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Liu 2024: As Evrigenis points out, ‘[e]ven the most up-to-date information did not disprove Hobbes’s claim entirely, for there were many tribes whose political structure was based on familial ties and clans, and which were therefore more akin to the large families of De Cive than to its large and lasting societies’.

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A colonial reading often stresses that the frontispiece of De Cive exposes Hobbes’s concealed intention to justify European colonization of America. Current studies suggest that the image of Libertas on the frontispiece of De Cive is inspired by and alludes to America.12 The lower section of the frontispiece is divided into two contrasting parts. The left is the civilized, prosperous, and peaceful Imperivm, referring to European civil life; while the right is the savage, brutish, and bloody Libertas, referring to American anarchy. Inspired by that study, Aravamudan maintains that Hobbes presents ‘European sovereignty, “Imperivm”, as a combination of conquest and contract, demanding sovereign subjection but enforcing an imperial peace’. At the same time, with a deliberate construction of the American state of nature, Hobbes makes Americans in ‘a properly political moment, when individuals band together to offer their obedience to a sovereign who will protect them from insecurity in exchange for the comforts of government. By thus superimposing a myth regarding the birth of politics on the general background of the European conquest of America, Hobbes simultaneously denies America’s political past even as he implies American consent to colonization’.13 Similarly, Moloney holds that ‘Hobbes constructed the sovereignty acknowledged among European states on the supposition of the absence of sovereignty in the New World’. And ‘by constructing savages as absolutely free individuals in the state of nature, he precluded their recognition as free sovereign states’.14 Chignola also maintains that ‘freeing up space to legitimize the English interests in overseas lands ... is undoubtedly the primary meaning of the opposition between “Imperium” and “Libertas” in the frontispiece’.15 Nevertheless, Springborg in a more nuanced reading refuses this line of interpretation. She argues that ‘Hobbes’s texts do not support such a view, and certainly not Moloney’s postcolonial conclusion’.16 In fact, the colonial reading omits some important facts. It ignores the majority of Hobbes’s references to the Amerindians, only choosing to concentrate on some of them, especially the frontispiece of De Cive, which is an allusion to Americans. Moreover, even when analysing some of them, the analysis divorces these references or allusions from Hobbes’s integral political theory, with the consequence of distorting Hobbes’s real purpose

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Pat Moloney: Hobbes’s state of nature/ civil society dichotomy was designed to legitimize colonialism.

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Knowledge of 'America'

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Malcolm also notes that ‘Hobbes’s attendance at Courts of the Virginia Company sometimes coincided with that of Samuel Purchas’, author of Purchas his Pilgrimes, in the opinion of Hobbes’s biographer Aubrey, the best account of the Virginia expedition.

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The moment of Hobbes’s formal entry into the Company deliberations on 19 June was circumstantially significant. News had just come to London by the Seaflower a few days earlier about the killing of approximately 340 English settlers during an insurrection led by the new Powhatan outside chief, Opechancanough, on 22 March. By August, the Company was recommending ‘wherefore as they haue merited let them haue a pr petuall warre wth out peace or truce’. Urging full extermination by October, the Company nonetheless suggested that the young be preserved, ‘whose bodies may, by labor and service become profitable, and theire minde not overgrowne wth evill Customes, be reduced to civilitie, and afterwarde to Christianitie’.

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These ethnographic observations are supplemented by knowledge of other cultural details such as royal funerary rituals and burial sites. Villages are shown as neatly laid out and there is a sophisticated deployment of agricultural practices. Hobbes was almost certainly aware of Smith’s and Harriot’s narratives as well as favourable representations of Algonquian settlements such as John White’s watercolours, which were, in turn, reproduced in Theodore de Bry’s engravings for Harriot’s Virginian narrative.20 Smith recognizes the existence of magistrates and a form of monarchy, while ‘one as Emperour ruleth ouer many Kings or Governours’.21 Furthermore, ‘they all know their severall lands, and habitations, and limits, to fish, foule, or hunt in, but they hold all of their great Werowance, Powhatan [Wahunsonacock], vnto whom they pay tribute of skinnes, beads, copper, pearle, deere, turkies, wild beasts, and corne. What he commandeth they dare not disobey in the least thing.’

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Jamestown Massacre as Caesura in Hobbes' thinking?

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John Smith observes that ‘they [the Algonquians] seldome make warre for lands or goods, but for women and children, and principally for revenge’.

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Accounts of the political structure of the native groups by contemporary observers acknowledge them as highly organized, constituting a system of petty states in shifting alliances of mutual conflict and cooperation, warmaking and trading.

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James Tully: 'bad faith' employment of America trope by John Locke

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requires breaking with/ denying knowledge of Indigenous sovereignty, instead state of nature

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Theorizing from Virginia, on the other hand, meant that Hobbes has to occlude or write over the presence of native forms of sovereignty, and indeed political society, and instead cast his lot with a notion of radical break between modern sovereignty and a premodern state of nature.

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Indigenous Sovereignty

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I will argue that the interchange between English political philosophy and northern North America (which is what Hobbes and Locke mostly mean by the loose designation ‘America’) was a complex dialectic between new developments in politics and history, whether deemed to be theory-inthe-mind or facts-on-the ground. Northern North America was no random site for such theorizations. More than a century after the Spanish encounter with America, English Protestant political theory needed the impetus of recent events stemming from colonial ventures to be able to come up with new justifications for sovereignty that had implications for both state and empire. p. 41

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Aravamudas 39: Why was ‘America’ such a powerful site for the origin myths of seventeenth-century English political philosophy? By focusing on the continent as well as the myth, were political philosophers such as Hobbes and Locke escaping history or supplementing it?

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Nyquist: Libertas is a woman,
according to Nyquist, but a masculine or masculinized one. Holding a bow in one
hand and a spear in the other, she is emaciated, hunched over, and wretched.
Apparently, she resembles portraits of Matoaka (commonly known by her derogatory nickname, Pocahontas). Behind her are scenes of war, brutality, and
destitution; there are even signifiers of cannibalism (a human arm being roasted
on a spit). Life under Libertas is violent and horrific.
Nyquist calls the 1642 Libertas “unmistakably Amerindigene,” 53 and there
is a widespread consensus among scholars that this is the case.54 The image can
be traced back to John White’s earliest representations of Native Americans in
England in the 1580s, which were in turn popularized by Theodore de Bry. The
particular image of cannibalism in the background of Libertas copies one of de
Bry’s depictions For Nyquist, specific features of the image of Libertas imply a link to the
Amazons; in fact, she calls the image “Amazonian Libertas.” 57 The gender-
ambiguous savage is armed and has a belt strapped around her right breast, the
one the Amazons cut off so they could better hold their weapons. Nyquist points
out ways in which seventeenth-century representations of indigenous American
people look Amazonian and the continuity between those representations and
Hobbes’s Libertas. This symbolism, she claims, would have been obvious for
Hobbes and his audience </

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Christov: Further in the

background, cannibals roast human flesh from a hanging limb, which is

reminiscent of Garcilasso de Vega’s travel accounts of the Americas

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Robbins 2020: The European settlers of America
thus “brought with them a head full of monsters and a well-practiced tendency
to define the cultural and religious other in terms of monstrosity.”43 Consequently, ;Native Americans were frequently depicted, in the European imagination, as lustful
cannibals that worshipped the Devil.44 As we have seen, Hobbes describes them as
lustful in Leviathan, while De Cive’s cover depicts them as cannibals and implies
their association with the devilish beings in its upper portion <

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Evrigenis 2014: The state of nature is represented on the right-hand side by

an armed Algonquian Indian l anked by scenes of savage cruelty, including

a manhunt and cannibalism.

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closely follows known ideas of Powhatan villages

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Huts in the background appear similar to White/de Bry's images of settlements in Virginia.

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The choice of feather gear relies on stereotypes that are more than a century old by the mid-seventeenth century. In publications purporting to depict the New World, this costume was used again and again, even if this imagery did not match up with the texts they were supposed to illustrate.

