# data[].attributes.body
Camillo di Cavour- started the idea
Napoleon III- agreed with Cavour & defeated Australia
Giuseppe Garibaldi- was an Italian general & directed soldiers to Sicily and Piedmont

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Summary

For many centuries, the Italian peninsula was a politically fragmented conglomeration of states. This was the case when the United States announced its independence from Great Britain in 1776. When war broke out between Austria and the Revolutionary French Government in 1792, the French invaded the Italian peninsula, consolidated many of the Italian states, and established them as republics. In 1799 the Austrian and Russian armies pushed the French out of the Italian peninsula, which led to the demise of the fledgling republics.

After Napoleon's rise to power, the Italian peninsula was once again conquered by the French. Under Napoleon, the peninsula was divided into three entities: the northern parts which were annexed to the French Empire (Piedmont, Liguria, Parma, Piacenza, Tuscany, and Rome), the newly created Kingdom of Italy (Lombardy, Venice, Reggio, Modena, Romagna, and the Marshes) ruled by Napoleon himself, and the Kingdom of Naples, which was first ruled by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte, but then passed to Napoleon's brother-in-law Joachim Murat.

The period of French invasion and occupation was important in many ways. It introduced revolutionary ideas about government and society, resulting in an overthrow of the old established ruling orders and the destruction of the last vestiges of feudalism. The ideals of freedom and equality were very influential. Also of consequence, the concept of nationalism was introduced, thus sowing the seeds of Italian nationalism throughout most parts of the northern and central Italian peninsula.

With the downfall of Napoleon in 1814 and the redistribution of territory by the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), most of the Italian states were reconstituted: the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (often referred to as Sardinia), the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (fused together from the old Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily). These were largely conservative regimes, presided over by the old social orders.

Although the Italian peninsula remained fragmented through the mid-1800s, the concept of a united Italy began to take root. Secret societies formed to oppose the conservative regimes. Several of these societies also promoted Italian nationalism and the idea of a unified Italian political state. One such society was the group Young Italy, founded in 1831 by Guiseppe Mazzini. Mazzini was an ardent advocate of the necessity for Italian unification through the desires and actions of the Italian people. Thus, the movement of Italian unification, a process referred to as the Risorgimento (resurgence) proliferated by mid-century.

The revolutions of 1848 ignited nationalist sentiment throughout the Italian peninsula. There were widespread uprisings in several Italian cities that year, mostly by the professional classes (such as doctors, lawyers, shopkeepers) as well as students. Lombardy-Venetia and Milan tried to rise up against Austrian rule. Although the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia sent troops to aid the revolt, it was crushed by the Austrians at Custoza in July 1848. The Italian uprisings were unsuccessful and by 1849 the old regimes were once again in place.

Yet, the idea of the Risorgimento continued to gain adherents after 1848. The final push for Italian unification came in 1859, led by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (then the wealthiest and most liberal of the Italian states), and orchestrated by Piedmont-Sardinia's Prime Minister, Count Camillo di Cavour. A skilled diplomat, Cavour secured an alliance with France. The Franco-Austrian War of 1859 was the agent that began the physical process of Italian unification. The Austrians were defeated by the French and Piedmontese at Magenta and Solferino, and thus relinquished Lombardy. By the end of the year Lombardy was added to the holdings of Piedmont-Sardinia.

The northern Italian states held elections in 1859 and 1860 and voted to join the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a major step towards unification, while Piedmont-Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France. Giuseppi Garibaldi, a native of Piedmont-Sardinia, was instrumental in bringing the southern Italian states into the unification process. In 1860, Garibaldi cobbled together an army (referred to as the "Thousand") to march into the southern part of the peninsula. Landing first in Sicily and then moving onwards into Naples, Garibaldi and his men overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and turned over the southern territories to Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia. In early 1861 a national parliament convened and proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, with Victor Emmanuel II as its king. At this point, there were only two major territories outside of the parameters of the new Kingdom of Italy: Rome and Venetia.

In 1866 Italy joined Prussia in a campaign against Austria (the 1866 Austro-Prussian War) and thus won Venetia. In 1870, taking advantage of the fact that France (the country responsible at the time for guarding the Papal States) was distracted by involvement in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), the Italian army entered Rome. That year, Rome and the Papal States were incorporated into Italy and the Risorgimento completed. During the summer of 1871, the Italian capital moved to Rome from Florence (it was moved from Turin to Florence in 1865).

