7803481.

5. ^ "Discovery Channel UK". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2018-03-17.

6. ^ Vlcek, Petr; Bartlomiej Najbar and Daniel Jablonski. (2010) First records of the Dice Snake (Natrix tessellata) from the North-Eastern part of the Czech Republic and Poland. Archived 2010-04-14 at the Wayback Machine Herpetology Notes 3:23-26

7. ^ Mebert, Konrad (ed.): The Dice Snake, Natrix tessellata: Biology, Distribution and Conservation of a Palaearctic Species. Mertensiella 18, 2011, pp. 1-456.

External links[edit]

List of reptiles of Italy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
needs additional citations for verification .improve this article by (Learn how and when to remove this template message ) adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.

# data[].attributes.body
ribbon snakes are found in pounds, streams and lakes. ribbon snakes eat salamanders, frogs, toads and tadpoles.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The ribbon snake ( Thamnophis saurita) is a common species of garter snake native to Eastern North America. It is a non-venomous species of snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The ribbon snake averages 16 to 35 inches (41 to 89 cm) in total length (including tail). It is dark brown with bright yellow stripes. The ribbon snake is not sexually dimorphic; however, females are normally thicker than their male counterparts.

The ribbon snake can be found in wet climates such as creek-beds, streams, lakes, wet woodlands, and marsh areas. The ribbon snake is active from April to October and hibernates during the winter months. Maturity is reached around 3 years of age.

The following four subspecies of ribbon snake are recognized as being valid:

(Eastern ribbon snake - T. s. saurita Linnaeus, 1766) - brown body with three distinctive stripes, typically yellow, one down the middle of the back and one down each side, that alternate with the brown body. Ranges from New York to Florida, west to the Mississippi River.

Northern ribbon snake - T. s. septentrionalis Rossman, 1963 - dark brown/black with yellow line down its back and often its sides; ranges from Maine through Ontario and Indiana.

(Southern ribbon snake or peninsula ribbon snake - T. s. sackenii Kennicott, 1859) - tan or brown; ranges from South Carolina south through Florida.

Bluestripe ribbon snake - T. s. nitae Rossman, 1963 - dark with light blue lateral stripes; Gulf Coast of north-central Florida.

: A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Thamnophis.

Ribbon snakes are typically found in aquatic and high-vegetation areas such as marshes, ponds, streams, and lakes. Since they hunt for ectothermic animals, they tend to live in areas that are mainly water, making it easier for them to swim and catch their prey. Although most of them live in aquatic areas, they also tend to reside in forests or higher rocky areas.

In order to hunt, ribbon snakes use a few of their senses including auditory and visual perception. Ribbon snakes do not eat warm-blooded prey, just as garter snakes, also of the genus Thamnophis, do not. Using their auditory and visual traits, they are able to prey upon newts, salamanders, frogs, toads, tadpoles, small fish, spiders, and earthworms. Meanwhile, they fall prey to mammals, birds, and larger amphibians and reptiles. Ribbon snakes rarely use any aggressive form of defense. Instead, they use their brown bodies to camouflage with the surrounding vegetation. Along with this, they flee and hide in dense patches of grass in which they will coil up and get as low to the ground as possible. Given that snakes consume their prey whole, small individuals are particularly constrained in the size and shape of prey that can be consumed. These smaller snakes compensate for their smaller body size by having larger heads.

Beginning in the spring, after hibernation, ribbon snakes begin to look for another snake with which to mate. Ribbon snakes are ovoviviparous snakes, meaning they give birth to live young. The live young tend to be born in the summer, in litters of 4 to 27 snakes. Ribbon snakes tend to mature after 2 to 3 years, which is when they will be able to start breeding. Ribbon snakes tend to breed once or twice each year after they mature.

Conant, Roger; Bridges, William (1939). What Snake Is That? A Field Guide to Snakes of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. (With 108 drawings by Edmond Malnate). New York and London: D. Appleton-Century Company. Frontispiece map + 163 pp. + Plates A-C, 1-32. (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 121-124 + Plate 23, figures 68, 69B).