The recurring use of feathers in these publications made images of various cultures and ethnic groups encountered in the New World completely interchangeable to the early modern reader in Europe.

The figure of Libertas is clothed in this way to convey a flattened and stereotypical image of uncivilized peoples.

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vielleicht hier diese Jagdszene von De Bry?

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Abweichung von De Bry

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Comment Lucy: Although Pat Moloney convincingly argues that the Hobbes frontispiece should be read within the tradition of the allegory of the continents (depicting Old and New Worlds) he overlooks the very specific visual language of the Hobbes frontispiece which is not the same as any of the examples mentioned by Moloney.

--> costume does not match

--> physiognomy does not match

Additionally, it is interesting that all of these examples draw from different traditions of representing America.

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Skinner 2021: This was the work of Jean Matheus, the printer of the book. You might wonder, however, if there is any reason to suppose that Hobbes was involved in, or even approved of, this attempt to portray his argument. The answer is I think that he must have been deeply involved. Figure 2 shows the frontispiece of the manuscript copy of De cive that Hobbes presented to his patron, the earl of Devonshire, in 1641, some months in advance of its printing, and as you can see it is the same design. But surely Hobbes would hardly have offered it to his patron if he did not approve of it himself.

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Dorf

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Hobbes also used the expressive power of a frontispiece for De

Cive, printed in contrast to the signed parchment manuscript64

anonymously in 1642 (Pl. 8). Engraved by Parisian Jean Matheus,65

it contains three fields that depict the three sections of the book.

The upper field of ‘Religio’ presents the eschatological Christ in

the center, who is orchestrating final judgment, with the redemption

displayed at the left and damnation at the right. The statue

of ‘Imperivm’, at the left edge of the lower picture band, whose

crown embodies legitimacy, the scale of justice, and the sword of

state authority, reigns over a peaceful country life displayed in the

center that corresponds to a city situated on a hill in the background.

Behind the churlish Indian of the lupine natural state of

‘Libertas’,66 two natives are being chased by three archers and a

warrior armed with a club, while at the right edge of the picture,

two cannibals are dressing the dismembered remains of a young

girl. In the background, the palisade-enclosed huts can be seen,

behind which a leaping beast of prey symbolizes the animalistic

counterpart.

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Hintergrundszenen

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Imperium/Libertas

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Himmel

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Skinner 2021: Entwurf1641

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Bredekamp 2020: For Hobbes, images

achieve their political function not through acts of iconoclasm or image-producing human sacrifice but rather by deterring destruction. Through the ‘terror’ of their pictorial power, they support those authorities that are in a position to punish destruction.

It is no accident that there has been no philosopher or

theorist of state before or since who so emphatically pursued visual strategies as core political theory.

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Relevanz zu Jamestown-Massaker

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Gewaltdarstellung

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Kannibalismus

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Rock

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Figur allgemein

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Politische Bildsprache bei Hobbes (Lutz)

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Politische Bildsprache bei Hobbes (Lutz)

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Amerikabilder und Zirkulation Generell (Lucy)

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Amerikabilder und Zirkulation Generell (Lucy)

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Springborg: This famous description of the state of nature, read carefully, simply describes pre-political society according to the classic Epicurean account exemplified by Lucretius — we see this, for instance, in Hobbes’s emphasis on knowledge acquisition, and the arts and sciences, as essential to the transition from hunter-gatherer to civil society. But in this case Hobbes applies it specifically to colonial America, as viewed through the lens of a Virginia Company member in the aftermath of the Jamestown massacre. 153 Such a reading has textual support in Hobbes’s juxtaposition, one paragraph later, of his unflattering characterization of the belligerence of Native American peoples — in which the critical statement about government is embedded

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Skinner 2022: The frontispiece of De cive copies several

features of de Bry’s landscape, but at the same time transforms it into something

much more sinister. Again we see four hunters, three similarly armed with bows

and arrows. But in this case they are shooting at two fellow human beings who

are running for their lives, while a fourth stands ready to strike them down with

a club

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Entwurf1641

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Skinner 2021: This was the work of Jean Matheus, the printer of the book. You might wonder, however, if there is any reason to suppose that Hobbes was involved in, or even approved of, this attempt to portray his argument. The answer is I think that he must have been deeply involved. Figure 2 shows the frontispiece of the manuscript copy of De cive that Hobbes presented to his patron, the earl of Devonshire, in 1641, some months in advance of its printing, and as you can see it is the same design. But surely Hobbes would hardly have offered it to his patron if he did not approve of it himself.

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Cannibalism often exaggerated in de Bry publications.

"Gasparo Balbi, a Venetian jeweller recording the adventures of his overland journey to Asia, noted that the islanders of Carnalcubar, in the Indian Ocean, “were fond of human flesh”. The De Brys subsequently altered Balbi’s observation by stating, in German, that “they ate nothing but human flesh”, only to leave the original testimony more or less

unchanged for their Latin version." p. 134

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Figure 2. Hans and the Tupinikins. Source: Letts, Hans Staden, 82.

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Figure 5. Eating Another Slave. Source: Letts, Hans Staden, 100.

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if ‘[p]ast centuries show us nations,

now civilized and flourishing, whose inhabitants then were few, savage, short

lived, poor and mean, and lacked all the comforts and amenities of life which peace and society afford . . . [t]he present century presents an example of this

in the Americans

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Theodore de Bry imagery of cannibalism in Brazil based on the travel account of Hans Staden (who travelled to Brazil twice) and whose original publication featured some more crude woodcuts

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It may peradventure be thought, there was never such a time nor condition of war as this; and I believe it was never generally so, over all the world. But there are many places where they live so now. For the savage people in many places of America (except the government of small families, the con-

cord whereof dependeth on natural lust) have no government at all, and live at this day in that brutish manner as I said before. Howsoever, it may be perceived what manner of life there would be where there were no common power to fear, by the manner of life which men that have formerly lived under a peaceful government use to degenerate into, in a civil war.

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Springborg: Hobbes Virginia Company experience and,

specifically, lurid accounts of the Jamestown massacre, were probably the source of his negative judgment of ‘savages of America’ characterizing the

state of nature.

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Bredekamp 2020: For Hobbes, images

achieve their political function not through acts of iconoclasm or image-producing human sacrifice but rather by deterring destruction. Through the ‘terror’ of their pictorial power, they support those authorities that are in a position to punish destruction.

It is no accident that there has been no philosopher or

theorist of state before or since who so emphatically pursued visual strategies as core political theory.

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Richard Hakluyt presented Theodore de Bry with John White’s watercolours in the late 1580s and hoped that the Frankfurt publisher would achieve two goals:

1. to inform Europeans of the Tudor claims to Virginia

2. India Occidentalis I was meant to convince English readers of the attractiveness of the New World for setting

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Imperium zeigt gegen Himmel, Libertas gegen Erde

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Captain John Smith's General History of Virginia (1624)

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Hans Burgkmair, Natives of Africa and India, 1508, woodcut, c. 245-285 x 2,306 mm.

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Hans Burgkmair's woodcut frieze is supposedly the earliest representation of Native American peoples based on visual, rather than literary evidence in Northern Europe. (This claim is made by Mark McDonald, however, I can't find any evidence that these were actually drawn from life. Other sources cite Christoph Weiditz as the first to represent Native American peoples from life in 1529. This seems more realistic.). It was commissioned to illustrate a brief report by Balthasar Springer of a voyage by German traders.

--> Springer's text was so popular that it was translated into Latin, Flemish, and much later into English

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Hobbes also used the expressive power of a frontispiece for De

Cive, printed in contrast to the signed parchment manuscript64

anonymously in 1642 (Pl. 8). Engraved by Parisian Jean Matheus,65

it contains three fields that depict the three sections of the book.

The upper field of ‘Religio’ presents the eschatological Christ in

the center, who is orchestrating final judgment, with the redemption

displayed at the left and damnation at the right. The statue

of ‘Imperivm’, at the left edge of the lower picture band, whose

crown embodies legitimacy, the scale of justice, and the sword of

state authority, reigns over a peaceful country life displayed in the

center that corresponds to a city situated on a hill in the background.