Major Events

Overall Impact upon U.S. Foreign Policy

The history of recognitions (and the establishment of relations, where applicable) between the United States and the Italian states impacted several different areas of U.S. policy, including:

Trade and Commerce. The industrialization process that swept through the northern United States in the early nineteenth century spread through the northern and central Italian states in the mid-nineteenth century. As a result, the Italian states (and after 1861, the Kingdom of Italy) and the United States both sought to cultivate trade and commercial ties for mutual benefit.

Immigration and Citizenship. By the 1870s Italian immigration to the New World (both to the United States as well as to Argentina, amongst other South American countries) began to increase. Indeed, some of the "fathers" of modern Italy spent time in the United States. Garibaldi spent enough time in the U.S. to gain a U.S. passport, and was offered a commission in the U.S. Army during the Civil War.

U.S. Civil War. The unification of the Italian states impacted the foreign policy of the United States in numerous ways. Perhaps the issue that had the most immediate impact upon U.S. foreign policy in the early 1860s was over the question of recognition of the U.S. Confederacy. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed just as the U.S. Civil War began. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln wanted to ensure that the new Italian state did not recognize the U.S. Confederacy. Washington also worried that, with Italy's long coastline, Confederate ships might seek shelter in Italian waters. With this in mind, the Italian government gave "strong assurances that no Confederate ship would be admitted to Italian ports unless it was a question of adverse weather conditions or other vis major."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unification of Italian States - Countries - Office of the Historian

# data[].attributes.body
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was the only semi-affective attempt at unifying Peru and Bolivia. Simon Bolivar had destroyed the last of the Spanish army and later became the president of Bolivia. But, soon after he left for Columbia due to complications and leaving Antonio Jose de Sucre in charge. He was also driven out due to complications and became a general; where he was later murdered. This caused the Columbian troops to retreat and the war ended. The new president, Jose de la Mar had assembled a parliament causing a lot of people to not trust his decisions. With a new parliament made, the presidency was turned over to General Louis Orbegoso. Even though General Felipe Salavvery overthrew him, he did not loose his ties with Southern Peru. He asked for help from the president of Bolivia, and that was the opportunity Marshal Santa Cruz (previously the Peru president) was waiting for. Bolivia quickly invaded Peru and Orbegoso gained power throughout the country. Since Santa Cruz helped him out, he rewarded him with his signature for the Peru-Bolivian Confederation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. The country was a loose confederation between the states of Peru, divided into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Peru, and Bolivia as the Bolivian Republic, with the capital located in Tacna. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation's formation was personally influenced by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, the President of Bolivia, who served as the first and only head of state under the title " Supreme Protector".

The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was opposed by neighboring countries from its inception, particularly Chile and Argentina, as a potential military and economic threat, and for its support for dissidents in exile. The War of the Confederation was triggered shortly after its formation when Chile and Argentina independently invaded the country. Argentina was defeated in 1837, but a combined force of Chile and North Peruvian dissidents known as the United Restoration Army were victorious at the Battle of Yungay in January 1839, which de facto ended the confederation as Peru and Bolivia were restored as independent states, and Santa Cruz fled into exile. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was officially declared dissolved on August 25, 1839, by General Agustín Gamarra after his appointment as President of Peru.

During colonial times, the territory comprising the Audiencia de Charcas, also known as , now Bolivia, was an integral territory of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru from its creation. In 1776, it was administratively severed and became a province of the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Still, for geographical and historical reasons, it always remained closer to Lima than to its administrative capital, Buenos Aires, in present-day Argentina. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was the only effective attempt to unite them.

This territory achieved independence in 1825. At this point in time, a union with Peru was widely supported. Nonetheless Simón Bolívar, who had liberated the territory and destroyed the last remnants of the Spanish army. The new Republic of Bolivia (named in his honor) was born, with Bolívar as its first president. Political unrest and turmoil forced Bolívar to return to Colombia very soon thereafter, leaving Antonio José de Sucre in charge. Nevertheless, the plan for reuniting Peru and Bolivia did not fade away.