Linnaeus C (1766). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Duodecima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 532 pp. (Coluber saurita, new species, p. 385). (in Latin).

Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures. ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 430-431 + Plate 43).

Schmidt KP, Davis DD (1941). Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp., 34 plates, 103 figures. (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 255-257 + Plate 28).

Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3 (paperback), ISBN 0-307-47009-1 (hardcover). (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 144-145).

Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates, a Division of Cornell University Press. 1,105 pp., 306 figures, 70 maps. (in 2 volumes). (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 824-828, 831-834, Figures 239, 241 + Map 59 on p. 767).

Zim HS, Smith HM (1956). Reptiles and Amphibians: A Guide to Familiar American Species: A Golden Nature Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster. 160 pp. (Thamnophis sauritus, pp. 105, 156).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The ribbon snake ( Thamnophis saurita) is a common species of garter snake native to Eastern North America. It is a non-venomous species of snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The ribbon snake averages 16 to 35 inches (41 to 89 cm) in total length (including tail).

# data[].attributes.body
some people call sea snakes coral reef snakes they live Indianan oceans.
sea snakes eat fish and eels.
sea snakes grow to 1.2 and 1.4

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sea snakes are closely related to Cobras. They are aquatic rather than land dwelling snakes. True sea snakes only live in water. Sea Snakes have adapted to a life in water and have small flattened heads that minimizes water resistance when they swim. The Sea Snakes body is compressed as an adaptation for swimming and the snakes are so thoroughly aquatic that they are either clumsy or slow when brought ashore.

Sea Snake Characteristics

Sea Snakes are only moderately large, rarely exceeding 2 metres in length, often with peculiarly small heads for their body size.

Only genus ‘Laticauda’ (which includes the Black Banded Sea Krait) has the typical broad ventral scales of snakes and it is often considered the least advanced of the sea snakes. Nevertheless, similar to cetaceans, their lungs still require them to surface occasionally to breathe. Oxygen intake through the skin has been demonstrated in sea snakes. Sea snakes like warm, tropical waters, however, when the water gets too warm, they swim down to cooler temperatures.

Transmitters attached to yellow-bellied sea snakes show they can dive to about 150 feet and can stay underwater for more than three hours. Like seabirds and sea turtles, sea snakes have special glands that collect extra salt from the blood. The snakess salt glands lie beneath their tongues. Each time a sea snake flicks its tongue, it is ejecting salt back into the ocean.

Sea snakes have specialized flattened tails for swimming and have valves over their nostrils which are closed underwater. Unlike eels, sea snakes lack gills or fins, instead having scales and spending much of their time underwater, they must surface regularly to breathe.

Sea Snake Habitat

Sea snakes are confined to the tropical oceans, chiefly the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. The yellow-bellied sea snake, (Pelamis platurus), extends to the eastern Pacific. The olive sea snake, (Aipysurus laevis), tends to live in reefs.

Sea Snake Behaviour and Diet

The yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus) is pelagic (living in open oceans or seas rather than waters adjacent to land or inland waters) and is seen on occasions floating in massive groups. Fish that come up to shelter under slicks provide food for the snakes. Occasionally these yellow-bellied sea snakes get washed up on beaches after storms and pose a hazard to children.

Sea snakes are aggressive only during the mating season in the winter, the sea snake is very curious and they become fascinated by elongated objects such as high pressure hoses.

The Sea snakes favourite food is fish. Sea snakes prey on fish (including eels) and crustaceans. A couple of species are specialised in eating fish eggs. Others are specialised in eating certain fish species.

Sea Snake Reproduction

Except for a single genus, all sea snakes are ovoviviparous (development of eggs that remain within the mothers body up until they hatch or are about to hatch.). The young are born alive in the water where they live out their entire life cycle. In some species, the young are quite large, sometimes up to half as long as their mother. The one exception is the genus ‘Laticauda’, which are oviparous (animals that lay eggs with little or no other embryonic development within the mother). Its five species all lay their eggs on land.