Behind the churlish Indian of the lupine natural state of

‘Libertas’,66 two natives are being chased by three archers and a

warrior armed with a club, while at the right edge of the picture,

two cannibals are dressing the dismembered remains of a young

girl. In the background, the palisade-enclosed huts can be seen,

behind which a leaping beast of prey symbolizes the animalistic

counterpart.

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Schoneveld 1982

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Stephanie Leitch argues that while early publications capitalized on thrilling alterity, later publications of the mid-seventeenth century preferred the familiar, as audiences favored recognizable images. (See p. 98.)

De Bry in particular reworded several motifs borrowing from Zacharias Heyns rather that staying faithful to the text that he was illustrating.

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"Frequently repeated attributes, such as that of the feather skirt originally developed for denizens of the Americas, travelled widely enough to defy geographical traceability. Instead of challenging credulity, the particularity of pirated designs of monsters actually managed to bridge vast distances by naturalizing the exotic. I argue that the reiteration of these motifs in a variety of genres – a result of the interpenetration of travel, costume, chronicle, and cartography – shored up their authority and made the marvellous familiar to the consumers."

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Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century printers drew from a steady repertoire of images whose repetition was part of the accrediting mechanism of early modern text technology. This chapter focuses on sustainable images and motifs that were borrowed and copied within the ambient of the early modern travel publishing. Publishers like Theodor de Bry and Levinus Hulsius employed entrepreneurial marketing schemes that relied on the recycling of earlier motifs that would have been recognizable to consumers. Among the most sustainable images were those designed to explain the results of encounters with humans from other continents. While perhaps predictably exotic, many of these images were, in some respects, familiar to their reader/viewers. Their iconography sometimes referenced the classical tradition or evoked the format of costume literature. Publishers, for example, borrowed the wings and pouch of Roman gods like Mercury to familiarize non-Europeans. Frequently repeated attributes, such as that of the feather skirt originally developed for denizens of the Americas, travelled widely enough to defy geographical traceability. Instead of challenging credulity, the particularity of pirated designs of monsters actually managed to bridge vast distances by naturalizing the exotic. I argue that the reiteration of these motifs in a variety of genres - a result of the interpenetration of travel, costume, chronicle, and cartography - shored up their authority and made the marvellous familiar to the consumers.

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Copies with Wings | 4 | Bridging Distances by Printing the Familiar in

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Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century printers drew from a steady repertoire of images whose repetition was part of the accrediting mechanism of early modern text

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Srinivas Aravamudan claims that the frontispiece is "based recognizably on John White's watercolours and Theodore De Bry's engravings" (p. 54).

Pat Moloney also mentions that both Quentin Skinner and Richard Tuck give attention to these engravings as a source.

--> however, this frontispiece is clearly based on a much broader cosmos of imagery which a well-versed engraver would have been very familiar with.

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Newe Welt vnd americanische Historien is the second edition of an abridgement of the German text of the Grands Voyages, a series of illustrated exploration narratives that were originally published 1590-1634 by the de Bry firm. The copperplate engravings were made by Theodore de Bry (1528-1598), his sons Johann Israel de Bry (died 1611) and Johann Theodor de Bry (1561-1623?), and other family members. The engravings were not firsthand depictions but rather were based on source material that the de Bry firm obtained for publication.

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Merian: Jamestown Massacre (1628)

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S. 229 "Aufruhr gegen die Spanier"

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John White, ca. 1585

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De Bry after John White: The Town of Pomeiooc (1590)

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De Bry: Battle between Tuppin tribes, from 'Newe Welt und Americanische Historien' by Johann Ludwig Gottfried, published by Mattaeus Merian, Frankfurt, 1631 (engraving)

https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/neweweltvndameri00gott/neweweltvndameri00gott.pdf

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Thomas Hobbes ( HOBZ ; 5 April 1588 - 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book , in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy.

Hobbes was born prematurely due to his mother's fear of the Spanish Armada. His early life, overshadowed by his father's departure following a fight, was taken under the care of his wealthy uncle. Hobbes's academic journey began in Westport, leading him to Oxford University, where he was exposed to classical literature and mathematics. He then graduated from the University of Cambridge in 1608. He became a tutor to the Cavendish family, which connected him to intellectual circles and initiated his extensive travels across Europe. These experiences, including meetings with figures like Galileo, shaped his intellectual development.

After returning to England from France in 1641, Hobbes witnessed the destruction and brutality of the English Civil War from 1642 to 1651 between Parliamentarians and Royalists, which heavily influenced his advocacy for governance by an absolute sovereign in Leviathan, as the solution to human conflict and societal breakdown. Aside from social contract theory, Leviathan also popularized ideas such as the state of nature ("war of all against all") and laws of nature. His other major works include the trilogy (1642), (1655), and De Homine (1658) as well as the posthumous work (1681).

Hobbes contributed to a diverse array of fields, including history, jurisprudence, geometry, optics, theology, classical translations, ethics, as well as philosophy in general, marking him as a polymath. Despite controversies and challenges, including accusations of atheism and contentious debates with contemporaries, Hobbes's work profoundly influenced the understanding of political structure and human nature.

Thomas Hobbes was born on 5 April 1588 (Old Style), in Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England. Having been born prematurely when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that "my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear." Hobbes had a brother, Edmund, about two years older, as well as a sister, Anne.

Although Thomas Hobbes's childhood is unknown to a large extent, as is his mother's name, it is known that Hobbes's father, Thomas Sr., was the vicar of both Charlton and Westport. Hobbes's father was uneducated, according to John Aubrey, Hobbes's biographer, and he "disesteemed learning." Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London. As a result, the family was left in the care of Thomas Sr.'s older brother, Francis, a wealthy glove manufacturer with no family of his own.

Hobbes was educated at Westport church from age four, went to the Malmesbury school, and then to a private school kept by a young man named Robert Latimer, a graduate of the University of Oxford. Hobbes was a good pupil, and between 1601 and 1602 he went to Magdalen Hall, the predecessor to Hertford College, Oxford, where he was taught scholastic logic and mathematics. The principal, John Wilkinson, was a Puritan and had some influence on Hobbes. Before going up to Oxford, Hobbes translated Euripides' from Greek into Latin verse.

At university, Thomas Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum as he was little attracted by the scholastic learning. Leaving Oxford, Hobbes completed his B.A. degree by incorporation at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1608. He was recommended by Sir James Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son of William Cavendish, Baron of Hardwick (and later Earl of Devonshire), and began a lifelong connection with that family. William Cavendish was elevated to the peerage on his father's death in 1626, holding it for two years before his death in 1628. His son, also William, likewise became the 3rd Earl of Devonshire. Hobbes served as a tutor and secretary to both men. The 1st Earl's younger brother, Charles Cavendish, had two sons who were patrons of Hobbes. The elder son, William Cavendish, later 1st Duke of Newcastle, was a leading supporter of Charles I during the Civil War in which he personally financed an army for the king, having been governor to the Prince of Wales, Charles James, Duke of Cornwall. It was to this William Cavendish that Hobbes dedicated his Elements of Law.

Hobbes became a companion to the younger William Cavendish and they both took part in a grand tour of Europe between 1610 and 1615. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour, in contrast to the scholastic philosophy that he had learned in Oxford. In Venice, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio, an associate of Paolo Sarpi, a Venetian scholar and statesman.

His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of classic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his great translation of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, the first translation of that work into English from a Greek manuscript. It has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known as Horae Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses also represent the work of Hobbes from this period.

Although he did associate with literary figures like Ben Jonson and briefly worked as Francis Bacon's amanuensis, translating several of his into Latin, he did not extend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. In June 1628, his employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague, and his widow, the countess Christian, dismissed Hobbes.

Hobbes soon (in 1629) found work as a tutor to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, mostly spent in Paris, until November 1630. Thereafter, he again found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, the eldest son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visited Galileo Galilei in Florence while he was under house arrest upon condemnation, in 1636, and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne.