Marshal Sucre was elected president of Bolivia in 1826, but political pressure from Peru and internal turmoil made it impossible for him to organize the new state. The very next year, an armed uprising in Chuquisaca was quickly used by Peru as an excuse to invade Bolivia. General Agustín Gamarra marched with an army of nearly 5,000 Peruvian soldiers. He had two clear orders: force the Colombian army to withdraw and promote the creation of a new constitution for that country.

The Peruvian army entered La Paz, Bolivia, on May 28, 1828. Under these circumstances, Sucre was forced to resign in September, leaving the country forever. Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz was elected president of Bolivia in 1829 to replace him, a position that he would hold for the next ten years. Both Gamarra and Santa Cruz agreed that the separation of Peru and Bolivia was a mistake that should be corrected. Their plan for a federation, or at least a confederation, was accepted by the legislative branches of both countries, but they personally disagreed on other issues. Gamarra was in favor of a Peruvian-led union, while Santa Cruz wanted to give more political power to Bolivia.

Bolívar did not agree with either Gamarra or Santa Cruz, since Gran Colombia was already his own project of federation to unite most of the former Spanish colonies. Furious about the news in Bolivia, he resolved to declare war against Peru on June 3, 1828. Marshal Sucre was appointed commander of the Colombian army but was soon afterwards murdered. After Bolívar's death in 1830, the Colombian troops withdrew, and the war came to an end.

During the war, and with the Peruvian army holding off the Colombian offensive, Gamarra deposed Peruvian President José de la Mar and proclaimed himself the new head of state, titled president. A parliament was assembled, and with a majority of the members in favor of his government, he was able to legalize his position. His rule was difficult, since armed revolts all around the country challenged his authority.

A new parliament was formed in 1833, but this time it was hostile towards Gamarra. Since his term as president was already over and there was no time to call for elections, it was resolved to turn the presidency over to General Luis Orbegoso. Gamarra did not recognize the new government, and prepared himself to challenge Orbegoso. However, popular opinion and most of the army rallied against him, and he was frustrated in his effort to seize power again.

General Orbegoso also had to deal with General Felipe Salaverry, who rebelled and overthrew him in 1835. Orbegoso, however, did not lose the support of southern Peru and called in to his help the president of Bolivia. It was the opportunity that Marshal Santa Cruz, himself a former president of Peru, was waiting for. The Bolivian army promptly proceeded to invade Peru.

With Bolivian help, General Orbegoso quickly regained his leadership throughout the country and had Salaverry executed. As a reward for the support he had received from Santa Cruz, he agreed to the formation of the new Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Santa Cruz assumed the supreme protectorship of the confederation and Orbegoso maintained only the presidency of the newly created Nor-Peruvian state.

Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz promoted a project to reunite the two territories on the basis of a confederacy. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was a plan that attempted to reunite the Alto Perú ("Upper Peru", now Bolivia) and Bajo Perú ("Lower Peru", now simply Peru) into a single political and economic entity. This integration was based not only on historical, cultural and ethnic reasons, but also on economic motives. The union was attempting to restore the ancient commercial routes and promote a policy of open markets.

In Peru, he began by having an assembly proclaim, on March 17, 1836, the Republic of South Peru, followed on August 11, 1836 by a similar proclamation of the Republic of North Peru. In each case, he became the new state's "supreme protector" (see protector (title) for similar titles), a president with full powers.

After the preceding period of significant political unrest, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was proclaimed on October 28, 1836. Marshal Santa Cruz became its supreme protector, as well as supreme protector of each of the Peruvian states and president of the Bolivian Republic. The new confederation was thus composed of three states: North Peru, South Peru and Bolivia, and its capital was the city of Tacna, in southern Peru. The creation of this new nation was very well received in the south of Peru, since this area was able to benefit fully from the lifting of the previous commercial restrictions, but was bitterly resented by the elite of Lima and the north of Peru, which had traditionally benefited from a close commercial relationship with Venezuela.

In each of the Confederation's states, there was, from 1837 until the dissolution, a "provisional president" under Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, who was styled the "supreme protector" and was also president of Bolivia.

(also known as Republic of the North of Peru, or North-Peruvian Republic)

(also known as Republic of the South of Peru, or South-Peruvian Republic)

However, the Confederation generated resistance among several groups in both countries, which resented the dilution of national identities, and also among neighboring countries. An important number of Peruvian politicians opposed to the idea of the Confederation fled to Chile, where they received support, and this led to the War of the Confederation.

The creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz caused great alarm in the neighboring countries. The potential power of this confederation aroused the opposition of Argentina and, above all, Chile, due not only to its great territorial expanse but also to the perceived threat that such a rich state signified for the area. Diego Portales, arguably the most important Chilean statesman of the 19th century, who at the time was the power behind president José Joaquín Prieto, was very concerned that the new Confederation would break the regional balance of power and even be a threat to Chilean independence, and so immediately became its enemy.

But that was just one of the reasons behind the war. On a deeper level, both countries were in a heated competition for control of the commercial routes on the Pacific-and for the Chileans specially, whose relations with independent Peru had already been strained by economic problems centering on rivalry between their ports of Callao and Valparaíso. For the north Peruvians also, the Confederation was viewed as the most serious threat to their economic interests.

The direct conflict between the Confederation and Chile started with a tariff disagreement, and continued when former Chilean president General Ramón Freire managed to obtain a small subsidy from the Confederation government to equip a frigate and try to wrestle power from the Prieto administration. After the failure of the expedition, the Chilean government became openly hostile towards the Confederation.

After the Freire expedition, Portales decided to take the offensive and staged a surprise raid to prevent further interference by the Confederation government in Chilean internal affairs. He ordered a raid on the Confederate fleet that was stationed in the port of Callao. During a silent attack on the night of August 21, 1836, the Chileans managed to capture three confederate ships: the Santa Cruz, Arequipeño and Peruviana.

Instead of immediately going to war, Marshal Santa Cruz tried to negotiate with Chile. The Chilean Congress sent Mariano Egaña as plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty based on several points: the payments of the outstanding international debts owed by Peru to Chile, the limitation of the outstanding armies, commercial agreements, indemnization to Chile for the Freire expedition, and the dissolution of the Confederation. Santa Cruz agreed to everything but the dissolution. Chile responded by declaring war on December 28, 1836.

The international situation was not favorable to Chilean interests. Marshal Santa Cruz and the Confederation had been diplomatically recognized by the principal world powers with interests in the region (Great Britain, France and the United States), while Chile's allies, Argentina and Ecuador, had decided to remain neutral in the conflict.

Nonetheless, the continued interference of Santa Cruz in Argentina's internal affairs moved this country also to declare war, on May 9, 1837. Even though Chile and Argentina were acting against the same perceived threat, both countries went to war separately and were going to act separately during the whole course of it. In 1837, Felipe Braun, one of Santa Cruz's most capable generals and high decorated veteran of the war of independence, defeated an Argentine army sent to topple Santa Cruz. To further aggravate the Chilean position, public opinion there was totally opposed to a war they did not understand.

The Chilean government, in order to bolster its standing, immediately imposed martial law, asking for (and obtaining) extraordinary legislative powers from Congress. Early in 1837 a Court Martial Law was approved, and all citizens became subject to court martial for the duration of the war. The opposition to the Prieto administration immediately accused Portales of tyranny, and started a heated press campaign against him personally and against the unpopular war in general.

Political and public opposition to the war immediately affected the army, fresh from the purges of the civil war of 1830. On June 4, 1837, Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre, commander of the Maipo regiment, captured and imprisoned Portales while he was reviewing troops at the army barracks in Quillota. He immediately proceeded to attack Valparaíso on the mistaken belief that public opinion opposed to the war would support him and topple the government. Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada, in charge of the defense of Valparaíso, defeated him right outside the port. Captain Santiago Florín, who was in charge of Portales, had him shot when he heard the news, on June 6, 1837. Most of the conspirators were subsequently captured and executed. This murder was perceived as having been orchestrated by Marshal Santa Cruz and it turned the tide of public opinion. The war became a holy cause and Portales its martyr.

Invested with considerable powers, Santa Cruz endeavored to establish in Peru the same type of authoritarian order he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code, a Penal Code, a Trade Regulation and a Customs Regulation, and reorganized tax collection procedures to allow an increase in state revenues while restraining expenditures.

The first Chilean military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Vice Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada, failed and had to submit to the signature of the Treaty of Paucarpata, on November 17, 1837. The Chilean government then organized a second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector at the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839, and forced the dissolution of the Confederation. On August 25, 1839, General Agustín Gamarra, after assuming the presidency of Peru, officially declared the dissolution of the Confederation and the merging of the North and South Peruvian Republics into one to be called again Peru, separate from Bolivia.