Sea Snake Venom

Sea snakes may not be the most venomous in the world, however, their venom is more toxic than that of Mojave rattlesnakes and king cobras. Sea snakes venom contains some of the same chemicals found in cobra venom, only more concentrated in form.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sea Snakes - Facts, Venom & Habitat Information

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sea snakes are closely related to Cobras. They are aquatic rather than land dwelling snakes. True sea snakes only live in water. Sea Snakes have adapted to a

# data[].attributes.body
gardener snakes have no venom like the green anaconda they can not hurt you.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Garter Snakes are a very common wild snake found across most of North America and Canada.

Any snake from the genus Thamnophis is a type of Garter snake.

It is common to find this species near gardens, ponds, forests and wetlands. This leads to many people calling them garden snakes.

Garters are easily identified by their small slender bodies and distinctive dorsal stripe.

Let us dive into 21 different types of garter snakes so you can learn how to identify them if you find one in your yard.

Garter Snakes

The garter snake is a general term used for any snake in the genus Thamnophis. However, many people mean actually mean the common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis) pictured above.

Common garter snakes live in a wide range of habitats across North America. They were first documented in 1758 and are divided into 13 subspecies.

Some of the most common subspecies include:

Eastern - found east of the Mississippi River and in Ontario.

Red-Sided - inhabits the Dakotas, Nebraska, Missouri and central Canada.

Valley garter - lives in northern California and up the Pacific coast to British Columbia.

The Thamnophis genus used to be considered an independent subfamily of the much larger Colubridae family. Garter Snakes were recently reclassified under the Natricidae family with other species such as the North American water snake.

In the wild it is common to find garter snakes near ponds, forests, grasslands and wetlands.

Their small size and adaptability mean they can easily live in different environments and habitats.

They are a solitary species that only aggregate over the winter to share communal dens as they brumate. They will later emerge in large numbers in the spring to breed. Their tendency to form masses of hundreds or thousands of snakes while mating is referred to as a breeding ball.

What Is The Difference Between A Garden Snake And A Garter Snake?

The difference between a garden snake and the garter species is misunderstood by many people. This has led to many families of snakes (e.g. Ribbon, Brown and Garter Snakes) being grouped together and called garden snakes.

Garden Snakes is a general term used for any species that is commonly found in yards. This can include the Garter species but also includes Copperheads and Ribbon snakes.

Garter snakes are a specific species of snake in the genus Thamnophis that are commonly found in gardens.

Are Garter Snakes Dangerous?

This species poses no threat to humans.

Garter Snakes are rear-fanged and mildly venomous, but this venom is extremely mild. It is designed to help them subdue and capture prey - not humans. Their venom is nothing to worry about. They are actually a very popular pet among reptile keepers.

Do Garter Snakes Bite?

It is rare for a Garter Snake to bite humans. They will only bite if there is nowhere for them to flee to. As they are mildly venomous a bite can cause itching and in some cases minor swelling.

Wild garter snakes will likely be shy and defensive when first discovered. This is normal.

You should not attempt to handle a wild individual unless they are relaxed. Keep in mind this species can move very quickly when they want to. Their small size means they can easily fit under rocks and evade being held.

How To Identify Garter Snakes

Garter Snakes vary widely in appearance, color and pattern.

There are a few key characteristics that can be used to identify many types of Garter Snakes.

Every garter snake has keeled scales and small heads with large eyes.

Many species are brown or black in base color. They then have a series of lighter stripes running down the length of their body. But, this does not apply to all species, as you will soon learn how to identify them!

Common Garter Snakes are normally bluish-gray or black. They have one bright stripe down their spine and a lighter cream stripe on either side of their body.

Types Of Garter Snakes

1. Common Garter Snake

The Common Garter Snake is one of the most widespread wild snakes in North America.