Hobbes's first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man came into relation with Man. Finally, he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if people were not to fall back into "brutishness and misery". Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State.

Hobbes came back home from Paris, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent, which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic. It was not published and only circulated as a manuscript among his acquaintances. A pirated version, however, was published about ten years later. Although it seems that much of The Elements of Law was composed before the sitting of the Short Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elements of Hobbes's political thought were unchanged between The Elements of Law and Leviathan, which demonstrates that the events of the English Civil War had little effect on his contractarian methodology. However, the arguments in Leviathan were modified from The Elements of Law when it came to the necessity of consent in creating political obligation: Hobbes wrote in The Elements of Law that Patrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by the consent of the governed, while in Leviathan he argued that they were. This was perhaps a reflection either of Hobbes's thoughts about the engagement controversy or of his reaction to treatises published by Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and 1651.[citation needed ]

When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt that he was in disfavour due to the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for 11 years. In Paris, he rejoined the coterie around Mersenne and wrote a critique of the Meditations on First Philosophy of Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of "Objections" appended, with "Replies" from Descartes, in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two.

Hobbes also extended his own works in a way, working on the third section, , which was finished in November 1641. Although it was initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included lines of argumentation that were repeated a decade later in Leviathan. He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and published little except a short treatise on optics ( Tractatus opticus), included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne as Cogitata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good reputation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes, Gilles de Roberval and others to referee the controversy between John Pell and Longomontanus over the problem of squaring the circle.

The English Civil War began in 1642, and when the royalist cause began to decline in mid-1644, many royalists came to Paris and were known to Hobbes. This revitalised Hobbes's political interests, and the was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in 1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere through the Elsevier press in Amsterdam with a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections.

In 1647, Hobbes took up a position as mathematical instructor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales, who had come to Paris from Jersey around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland.

Frontispiece from De Cive (1642)

The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produce , which set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war. Hobbes compared the State to a monster ( leviathan) composed of men, created under pressure of human needs and dissolved by civil strife due to human passions. The work closed with a general "Review and Conclusion", in response to the war, which answered the question: Does a subject have the right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect is irrevocably lost?

During the years of composing Leviathan, Hobbes remained in or near Paris. In 1647, he suffered a near-fatal illness that disabled him for six months. On recovering, he resumed his literary task and completed it by 1650. Meanwhile, a translation of De Cive was being produced; scholars disagree about whether it was Hobbes who translated it.

In 1650, a pirated edition of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was published. It was divided into two small volumes: Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie; and De corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick.

In 1651, the translation of De Cive was published under the title Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society. Also, the printing of the greater work proceeded, and finally appeared in mid-1651, titled Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common Wealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. It had a famous title-page engraving depicting a crowned giant above the waist towering above hills overlooking a landscape, holding a sword and a crozier and made up of tiny human figures. The work had immediate impact. Soon, Hobbes was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time. The first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled royalists, who might well have killed him. The secularist spirit of his book greatly angered both Anglicans and French Catholics. Hobbes appealed to the revolutionary English government for protection and fled back to London in winter 1651. After his submission to the Council of State, he was allowed to subside into private life in Fetter Lane.[citation needed ]

Thomas Hobbes. Line engraving by William Faithorne, 1668

In 1658, Hobbes published the final section of his philosophical system, completing the scheme he had planned more than 20 years before. De Homine consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision. The remainder of the treatise dealt partially with some of the topics more fully treated in the Human Nature and the Leviathan. In addition to publishing some controversial writings on mathematics, including disciplines like geometry, Hobbes also continued to produce philosophical works.

From the time of the Restoration, he acquired a new prominence; "Hobbism" became a byword for all that respectable society ought to denounce. The young king, Hobbes's former pupil, now Charles II, remembered Hobbes and called him to the court to grant him a pension of £100.

The king was important in protecting Hobbes when, in 1666, the House of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. That same year, on 17 October 1666, it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... in particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called the Leviathan." Hobbes was terrified at the prospect of being labelled a heretic, and proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time, he examined the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added as an Appendix to his Latin translation of Leviathan, published in Amsterdam in 1668. In this appendix, Hobbes aimed to show that, since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, which, he maintained, Leviathan did not do.

The only consequence that came of the bill was that Hobbes could never thereafter publish anything in England on subjects relating to human conduct. The 1668 edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam because he could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication in England. Other writings were not made public until after his death, including Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1662. For some time, Hobbes was not even allowed to respond, whatever his enemies tried. Despite this, his reputation abroad was formidable.

Hobbes spent the last four or five years of his life with his patron, William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, at the family's Chatsworth House estate. He had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he first tutored an earlier William Cavendish. After Hobbes's death, many of his manuscripts would be found at Chatsworth House.

His final works were an autobiography in Latin verse in 1672, and a translation of four books of the into "rugged" English rhymes that in 1673 led to a complete translation of both and Odyssey in 1675.

Tomb of Thomas Hobbes in St John the Baptist's Church, Ault Hucknall, in Derbyshire

In October 1679 Hobbes suffered a bladder disorder, and then a paralytic stroke, from which he died on 4 December 1679, aged 91, at Hardwick Hall, owned by the Cavendish family.

His last words were said to have been "A great leap in the dark", uttered in his final conscious moments. His body was interred in St John the Baptist's Church, Ault Hucknall, in Derbyshire.

Hobbes, influenced by contemporary scientific ideas, had intended for his political theory to be a quasi-geometrical system, in which the conclusions followed inevitably from the premises. The main practical conclusion of Hobbes's political theory is that state or society cannot be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. This particular view owes its significance to it being first developed in the 1630s when Charles I had sought to raise revenues without the consent of Parliament, and therefore of his subjects. Hobbes rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle's politics, namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen. It is perhaps also important to note that Hobbes extrapolated his mechanistic understanding of nature into the social and political realm, making him a progenitor of the term ' social structure.'

Frontispiece of Leviathan

In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality. Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war.

Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and their passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). The description contains what has been called one of the best-known passages in English philosophy, which describes the natural state humankind would be in, were it not for political community:

In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

In such states, people fear death and lack both the things necessary to commodious living, and the hope of being able to obtain them. So, in order to avoid it, people accede to a social contract and establish a civil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population and a sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede some right for the sake of protection. Power exercised by this authority cannot be resisted, because the protector's sovereign power derives from individuals' surrendering their own sovereign power for protection. The individuals are thereby the authors of all decisions made by the sovereign, "he that complaineth of injury from his sovereign complaineth that whereof he himself is the author, and therefore ought not to accuse any man but himself, no nor himself of injury because to do injury to one's self is impossible". There is no doctrine of separation of powers in Hobbes's discussion. He argues that any division of authority would lead to internal strife, jeopardizing the stability provided by an absolute sovereign. According to Hobbes, the sovereign must control civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers, even the words.

In 1654 a small treatise, Of Liberty and Necessity, directed at Hobbes, was published by Bishop John Bramhall. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had met and debated with Hobbes and afterwards wrote down his views and sent them privately to be answered in this form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication. However, a French acquaintance took a copy of the reply and published it with "an extravagantly laudatory epistle". Bramhall countered in 1655, when he printed everything that had passed between them (under the title of A Defence of the True Liberty of Human Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity).

In 1656, Hobbes was ready with The Questions Concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance, in which he replied "with astonishing force" to the bishop. As perhaps the first clear exposition of the psychological doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces were important in the history of the free will controversy. The bishop returned to the charge in 1658 with Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions, and also included a bulky appendix entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale.

Hobbes opposed the existing academic arrangements, and assailed the system of the original universities in Leviathan. He went on to publish , which contained not only tendentious views on mathematics but also an erroneous proof of the squaring of the circle. This all led mathematicians to target him for polemics and sparked John Wallis to become one of his most persistent opponents. From 1655, the publishing date of De Corpore, Hobbes and Wallis continued name-calling and bickering for nearly a quarter of a century, with Hobbes failing to admit his error to the end of his life. After years of debate, the spat over proving the squaring of the circle gained such notoriety that it has become one of the most infamous feuds in mathematical history.