The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil, in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. The country was a loose confederation between the states of Peru, divided into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Peru, and Bolivia as the Bolivian Republic, with the capital located in Tacna.

# data[].attributes.body
The achievements made by General Santa Cruz started the most important political project. The Independence that was gained because of Bolivia in 1825 didn't change the idea of joining the two countries. Santa Cruz wanted to have Bolivia ready to move towards having a better politics and militaries with what he already had. The nation prepared to achieve their old idea after the victory of Bolivian arms. The Peru-Bolivia confederation regrouped and defeated Santa Cruz after many battles.

# data[].attributes.body
Leaders acted as idols for the French civilians:

Georges Danton-Had a degree in law, leader of The Cordeliers Club, overthrew the French Monarchy, establish the First French Republic, first president of The Committee of Public Safety, & was guillotined

Jacques Pierre Brissot- Involved in literature, leader of an anti-radial group that got him imprisoned, elected as the head of the Legislative assembly, & declared war on Austria

Lazare Carnot- Lieutenant in an engineering corps, selected for the committee of public instruction, organized the military's defense against Spain, & appointed as the governor of Antwerp

Marquis de Lafayette- Joined the royal army, named major-general in the Continental Army, was commander in chief of the national guard, & he was a traitor and turned himself in

Marie Gouze- One of the first people to fight for women's rights & equality

Marie Antoinette- people did not think of her as their queen, led to further financial problems, & was convicted of many charges that led to her beheading

Maximilien Robespierre- He studied law in Paris, wrote papers against the upper-class, elected as a deputy of the third estate, & led the committee of Safety

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes- He was a writer and a clergymen, won a seat at the Directory, & organized coup d'état

Jean-Paul Marat- He was a French politician, journalist, physician, & the most influential journalist of the revolution

Napoleon Bonaparte- He was appointed first lieutenant of artillery, commanded an army, overthrew the French Directory, his forces defeated the Austrians, & became the Emperor of France

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
French Revolution was able to be one of the biggest revolutions of all time being led by various leaders. All the leaders acted as an idol for the citizens to look up to as the face of the revolution.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes's writings brought a significant change and led to propelling France in the path of Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte, George Danton, and Lazare Carnot played a vital role in the French Revolution.

10 important leaders of the French Revolution are:

Goerges Danton was born to an attorney, Jacques Danton and his second wife, Marie-Madeleine Camus, on October 26, 1759. He had the degree of Law (1784) and was married to Antoinette Charpentier.

Becoming the leader of a famous club - The Cordeliers Club, he was able to make his club well-known based during the French Revolution, on political force as he was generously lenient and was liked by the people.

Though taken as a hero under the Third Republic, he had some controversies related to his wealth and his dishonesty, which was not proved due to lack of proper documentation.

However, he was guillotined on April 5, 1794, along with his many friends. Before his death, he told the executioner to show his head to the people as it was worth the trouble.

Jacques Pierre Brissot was born to an innkeeper, on January 15, 1754. He worked at Chartres and Paris as a law clerk. Later he got involved in literature and shifted to London and got married to Felicite Dupont.

Being the leader of the Girondins(Brissotins), who were against the radical-democratic Jacobins, made many pamphlets against the then government and the queen for which he was imprisoned, for about four months, and released on September 1784.

In February 1788, became the founder of society along with his friends of Black, which was against slavery. He gave a speech about his foreign policy attacking King Louis XVI's inviolability to the Jacobins on July 10, 1791.

He then was elected as the head of the Legislative Assembly, during the Declaration of Pillnitz, where Austria and Prussia warned French people not to harm King Louis XVI. He was a member of the diplomatic committee due to his knowledge about foreign affairs.

During the French Revolution, he was on the side that only war could bring Revolution and unmask the enemies. So, he declared war against Austria on April 20, 1792. The Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre did not approve his philosophy.

The Revolutionary tribunal captured him from Moulins and brought him to Paris. ultimately he was sentenced on October 30, 1793.

Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, Count Carnot was born to Claude Carnot and Marguerite Pothier on May 13, 1753, in Nolay. He graduated from Engineering College and later obtained a commission as a lieutenant in an engineer corps and was married to Jacqueline Sophie Dupont.