They have a large range across every state east of the Mississippi River and many states west of the Mississippi. Some species live in many parts of Canada too.

Common species have an olive, tan, gray or black base color with at least one cream longitudinal stripe. They normally grow to around two feet in length, but some very large individuals, reaching four feet.

There are actually 13 subspecies of Common Garter Snakes. Each subspecies has a unique color and pattern. Red-Sided subspecies have bright red or orange side markings.

2. Eastern Garter Snake

The Eastern Garter Snake is one of the most commonly encountered snakes in the Eastern United States. This snake can be found anywhere east of the Mississippi River to Vermont and New Hampshire and south of Ontario to the Florida Keys.

Eastern Garters come in different patterns and colors depending on which region they come from.

Their base color is normally a shade of tan, olive, brown or black. The pattern varies from stripes, blotches or spots that can be cream, yellow, gold or even blue.

Most individuals have at least one longitudinal stripe (normally on the spine).

This species normally grows from 18 to 26 inches.

3. Albino Garter Snake

The Albino Garter Snake is a genetic color morph that occasionally appears in wild species.

It is very rare to see this snake in a yard.

Many Albinos are part of a reptile collection that have been bred from a Checkered and Plains Garter Snake.

The difference in this species is their color. Their pattern and size do not differ from wild-types.

Normal Garter Snakes are typically olive, gray or black with yellowish markings. Albinos are a combination of white, cream, yellow, orange and peach. They also have iconic pink albino eyes.

4. California Red-Sided Garter Snake

Species: Thamnophis marcianus.

Color: White, cream, yellow, orange and peach.

The California Red-Sided Garter Snake is one of the most striking snakes in this list.

As their red common name suggests this snake has very bright red markings on its side. If you have one in your yard, they'll be quite hard to miss with their striking appearance.

California Red-Sided species have red heads and black bodies with red bars along the side. The vertebral stripe is the same color as their belly which is normally cream.

This type of Garter snake is found in California and along the central and Northern coast.

5. Blue-Striped Garter Snake

The Bluestripe Garter Snake is one of many subspecies of the Common Garter Snake.

Blue-Striped Garter Snakes have the same dark gray base color as most Garters, but their stripes look as if they were painted on with a blue highlighter. They have blue stripes running down the top and sides of their body. The blue sides end on a ventral surface that is normally a blueish-white.

Interestingly this subspecies has a very small range along the Gulf Coast of Florida from Apalachee Bay to Tampa Bay.

This species is not known to grow particularly big and reaches 18 to 26 inches in length.

6. Checkered Garter Snake

The Checkered Garter Snake can be found in many parts of Texas and parts of New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas and Mexico.

These snakes generally have a tan to olive base color with a bright vertebral stripe.

Checkered Garters have a checkerboard pattern of light and dark markings unlike the normal stripes of many Garters in this list. Checkered species also have dark stripes below their eye.

Albino species are also popular and occur naturally in the wild. They are also well-established in the pet trade.

7. Plains Garter Snake

The Plains Garter Snake has a large range across the central United States and southern Canada.

They have a similar appearance to several species such as the Common, Butler's and Black-Necked Garter Snake.

Plains Garters have a bold vertebral stripe ranging from light cream to a golden yellow-orange.

Their sides can be solid black or made up of a series of darker markings across a cream, olive or gray base. Some individuals have a reddish base but this is rare.

Although they can grow larger most species grow to 28 inches.

8. Red-Sided Garter Snake

The Red Sided Garter Snake is one of many types of Garter Snakes. This subspecies is found farther North than any other species and has a large range across the Midwestern United States and well into Canada. However, they are not very common so it is rare to see them in a garden or yard.

Red Sided individuals have a dark olive, brown or black base color with a light cream or yellow vertebral stripe.

As their name suggests they have a series of red or orange bars on their sides.

Some snakes have a red and black pattern (like the checkerboard) and others have very small amounts of red.

Red-Sided Garters typically grow from 18 to 26 inches.