The religious opinions of Hobbes remain controversial as many positions have been attributed to him and range from atheism to orthodox Christianity. In the Elements of Law, Hobbes provided a cosmological argument for the existence of God, saying that God is "the first cause of all causes".

Hobbes was accused of atheism by several contemporaries; Bramhall accused him of teachings that could lead to atheism. This was an important accusation, and Hobbes himself wrote, in his answer to Bramhall's The Catching of Leviathan, that "atheism, impiety, and the like are words of the greatest defamation possible". Hobbes always defended himself from such accusations. In more recent times also, much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard Tuck and J. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement about the exact significance of Hobbes's unusual views on religion.

As Martinich has pointed out, in Hobbes's time the term "atheist" was often applied to people who believed in God but not in divine providence, or to people who believed in God but also maintained other beliefs that were considered to be inconsistent with such belief or judged incompatible with orthodox Christianity. He says that this "sort of discrepancy has led to many errors in determining who was an atheist in the early modern period". In this extended early modern sense of atheism, Hobbes did take positions that strongly disagreed with church teachings of his time. For example, he argued repeatedly that there are no incorporeal substances, and that all things, including human thoughts, and even God, heaven, and hell are corporeal, matter in motion. He argued that "though Scripture acknowledge spirits, yet doth it nowhere say, that they are incorporeal, meaning thereby without dimensions and quantity". (In this view, Hobbes claimed to be following Tertullian.) Like John Locke, he also stated that true revelation can never disagree with human reason and experience, although he also argued that people should accept revelation and its interpretations for the reason that they should accept the commands of their sovereign, in order to avoid war.

While in Venice on tour, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio, a close associate of Paolo Sarpi, who had written against the pretensions of the papacy to temporal power in response to the Interdict of Pope Paul V against Venice, which refused to recognise papal prerogatives. James I had invited both men to England in 1612. Micanzio and Sarpi had argued that God willed human nature, and that human nature indicated the autonomy of the state in temporal affairs. When he returned to England in 1615, William Cavendish maintained correspondence with Micanzio and Sarpi, and Hobbes translated the latter's letters from Italian, which were circulated among the Duke's circle.

1602. Latin translation of Euripides' Medea (lost).

1620. "A Discourse of Tacitus", "A Discourse of Rome", and "A Discourse of Laws." In The Horae Subsecivae: Observation and Discourses.

1626. "De Mirabilis Pecci, Being the Wonders of the Peak in Darby-shire" (publ. 1636) - a poem on the Seven Wonders of the Peak

1629. Eight Books of the Peloponnese Warre, translation with an Introduction of Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War

1630. A Short Tract on First Principles.
Authorship doubtful, as this work is attributed by important critics to Robert Payne.

1637. A Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique

Molesworth edition title: The Whole Art of Rhetoric.

Authorship probable: While Schuhmann (1998) firmly rejects the attribution of this work to Hobbes, a preponderance of scholarship disagrees with Schuhmann's idiosyncratic assessment. Schuhmann disagrees with historian Quentin Skinner, who would come to agree with Schuhmann.

1640. Elements of Law, Natural and Politic
Initially circulated only in handwritten copies; without Hobbes's permission, the first printed edition would be in 1650.

1641. Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosophia 3rd series of Objections

1642. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Tertia de Cive (Latin, 1st limited ed.).

1643. De Motu, Loco et Tempore
First edition (1973) with the title: Thomas White's De Mundo Examined

1644. Part of the "Praefatio to Mersenni Ballistica." In F. Marini Mersenni minimi Cogitata physico-mathematica. In quibus tam naturae quàm artis effectus admirandi certissimis demonstrationibus explicantur.

1644. "Opticae, liber septimus" (also known as Tractatus opticus I written in 1640). In Universae geometriae mixtaeque mathematicae synopsis, edited by Marin Mersenne.
Molesworth edition (OL V, pp. 215-248) title: "Tractatus Opticus"

1646. A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques (Harley MS 3360)
Molesworth published only the dedication to Cavendish and the conclusion in EW VII, pp. 467-471.

1646. Of Liberty and Necessity (publ. 1654)
Published without the permission of Hobbes

1647. Elementa Philosophica de Cive
Second expanded edition with a new Preface to the Reader

1650. Answer to Sir William Davenant's Preface before Gondibert

1650. Human Nature: or The fundamental Elements of Policie

Includes first thirteen chapters of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic

Published without Hobbes's authorisation

1650. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (pirated ed.)
Repackaged to include two parts:

"Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie," ch. 14-19 of Elements, Part One (1640)

"De Corpore Politico", Elements, Part Two (1640)

1651. Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society - English translation of De Cive

1651. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil

1654. Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise

1655. De Corpore (in Latin)

1656. Elements of Philosophy, The First Section, Concerning Body - anonymous English translation of De Corpore

1656. Six Lessons to the Professor of Mathematics

1656. The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance - reprint of Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise, with the addition of Bramhall's reply and Hobbes's reply to Bramahall's reply.

1657. Stigmai, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis

1658. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda De Homine

1660. Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii

1661. Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris

1662. Problematica Physica
English translation titled: Seven Philosophical Problems (1682)

1662. Seven Philosophical Problems, and Two Propositions of Geometry - published posthumously

1662. Mr. Hobbes Considered in his Loyalty, Religion, Reputation, and Manners. By way of Letter to Dr. Wallis - English autobiography

1666. De Principis & Ratiocinatione Geometrarum

1666. A Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws of England (publ. 1681)

1668. Leviathan - Latin translation

1668. An answer to a book published by Dr. Bramhall, late bishop of Derry; called the Catching of the leviathan. Together with an historical narration concerning heresie, and the punishment thereof (publ. 1682)

1671. Three Papers Presented to the Royal Society Against Dr. Wallis. Together with Considerations on Dr. Wallis his Answer to them

1671. Rosetum Geometricum, sive Propositiones Aliquot Frustra antehac tentatae. Cum Censura brevi Doctrinae Wallisianae de Motu

1672. Lux Mathematica. Excussa Collisionibus Johannis Wallisii

1674. Principia et Problemata Aliquot Geometrica Antè Desperata, Nunc breviter Explicata & Demonstrata

1678. Decameron Physiologicum: Or, Ten Dialogues of Natural Philosophy

1679. Thomae Hobbessii Malmesburiensis Vita. Authore seipso - Latin autobiography
Translated into English in 1680

1680. An Historical Narration concerning Heresie, And the Punishment thereof

1681. Behemoth, or The Long Parliament

Written in 1668, it was unpublished at the request of the King

First pirated edition: 1679

1682. Seven Philosophical Problems (English translation of Problematica Physica, 1662)

1682. A Garden of Geometrical Roses (English translation of Rosetum Geometricum, 1671)

1682. Some Principles and Problems in Geometry (English translation of Principia et Problemata, 1674)

1688. Historia Ecclesiastica Carmine Elegiaco Concinnata

Molesworth editions

Editions compiled by William Molesworth.

TRIPOS ; in Three Discourses:

1. Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy

2. De Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law

3. Of Liberty and Necessity

An Answer to Bishop Bramhall's Book, called "The Catching of the Leviathan"

An Historical Narration concerning Heresy, and the Punishment thereof

Considerations upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners, and Religion of Thomas Hobbes

Answer to Sir William Davenant's Preface before "Gondibert"

Letter to the Right Honourable Edward Howard

The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance, clearly stated and debated between Dr Bramhall Bishop of Derry and Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury.

Volume 6 Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.