Entering into politics during the French Revolution (1789), resulted in making him a delegate to the Legislature(1791) and being selected in the committee for public instruction.

Favouring the education of the people, he made many reforms in the educational systems, though they were not implemented due to the unfavourable condition.

In 1792, he was elected to the National Convention where he stayed for a few months on a mission to Bayonne and he organized the military defence which could protect them from attacks made by Spain.

Being elected in the Committee of Public Safety on August 14, 1793, he was responsible for creating and enforcing the discipline of the French Revolutionary Army.

Lazare Carnot was appointed the governor of Antwerp and was serving Napoleon Bonaparte. With the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, Louis XVIII exiled Carnot for life, and he died in Prussian on August 2, 1823.

Marquis de Lafayette was born in a noble military lineage family on September 6, 1757, in France, married Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles and joined the Royal Army after the death of his father and mother in the year 1771.

Being appointed to the Assembly of Notables and serving as a deputy for the Second Estate in 1787, brought numerous changes. He then joined the National Assembly and ultimately became vice president in 1789.

He was again made the commander-in-chief of the National Guard on July 15, 1789, where he served and led the draft and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

However, he was taken as a traitor after he tried to rally troops to march on Paris, which made him think as a loss of revolution. He surrendered himself to Prussians and Austrians in August and stayed in detention till 1797.

Marquis de Lafayette died on May 20,1834 due to pneumonia.

Marie Gouze, born to Anne Olympe Mouisset Gouze and Pierre Gouze, was born on May 7, 1748, in Montauban, France. The name Olympe de Gouges also call her.

Being one of the first women who fought for equal rights and standing firm against discrimination, violence, and oppression; led her to campaign for the women's rights for the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in the year 1791.

Taking the side of Girondins and defending Louis XVI, allowed citizens to choose their form of government. She was arrested in 1793, after the fall of the Girondins, and was guillotined in Paris on November 3, 1793.

Marie Antoinette, born to Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I and Empress- Queen Maria Theresa, on 2nd November 1755, was married to Louis XVI(1770).

After the death of her father-in-law, King Louis XV, she was made the Queen and is known to be part of the decline in the moral authority of the French Monarchy during the last years of the Ancien Regime.

People of France did not consider her as their queen instead treated her as a stranger, as she was from Austria. People even nicknamed her as Madame deficit, for in the time of financial crisis she spent lavishly on gambling, luxuries, parties, and dresses.

With the rage of the French Revolution, Marie Antoinette developed an alliance with the most valued lawmaker in the assembly, Honore Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau. She started negotiating secretly for the retirement of the King's authority.

On October 16.1793, she was found guilty of the charges: conspiracy against the security of the State, high treason because of her intelligence activities in the interest of the enemy, and depletion of the national treasury. She was guillotined on October 16, 1793

Maximilien Robespierre was born in Artois, France, on May 6, 1758. He was a smart child and following his father's footsteps, and he studied Law in Paris.

As the spokesperson of the National Assembly and supported the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

In the year 1793, France was facing numerous problems: food riots in Paris, threats from European Armies, the surrender of the Mediterranean base at Toulon to the British, and a revolt by the peasant in the southwest.

Though, he was facing daunting challenges such as crushing of revolution by the Royal Navy. He stood strong leading the committee of safety, he was determined to rule.

He was beheaded on July 28, 1794, along with his 22 followers and is remembered as a champion of the politically oppressed, weak, and destitute.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, also known as Abbe Sieyes, was born to a notary of Frejus on May 3, 1748. He was a writer and a clergyman.

Ideologies of the political thinkers during the Age of Enlightenment had a significant influence on Emmanuel Joseph. He wrote a pamphlet with a title What is the Third Estate? Which Included the want of genuine representatives in the governing nation.

Later served on the Committee of Public Safety for about six months in 1795 and in October, was appointed to the Council of Five Hundred and was able to win a seat on the Directory, France's ruling executive board.

He collaborated with Joseph Fouche, Napoleon Bonaparte, and C.M de Talleyrand to help organize the military coup d'etat which was able to overthrow the Directory on 18 Brumaire on November 9, 1799.

In 1815, when Napoleon returned to power for a short period, Sieyes gained the name in the Chamber of Peers. But, he was expelled from the Academy of Political and Moral Sciences in 1816, by King Louis XVIII.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes died on June 20, 1836, at the age of 88, in Paris.