9. Black-Necked Garter Snake

There are two different subspecies of Black-Necked Garter Snake:

Black Necked Garter Snakes live in Texas, New Mexico and some parts of Colorado.

These snakes are easy to spot because of the black markings that run on the side of their necks. This species also has a bright, yellow to orange stripe that runs down its spine.

The pattern on the sides of their body is variable but often has yellow blotches. In some individuals the cream blotches extend giving them a striped appearance.

10. Chicago Garter Snake

1. The Eastern Black-Necked.

2. The Western Black-Necked.

Chicago Garter Snakes are found around the Chicago area of Illinois, Indiana and Wisconsin. They share part of their range with the Eastern Garter Snake.

At first glance this snake looks just like a Common Garter. They are black, gray, olive or tan with cream or yellow longitudinal stripes. After a few seconds you should be able to notice this species has vertical black bars on its neck.

The adult Chicago species normally grow to around three feet long.

Due to their small range and similar appearance this snake is often misidentified.

11. Western Terrestrial Garter Snake

The Western Terrestrial Garter Snake is a complex species made up of several subspecies.

Each subspecies have different ranges, appearances and common names. This is the reason why Western Terrestrials have some of the greatest variability of all Garter Snakes.

All Western species have longitudinal stripes. But, these stripes can be very well-defined or not very defined at all. Their background can be solid, blotched or checkerboard. The base color is normally gray to black. Some individuals can have more brown or tan coloring.

The pattern can be white, cream, yellow, orange, red, brown or even blue.

Their appearance is based upon the subspecies and location. Western Terrestrials are found throughout the Western United States, Southwestern Canada and Baja California.

12. Blackbelly Garter Snake

Blackbelly Garter Snakes are one of the more unique species in this list.

Unlike many snakes in the genus Thamnophis, Blackbellies have solid-colored bodies which is very unusual.

Colors can be tan, gray, olive, brown, reddish, or jet-black. Some individuals are solid black or brown with red undersides. Their vertebral stripes and blotches are present but are often faint.

Blackbelly Garters do not grow very big and only reach two feet.

Species: Thamnophis elegans ssp.

Range: Western United States, Southwestern Canada and Baja California.

Markings: Longitudinal stripes, blotches, checkerboard or little pattern.

There are several subspecies of Blackbelly Garter Snakes found in central Mexico.

Due to the fact they are only found in Mexico you are unlikely to see one in your yard!

13. New Mexico Garter Snake

New Mexico Garter Snakes are only found in a small area of New Mexico.

Due to their small range it is not common to see them in the wild.

These snakes have similar patterns to other Garter Snakes with a yellow to cream vertebral stripe and two longitudinal stripes.

Their base color is the typical brown, olive, gray or black. Sometimes they have red in their base pattern between the scales.

14. Santa Cruz Garter Snake

Santa Cruz Garter Snakes are normally called the Aquatic Garter Snake.

This subspecies inhabits a very small range in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California. It is very common to find them around bodies of water in California.

Santa Cruz snakes are a distinctive type of Garter Snake with a simple yet elegant color pattern.

These snakes have a grayish body color with darker blotches. They also have a broad vertebral stripe that is cream, yellow or orange.

The Santa Cruz Garters are larger than most snakes on this list. They can grow up to about 40 inches in length.

15. Valley Garter Snake

Valley Garter species are found in the Western United States and areas of Southwestern Canada.

This snake has very interesting colors, patterns and eyes.

These Garters have a gray, olive or black background color with cream, yellow or white longitudinal stripes. Valley Garters sometimes have red markings above the stripe on the side of their body. Aberrant individuals are sometimes found in solid black with red markings.

Their size is similar to most Common species at two to three feet in length.

16. Texas Garter Snake

Texas Garter Snakes can be found in several different color variations.

Most Texan snakes have a dark olive or black base color with longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. The vertebral stripe can be cream-yellow but is often a pale orange. The side stripes can be bright white.