A Dialogue Between a Philosopher & a Student of the Common Laws of England

A Dialogue of the Common Law

Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England, and of the Counsels and Artifices By Which They Were Carried on From the Year 1640 to the Year 1660

The Whole Art of Rhetoric (Hobbes's translation of his own Latin summary of Aristotle's Rhetoric published in 1637 with the title A Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique)

The Art of Rhetoric Plainly Set Forth. With Pertinent Examples For the More Easy Understanding and Practice of the Same (this work is not of Hobbes but by Dudley Fenner, The Artes of Logike and Rethorike, 1584)

The Art of Sophistry

Seven Philosophical Problems

Decameron Physiologicum

Proportion of a straight line to half the arc of a quadrant

Six lessons to the Savilian Professors of the Mathematics

ΣΤΙΓΜΑΙ, or Marks of the absurd Geometry etc. of Dr Wallis

Extract of a letter from Henry Stubbe

Three letters presented to the Royal Society against Dr Wallis

Considerations on the answer of Dr Wallis

Letters and other pieces

Volume 8 Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, translated into English by Hobbes.

Volume 9 Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

Posthumous works not included in the Molesworth editions

The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (1st complete ed.)

London: 1889

Ferdinand Tönnies, with a preface and critical notes

"Short Tract on First Principles."

Pp. 193-210 in Elements, Appendix I.

Attributed by important critics to Robert Payne

1639, British Library, Harley MS 6796, ff. 193-266

Critique du 'De mundo' de Thomas White

Paris: 1973

Jean Jacquot and Harold Whitmore Jones

Includes three appendixes:

De Motibus Solis, Aetheris & Telluris (pp. 439-447: a Latin poem on the movement of the Earth).

Notes in English on an ancient redaction of some chapters of De Corpore (July 1643; pp. 448-460: MS 5297, National Library of Wales).

Notes for the Logica and Philosophia prima of the De Corpore (pp. 461-513: Chatsworth MS A10 and the notes of Charles Cavendish on a draft of the De Corpore: British Library, Harley MS 6083).

Chicago: 1975

Noel B. Reynolds and Arlene Saxonhouse

Includes:

A Discourse upon the Beginning of Tacitus pp. 31-67.

A Discourse of Rome, pp. 71-102.

A Discourse of Law, pp. 105-119.

Thomas Hobbes' A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques: A Critical Edition

University of Wisconsin-Madison: 1983 - PhD dissertation

Elaine C. Stroud

British Library, Harley MS 3360

De Corpore, Part I. Computatio Sive Logica. Edited with an Introductory Essay by L C. Hungerland and G. R. Vick. Translation and Commentary by A. Martinich. New York: Abaris Books, 1981.

Thomas White's De mundo Examined, translation by H. W. Jones, Bradford: Bradford University Press, 1976 (the appendixes of the Latin edition (1973) are not enclosed).

Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes, Oxford: Clarendon Press (10 volumes published of 27 planned).

Traduction des œuvres latines de Hobbes, under the direction of Yves Charles Zarka, Paris: Vrin (5 volumes published of 17 planned).

1. ^ Orozco-Echeverri, Sergio H. (2012). "On the Origin of Hobbes's Conception of Language: The Literary Culture of English Renaissance Humanism". Revista de Estudios Sociales. 44: 102-112.

2. ^ Lloyd, Sharon A.; Sreedhar, Susanne (2022), "Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy", in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, archived from the original on 10 March 2023

3. ^ Sommerville, J.P. (1992). Thomas Hobbes: Political Ideas in Historical Context. MacMillan. pp. 256-324. ISBN 978-0-333-49599-5.

4. ^ "Philosophy at Hertford College". Oxford: Hertford College. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021.

5. (Subscription or ^ Malcolm, Noel (2004). "Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679), philosopher". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/13400. UK public library membership required.)

6. ^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (November 2002). "Thomas Hobbes". School of Mathematics and Statistics. Scotland: University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019.

7. ^ Hobbes, Thomas (1995). Reynolds, Noel B.; Saxonhouse, Arlene W. (eds.). Three Discourses: A Critical Modern Edition of Newly Identified Work of the Young Hobbes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-34545-1.

8. ^ Bickley, F. (1914). The Cavendish family. Houghton, Mifflin Company. p. 44. ISBN 978-5-87487-145-1. Archived from the original on 22 April 2024.

9. ^ Malcolm, Noel (2003). Aspects of Hobbes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 80. ISBN 0199247145. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023.

10. ^ Grounds, Eric; Tidy, Bill; Stilgoe, Richard (25 November 2014). The Bedside Book of Final Words. Amberley Publishing Limited. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4456-4464-6.

11. ^ Coulter, Michael L.; Myers, Richard S.; Varacalli, Joseph A. (5 April 2012). Encyclopedia of Catholic Social Thought, Social Science, and Social Policy: Supplement. Scarecrow Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-8108-8275-1.

12. ^ Malcolm, Noel (2003). "Hobbes's Science of Politics and His Theory of Science". Aspects of Hobbes (Online ed.). Oxford Scholarship Online. pp. 147-155. doi:10.1093/0199247145.001.0001. ISBN 9780199247141. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021.

13. Part I, ^ Chapter XIV. Of the First and Second Naturall Lawes, and of Contracts. (Not All Rights are Alienable), Leviathan: "And therefore there be some Rights, which no man can be understood by any words, or other signes, to have abandoned, or transferred. As first a man cannot lay down the right of resisting them, that assault him by force, to take away his life; because he cannot be understood to ayme thereby, at any Good to himselfe. The same may be sayd of Wounds, and Chayns, and Imprisonment".

14. ^ "1000 Makers of the Millennium", p. 42. Dorling Kindersley, 1999

15. ^ Peter, Kanzler (31 May 2020). The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Social Contract (1762), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776). Peter Kanzler. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-716-89340-7.

16. ^ Ameriks, Karl; Clarke, Desmond M. (2007). Chappell, Vere (ed.). Hobbes and Bramhall on Liberty and Necessity (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 31. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511495830. ISBN 978-0-511-49583-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 August 2017.

17. ^ Hobbes, Thomas (1995). Reynolds, Noel B.; Saxonhouse, Arlene W. (eds.). Three Discourses: A Critical Modern Edition of Newly Identified Work of the Young Hobbes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-34545-1.

18. Hobbes, Thomas. 1630. ^ A Short Tract on First Principles, British Library, Harleian MS 6796, ff. 297-308.

19. Bernhardt, Jean. 1988. ^ Court traité des premiers principes. Paris: PUF. (Critical edition with commentary and French translation).

20. Timothy Raylor, Franco Giudice, Stephen Clucas, and ^ Noel Malcolm vote for Robert Payne. Karl Schuhmann, Cees Leijenhorst, Guilherme Rodrigues Neto, and Frank Horstmann vote for Thomas Hobbes. On arguments pro Payne see Timothy Raylor, Hobbes, Payne, and 'A Short Tract on First Principles' (The Historical Journal, 44, 2001, pp. 29-58) and Noel Malcolm, Robert Payne, the Hobbes Manuscripts, and the 'Short Tract' (in: Aspects of Hobbes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 80-145). On arguments pro Hobbes see Karl Schuhmann, Le 'Short Tract', première oeuvre philosophique de Hobbes (Hobbes Studies, 8, 1995, pp. 3-36.) and Frank Horstmann, Der Grauvließer. Robert Payne und Thomas Hobbes als Urheber des 'Short Tract' (Berlin: epubli, 2020, ISBN 978-3-752952-92-6.)

21. Harwood, John T., ed. 1986. ^ The Rhetorics of Thomas Hobbes and Bernard Lamy. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. (Provides a new edition of the work).

22. ^ Schuhmann, Karl (1998). "Skinner's Hobbes". British Journal for the History of Philosophy. 6 (1): 115. doi:10.1080/09608789808570984. p. 118.

23. ^ Skinner, Quentin. [2002] 2012. Hobbes and Civil Science, (Visions of Politics 3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511613784. (Skinner affirms Schuhmann's view: p. 4, fn. 27.)

24. ^ Evrigenis, Ioannis D. (2016). "Images of Anarchy: The Rhetoric and Science in Hobbes's State of Nature". Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. (Provides a summary of this confusing episode, as well as most relevant literature. p. 48 n. 13)

25. Hobbes, Thomas. 1639. ^ Tractatus opticus II. vis British Library, Harley MS 6796, ff. 193-266.

26. First complete edition: 1963. For this dating, see the convincing arguments given by: Horstmann, Frank. 2006. ^ Nachträge zu Betrachtungen über Hobbes' Optik. Berlin: Mackensen. ISBN 978-3-926535-51-1. pp. 19-94.