Jean-Paul Marat, born to Jean Mara on May 24, 1743, in Boudry near Neuchatel, Switzerland, was a French politician, journalist, and a physician.

Publications of notorious, fierce, radical, and aggressive writings helped bring the violent phase in the Revolution, which made him the most influential journalist of the French Revolution.

Fighting for the fundamental human rights for the French people, also made people idolize him from his publication L'Ami du Peuple, meaning The Friend of the People (1789). Also published a pamphlet Offrande a la Patrie meaning Offering our Country which was indicating that Monarchy could solve the problems of France.

Though the National Assembly sentenced him, Marat kept on campaigning. In 1790-1791, he came up with the idea of the abolishment of Monarchy and declared the king ' unworthy to remount the throne' when Louis XVI tried to flee ( June 1791).

He was stabbed to death on July 13, 1793, by a young Girondin supporter who was from Normandy. He was then declared as a Martyr to people's cause.

Napoleon Bonaparte was born to Carlo Buonaparte and his wife Leticia Ramolino, on August 15, 1769. He graduated from the military academy in September 1785.

Appointed as the first lieutenant to the 4th regiment of artillery, garrisoned at Valence, later joined a debating society, Jacobin Club, who favoured the monarchy, he was made a president.

Commanding a French army in 1796, got victory over the armies of Austria. Again in 1799, he became the part of an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire who overthrew the French Directory.

Also became the leader of many campaigns - which were against the Coalition of European countries. Later in 1804, became the Emperor of France and led the European power.

On March 30, 1814, Napoleon surrendered himself and was exiled to Elba from France. He returned to Paris after a year and was defeated at Waterloo.

He died on May 5, 1821, due to stomach cancer.
Conclusion:
French Revolution was made possible with the strength, ideologies, courage, and skill of the leaders. With the strategies and the heroic thoughts, the leaders made it possible to make the French Revolution a huge success.

Leaders like Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, Georges Danton, Napoleon Bonaparte, Lazare Carnot, Marquis de Lafayette, and Jacques Pierre Brissot played vital roles during the French Revolution. They all had significant roles in the overall phase of this revolution.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
French Revolution was able to be one of the biggest revolutions of all time being led by various leaders. All the leaders acted as an idol for the citizens to look up to as the face of the revolution. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes's writings brought a significant change and led to propelling France in the path of Revolution.

# data[].attributes.body
Mariano Moreno- Founding father, one of the two secretaries of the Primera Junta, published the plan of operations, argued with Cornelio Saavedra, and was the radical voice

Cornelio Saavedra-  Made plenty of successful calls in the May Revolution, President of Primera Junta by election, and fought for the less radical side (most of the population)

Jose de San Martin- Primary Leader of the Argentine Revolution, was the general in the battles of independence from 1812-1818, and Argentinean hero

# data[].attributes.body
The Rio de la Plata was created by King Charles III in 1776. It functioned like a Spanish colony, even though technically it was under the King's possession. European Spain gained laws and regulations to decrease the contraband between Portuguese, Brazil, and Buenos Aires. The new Viceroyalty controlled an area previously owned by Peru. The Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata finally established a permanent colony in Buenos Aires. Argentinians were welcomed into the Spanish Empire.

# data[].attributes.body
Camillo di Cavour continued with his plans to make a unified Italian state with the help of Napoleon III. They later became allies and defeated Australia. Italian citizens thought Cavour had a great plan, and they wished to be Italian. Teenage volunteers helped take conquered Sicily and Piedmont. Italy was officially declared during 1861.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Italian and German Unification: Crash Course European History #27

# data[].attributes.body
Near the end of the 18th century, France went through enlightenment. Even with all of these changes, there was still a divide among the people with estates. The first and second estates were granted certain privileges, whereas the third estate got none and had to pay taxes. As France went into debt, it was decided that instead of the other estates chipping in, the third estate was taxed even more. This caused the third estate to revolt and start the national assembly. The national assembly stormed the bastille starting the revolution. King Louis was scared and ran away, but was found and led to the incarceration of the royal family. He was soon guillotined for his actions along with Queen Antionette. Robespierre led the Reign of Terror, which led to 20,000 beheadings followed by his own. Napoleon Bonaparte later took charge as emperor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What caused the French Revolution? - Tom Mullaney