In vibrant individuals the white, black and orange colors create a beautiful contrast.

These snakes are not very common but they are striking enough to easily identify.

17. Short-Headed Garter Snake

Short Headed Garters are a small and cute species.

These snakes look similar to the Butler's Garter but have some unique characteristics that make identifying them easier.

Short Headed species have very short heads and blunt snouts.

They have a brown background color with lighter cream, tan, or dull gold longitudinal stripes. In rare individuals these stripes are very vivid.

Finally, this species is very small for a Garter Snake. Full grown adults are always under two feet.

18. San Francisco Garter Snake

San Francisco Garter Snakes are considered the most beautiful snake on the planet.

They stand alone among all other species of Garter Snake due to their amazing and unique appearance.

San Francisco species are one of the most recognizable snakes on the planet.

The colors start at the vertebral stripe and go down the body in blue, black, red, black, and blue again. These snakes are similar to the Red-Sided species but are far more vibrant.

Color and patterns vary slightly, but you should expect this Garter to have longitudinal stripes of black, red and electric blue. The head is typically solid red and the underside is a beautiful electric blue or teal.

Unfortunately this subspecies is becoming increasingly rare and is classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

19. Butler's Garter Snake

Butler's Garter Snakes have a very general appearance.

This species has a black to brown background color that is broken up by three parallel stripes that run along their body. One stripe goes down the spine, the other two run along the ribs on each side.

They have keeled scales giving them a rough texture.

Butler's snakes can be found in Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana and Ohio. They are considered threatened in some of these ranges.

20. Narrow Headed Garter Snake

Narrow Headed Garter snakes are only found in a small section of mountains in central Arizona and New Mexico. These snakes are protected in Arizona so it is illegal to hunt, harass or collect them.

These snakes are sometimes called Narrow Headed Water Snakes. But, their narrow pointed head makes them unlike most Water Snakes. This is one of two reasons why the Narrow Headed Garter Snake is so unique. The other is that they do not have any longitudinal stripes.

These snakes are variable in color, but their pattern normally consists of a series of brown, gray or orange spots running down the length of the body.

21. Giant Garter Snake

Giant Garter Snakes are the biggest Garter Snake. They typically grow four feet long and so are twice the average size of most Garters on this list!

This species is only found in central California valleys where unfortunately their range is decreasing due to habitat degradation. They are no longer found in much of their historic range and are considered threatened by extinction.

Like most species, the Giant Garter has a brown, olive or black base colors with a cream yellow vertebral stripe.

Their underside is typically grayish and some individuals have blotches down their sides.

The Garter snake is an often misidentified garden snake.

They are small, active and very adaptable. Garters adjust easily to different habitats and are known to live nearby lakes, forests, mountains, grasslands, wetlands and gardens!

If you find this species in your yard they will likely be shy and defensive.

By educating people and letting them know about these beautiful species we hope that more people will protect them and be up to date on their conservation.
Have you seen a type of Garter Snake that is not mentioned on this list? Let us know below...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
20+ Types Of Garter Snakes: How to Identify These Garden Snakes - Everything Reptiles

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Garter Snakes are a very common wild snake found across most of North America and Canada. Any snake from the genus Thamnophis is a type of Garter snake. It is common to find this species near gardens, ponds, forests and Read More →

# data[].attributes.body
Night Snake live grasslands and desert.
NIGHT SNAKES ARE NOT VENOM'S to humans.
night snakes eat lizards, rattlesnakes, frogs, eggs and insets.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The night snake ( Hypsiglena torquata) is a species of rear-fanged colubrid. It is found from British Columbia, Canada through the western United States to Mexico.

Subspecies previously recognized within H. torquata

Most of the following information refers to various species within Hypsiglena.

Total length is 12-26 in (30-66 cm). It is pale gray, light brown, or beige in color, with dark grey or brown blotches on the back and sides. The night snake's head is rather flat and triangular-shaped and usually has a pair of dark brown blotches on the neck. It also has a black or dark brown bar behind the eyes that contrast against the white or pale gray upper labial scales, and the pupil of the eye is vertical. The belly is white or yellowish. Females are usually longer and heavier than males.