27. Modern scholars are divided as to whether or not this translation was done by Hobbes. For a pro-Hobbes account see H. Warrender's introduction to ^ De Cive: The English Edition in The Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes (Oxford, 1984). For the contra-Hobbes account see Noel Malcolm, "Charles Cotton, Translator of Hobbes's De Cive" in Aspects of Hobbes (Oxford, 2002)

Attribution:

MacDonald, Hugh & Hargreaves, Mary. Thomas Hobbes, a Bibliography, London: The Bibliographical Society, 1952.

Hinnant, Charles H. (1980). Thomas Hobbes: A Reference Guide, Boston: G. K. Hall & Co.

Garcia, Alfred (1986). Thomas Hobbes: bibliographie internationale de 1620 à 1986 (in French), Caen: Centre de Philosophie politique et juridique Université de Caen.

Brandt, Frithiof (1928). Thomas Hobbes' Mechanical Conception of Nature, Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard.

Jesseph, Douglas M. (1999). Squaring the Circle. The War Between Hobbes and Wallis, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Leijenhorst, Cees (2002). The Mechanisation of Aristotelianism. The Late Aristotelian Setting of Thomas Hobbes' Natural Philosophy, Leiden: Brill.

Lemetti, Juhana (2011). Historical Dictionary of Hobbes's Philosophy, Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

Macpherson, C. B. (1962). The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Malcolm, Noel (2002). Aspects of Hobbes, New York: Oxford University Press.

MacKay-Pritchard, Noah (2019). "Origins of the State of Nature", London

Malcolm, Noel (2007). Reason of State, Propaganda, and the Thirty Years' War: An Unknown Translation by Thomas Hobbes, New York: Oxford University Press.

Manent, Pierre (1996). An Intellectual History of Liberalism, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Martinich, A. P. (2003) "Thomas Hobbes" in The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500-1660, Second Series, Detroit: Gale, pp. 130-144.

Martinich, A. P. (1995). A Hobbes Dictionary, Cambridge: Blackwell.

Martinich, A. P. (1997). Thomas Hobbes, New York: St. Martin's Press.

Martinich, A. P. (1992). The Two Gods of Leviathan: Thomas Hobbes on Religion and Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Martinich, A. P. (1999). Hobbes: A Biography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1676)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 226-227. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n137. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.

Oakeshott, Michael (1975). Hobbes on Civil Association, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

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Shapin, Steven and Schaffer, Simon (1995). Leviathan and the Air-Pump. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Skinner, Quentin (1996). Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of Hobbes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Skinner, Quentin (2002). Visions of Politics. Vol. III: Hobbes and Civil Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Skinner, Quentin (2008). Hobbes and Republican Liberty, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Strauss, Leo (1959). "On the Basis of Hobbes's Political Philosophy" in What Is Political Philosophy?, Glencoe, IL: Free Press, chap. 7.

Tönnies, Ferdinand (1925). Hobbes. Leben und Lehre, Stuttgart: Frommann, 3rd ed.

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Portraits of Thomas Hobbes at the National Portrait Gallery, London

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Thomas Hobbes ( HOBZ ; 5 April 1588 - 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book , in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy.

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William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire (c. 1590 - 20 June 1628) was an English nobleman, courtier, and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1614 until 1626 when he succeeded to the peerage and sat in the House of Lords.

Cavendish was the second son of William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire, by his first wife Anne Keighley. He was educated by Thomas Hobbes, the philosopher, who lived at Chatsworth as his private tutor for many years. In 1608, he went up to St John's College, Cambridge accompanied by Hobbes. He was knighted at Whitehall in 1609. He then went with Hobbes on a Grand Tour from about 1610, where he visited France and Italy before his coming of age. He was a leader of court society, and an intimate friend of James I, and Hobbes praised his learning in the dedication of his translation of Thucydides.

In 1614, Cavendish was elected member of parliament for Derbyshire. He became Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1619. In 1621 he was re-elected MP for Derbyshire. In April 1622 he introduced to audiences with the king Schwarzenburg, ambassador from the Emperor Ferdinand, Valerssio from Venice, and d'Arsennes and Joachimi from the United Provinces. He was re-elected MP for Derbyshire in 1624 and 1625. In 1625 he was present at Charles I's marriage with Henrietta Maria. He was high bailiff of Tutbury in 1626 and was re-elected MP for Derbyshire in 1626, until the death of his father early in 1626 gave him a seat in the House of Lords. In the Lords, he resisted George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham's attempt to find a treasonable meaning on a speech of Sir Dudley Digges (13 May 1626).

Cavendish's spending strained his resources, and he procured a private Act of Parliament to enable him to sell some of the entailed estates in discharge of his debts in 1628. His London house was in Bishopsgate, on the site afterwards occupied by Devonshire Square.

Cavendish died at his London house, from over-indulgence it was said, at the age of about 35 and was buried in All Hallows Church (All Saints Church), Derby. The monument was sculpted by Edward Marshall.

Christian, Lady Cavendish, with her daughter

Cavendish married Christian(a) Bruce, daughter of Edward Bruce, 1st Lord Kinloss, on 10 April 1608. They had three children:

Pearson, John, The Serpent and the Stag, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1983.

Attribution:

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William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire - Wikipedia

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William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire (c. 1590 - 20 June 1628) was an English nobleman, courtier, and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1614 until 1626 when he succeeded to the peerage and sat in the House of Lords.

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The Virginia Company was an English trading company chartered by King James I on 10 April 1606, with the object of colonizing the eastern coast of America. The coast was named Virginia, after Elizabeth I, and it stretched from present-day Maine to the Carolinas. The company's shareholders were Londoners, and it was distinguished from the Plymouth Company, which was chartered at the same time and composed largely of gentlemen from Plymouth, England.

The biggest trade breakthrough resulted after adventurer and colonist John Rolfe introduced several sweeter strains of tobacco from the Caribbean. These yielded a product that was much more appealing than that of the harsh-tasting tobacco native to Virginia. Cultivation of Rolfe's new tobacco strains produced a strong commodity crop for export for the London Company and other early English colonies and helped to balance a national trade deficit with Spain. The company failed in 1624, following the widespread destruction of the Great Massacre of 1622 by indigenous peoples in the colony, which decimated the English population. On May 24th, James dissolved the company and made Virginia a royal colony. But the right to self-government was not taken from the colonists.

1606 a ruling council in London composed of major shareholders in the enterprise. The members were nominated by the company and appointed by James. The council in England then directed the settlers to appoint their own local council, which proved ineffective. The council had to obtain approval from London for expenditures and laws, and limited the enterprise to 100 square miles.

The Charter of 1606 did not mention a Virginia Company or a Plymouth Company; these names were applied somewhat later to the overall enterprise. The Charter of 1609 stipulates two distinct companies:

that they should devide themselves into two colonies, the one consistinge of divers Knights, gentlemen, merchaunts and others of our cittie of London, called the First Collonie; and the other of sondrie Knights, gentlemen and others of the cities of Bristoll, Exeter, the towne of Plymouth, and other places, called the Second Collonie.

By the terms of the charter, the London Company was permitted to establish a colony of 100 miles square between latitudes 34° and 41° N, approximately between Cape Fear and Long Island Sound. It also owned a large portion of inland Canada. The company established the Jamestown Settlement on 14 May 1607, about 40 miles inland along the James River, a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia. In 1620, George Calvert asked James for a charter for English Catholics to add the territory of the Plymouth Company.

The Plymouth Company was permitted to establish settlements between latitudes 38° and 45° N, roughly between the upper reaches of the Chesapeake Bay and the U.S.-Canada border. On 13 August 1607, the Plymouth Company established the Popham Colony along the Kennebec River in Maine. However, it was abandoned after about a year and the Plymouth Company became inactive. A successor company eventually established a permanent settlement in 1620 when the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts, aboard the Mayflower.