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.

Although the night snake poses no threat to humans, it is slightly venomous and uses this venom to subdue its prey.

The night snake has been found as far north as southern British Columbia, and as far south as Guerrero, Mexico. The eastern range of the night snake extends to Texas. Still, not much is known as far as population densities and exact range due to the highly cryptic nature of the night snake.

The night snake is found in many differing types of habitat including: grasslands, deserts, sagebrush flats, chaparral, woodlands, thorn scrub, thorn forest, and mountain meadows. Both rocky and sandy areas are inhabited by night snakes, and elevations over 8,500 ft (2,600 m) have been recorded. The night snake is also known to inhabit mammal burrows.

Night snakes are known to be both crepuscular (most active at dawn and dusk), and nocturnal. They are usually seen at night while crossing roads, but can be found under rocks, boards, dead branches and other surface litter during the day. Night snakes hibernate during the winter months, and are known to aestivate during periods of the summer. They are generally most active from April to October, with peaks of activity usually occurring in June. If threatened, the night snake may coil up and thrust its coils at the threat, while flattening its head into a triangular defensive shape.

Their main prey is lizards. A study in southwestern Idaho found that the night snake's diet consisted mostly of side-blotched lizards ( Uta stansburiana) and their eggs. Other prey includes juvenile rattlesnakes and blind snakes, salamanders, frogs, and large insects.

Night snakes mate in the spring, and females lay a clutch of 2-9 eggs from April to August. Eggs hatch in 7 to 8 weeks, usually in late summer. Males reach sexual maturity after one year.

Night snakes are known to be docile and easily handled. Captive night snakes have lived over 12 years.

Behler JL, King FW. 1979. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp. ISBN 0-394-50824-6. (Hypsiglena torquata, pp. 616-617 + Plate 586).

Boulenger GA. 1894. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume II., Containing the Conclusion of the Colubridæ Aglyphæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xi + 382 pp. + Plates I- XX. (Hypsiglena torquata, p. 210; see also H. ochrorhynchus, pp. 209-210, and H. affinis, pp. 210-211 + Plate VIII, Figure 1).

Conant R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. xviii + 429 pp. ISBN 0-395-19979-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-395-19977-8 (paperback). (Hypsiglena torquata, pp. 217_218 + Plate 33 + Map 170).

Conant R, Bridges W. 1939. What Snake Is That? A Field Guide to the Snakes of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. (With 108 drawings by Edmond Malnate). New York and London: D. Appleton-Century. Frontispiece map + viii + 163 pp. + Plates A-C, 1-32. (Leptodeira torquata ochrorhyncha, pp. 128-129 + Plate 25, Figure 74).

Günther A. 1860. Description of Leptodeira torquata, a new Snake from Central America. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Third Series 5: 168-170 + Plate X., Figure A.

Schmidt KP, Davis DD. 1941. Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp. (Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha, pp. 259-260, Figure 84 + Plate 29, center, on p. 349).

Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr. 1982. Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3. (Hypsiglena torquata, pp. 176-177).

Stebbins, RC. 2003. A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Third Edition. The Peterson Field Guide Series. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. xiii + 533 pp. ISBN 0-395-98272-3. (Hypsiglena torquata, pp. 403-404 + Plate 46 + Map 180).

Wright AH, Wright AA. 1957. Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Ithaca and London: Comstock. 1,105 pp. (in 2 volumes). (Genus Hypsiglena, pp. 314-317, Map 30; species Hypsiglena torquata, pp. 318-330, Figures 97-101).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The night snake ( Hypsiglena torquata) is a species of rear-fanged colubrid. It is found from British Columbia, Canada through the western United States to Mexico. Most of the following information refers to various species within Hypsiglena. Total length is 12-26 in (30-66 cm).