The Second Charter expanded the area of the enterprise from sea to sea and appointed a governor, because the local councils had proven ineffective. Governor Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (known as Lord Delaware) sailed for America in 1610. James delegated the governor of Virginia absolute power.

Also in 1609, a much larger Third Supply mission was organized. A new purpose-built ship named the Sea Venture was rushed into service without the customary sea trials. She became the flagship of a fleet of nine ships, with most of the leaders, food, and supplies aboard. Aboard the Sea Venture were fleet Admiral George Somers, Vice-Admiral Christopher Newport, Virginia Colony governor Sir Thomas Gates, William Strachey, and businessman John Rolfe with his pregnant wife.

The third supply convoy encountered a hurricane that lasted three days and separated the ships from one another. The Sea Venture was leaking through its new caulking, and Admiral Somers had it driven aground on a reef to avoid sinking, saving 150 men and women but destroying the ship. The uninhabited archipelago was officially named " The Somers Isles" after Admiral Somers. The survivors built two smaller ships from salvaged parts of the Sea Venture, which they named Deliverance and Patience.

Ten months later, they continued on to Jamestown, arriving on May 23, 1610. They left several men behind on the archipelago to establish possession of it. At Jamestown, they found that more than 85-percent of the 500 colonists there had perished during the "Starving Time". The Sea Venture passengers had anticipated finding a thriving colony and had brought little food or supplies with them. The colonists at Jamestown were saved only by the timely arrival three weeks later of a supply mission headed by Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, better known as "Lord Delaware".

The Virginia Company of London failed to discover gold or silver in Virginia, to the disappointment of its investors. However, they did establish trade of various types. The company benefitted from lotteries held throughout England until they were cancelled by the Crown. The Company even considered titles of nobility to gain support for the colony.

In February 1613, company projects were promoted at court when the lawyer Richard Martin helped produce The Memorable Masque of the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn at Whitehall Palace for the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate. The masque represented Virginian peoples on the stage and also introduced the theme of gold mining.

In 1612, the company's charter was officially extended to include the Somers Isles as part of the Virginia Colony. However, the isles passed to the London Company of the Somers Isles in 1615, which had been formed by the same shareholders as the London Company. The third charter expanded territory eastward to include Summer Islands and other islands.

On 18 November 1618, Virginia Company officers Thomas Smythe and Edwin Sandys sent a set of instructions to Virginia Governor George Yeardley that are often referred to as "The Great Charter", though it was not issued by James. This charter gave the colony self-governance, which led to the establishment of a Council of State appointed by the governor and an elected General Assembly (House of Burgesses), and provided that the colony would no longer be financed by shares but by tobacco farming. The birth of representative government in the United States can be traced from this Great Charter, as it provided for self-governance from which the House of Burgesses and a General Council were created.

The indigenous peoples had grown increasingly resistant to the competition from the colonists and mistreatment at their hands. They rose in what is known as Jamestown Massacre of 1622, also known as the Great Massacre, which decimated the population. Survivors of some eighty plantations gathered into eight near Jamestown. The warfare brought unfavorable attention, particularly from James, who had chartered the Company. In Britain, Company officers debated over guarding the original charter, or deciding to disband the company. The Jamestown Massacre brought unfavorable attention to the colony, particularly from James who had originally chartered the Company. There was a period of debate in Britain between Company officers who wished to guard the original charter, and those who wanted the Company to be disbanded. On 24 May 1624, James dissolved the company and made Virginia a royal colony.

Notes

The arms of the Virginia Company consist of:[28]

Crest

On a wreath of the colors a maiden queen couped below the shoulders proper, her hair dishevelled, vested and crowned with an Eastern crown or.

Escutcheon

Argent, a cross gules between four escutcheons, each regally crowned proper, the first escutcheon in the dexter chief, the arms of France and England quarterly; the second in the sinister chief, the arms of Scotland; the third the arms of Ireland; the fourth as the first.

Supporters

Two men in complete armor with their beavers [visors] open, on their helmets three ostrich feathers argent, each charged on the breast with a cross throughout gules, and each holding a lance proper in his exterior hand.

1. ^ Paullin, Charles O, Edited by John K. Wright (1932). Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States. New York, New York and Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington and American Geographical Society. pp. Plate 42.

2. ^ Swindler, William F., Editor (1973-1979). Sources and Documents of United States Constitutions.' 10 Volumes. Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceana Publications. pp. Vol. 10: 17-23.

3. ^ Van Zandt, Franklin K. (1976). Boundaries of the United States and the Several States; Geological Survey Professional Paper 909. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. p. 92.

4. ^ Andrews, Charles M. (1924). The Colonial Background of the American Revolution. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 32-34. ISBN 0-300-00004-9.

5. ^ Rose, E.M. (April 2018). "The "Bewitching Lotteries for Virginia," 1616-21: A List of Sites and Charitable Donations". Huntington Library Quarterly. 81 (1): 107-119. doi:10.1353/hlq.2018.0003. S2CID 159470238.

6. ^ Rose, E.M. (22 May 2008). "The End of the Gamble: The Termination of the Virginia lotteries in March, 1621". Parliamentary History. 27 (27:2): 175-197. doi:10.1111/j.1750-0206.2008.00035.x.

7. ^ Rose, E.M. (2020). "Viscounts in Virginia: A Proposal to Create American Noblemen (1619)". Huntington Library Quarterly. 83 (1): 181-198. doi:10.1353/hlq.2020.0005. S2CID 221468954.

8. ^ Thomas Birch & Folkestone Williams, Court and Times of James the First, vol. 1 (London, 1848), p. 227.

9. As depicted on title page of: Smith, Captain John. (1624). ^ The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles. London.

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The Virginia Company was an English trading company chartered by King James I on 10 April 1606, with the object of colonizing the eastern coast of America. The coast was named Virginia, after Elizabeth I, and it stretched from present-day Maine to the Carolinas.

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tableau with similarities to the frontispiece

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The multitude of poor, and yet strong people still encreasing, they are to be transplanted into Countries not sufficiently inhabited: where neverthelesse, they are not to exterminate those they find there; but constrain them to inhabit closer together, and not range a great deal of ground, to snatch what they find; but to court each little Plot with art and labour, to give them their sustenance in due season.

Hobbes, Leviathan Kap. XXX, 181)

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The Savages of America, are not without some good Morall Sentences; also they have a little Arithmetick, to adde, and divide in Numbers not too great: but they are not therefore Philosophers” [...]there was no Method; that is to say, no Sowing, nor Planting of Knowledge by it self, apart from the Weeds, and common Plants of Errour and Conjecture: And the cause oof it being the want of leasure from procuring the necessities of life, and defending themselves against their neighbours, it was impossible, till the erecting of great Commonwealths, it should be otherwise. (Hobbes, Leviathan, Kap. XLVI, 416)

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Chopping wood also common for depictions of Brazil.

--> this iconography is interesting because it somewhat contrast with the "wild" image of the Tupi.

--> the wood from Brazil was of great economic importance to Europe. Brazilwood was for example central to the production of tapestries and cloth in Normandy and Flanders (red pigment extracted from the wood)

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„the savage people in many places of America, except the government of small Families, the concord whereof dependeth on naturall lust, have no government” (K. XIII, 78.)

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In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. (Hobbes, Leviathan, Kap. XIII, 78)

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But it is easily judg'd how disagreeable a thing to the preservation either of Mankind, or of each single Man, a perpetuall War is: But it is perpetuall in its own nature, because in regard of the equality of those that strive, it cannot be ended by Victory;for in this state the Conquerour is subject to so much danger [...]They of America are Examples hereof, even in this present Age: Other Nations have been in former Ages, which now indeed are become Civill, and Flourishing, but were then few, fierce, short−lived, poor, nasty, and destroy'd of all that Pleasure, and Beauty of life, which Peace and Society are wont to bring with them. (Hobbes, De Cive , Kap. I,