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We are concerned with the allocation of funding that the government has proposed and would ask for clarity in the form of a breakdown of spending proposals. All we ask is that funding is proportionate to the emissions by Australia and that the government uses the money to directly assist the climate crisis!

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Australia is the largest export of iron ore and coal to China. We understand that it has large importance on driving the economy but it is not sustainable and environmentally friendly.

Is there a possible future for an alternative and cleaner energy solution? Currently, there are solutions in the world that are much cleaner and as effective in producing energy such as a solar and wind energy.

Kind regards,
Ebony Yee of Alliance of Small Island States.

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In your position statement, you mentioned the importance of border protection and the security of our society, yet Australia is the only country in the world that implements offshore processing as a means of dealing with refugees. It is also one of the most sizeable countries and is economically stable. Take an example of Germany who in 2015 accepted around 1 million refugees while still dodging a populist uprising.

Neil Hussain / Socio-Cultural Delegation GREENPEACE ASIA PACIFIC

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Can you specify what percentage of Foreign aid funds stated in your position had some ecological over economical priority.

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To whom it may concern,

I am writing to you from the AOSIS Social-Cultural delegation. Given our pending predicament we are looking to Australia to house our citizens who have lost their homes due to rising sea levels. Given that many of our people have already migrated to Australia we believe that our cultures align and it will be a good fit.

I look to your compassion on this delicate issue.

Regards,

Delegete Connell of the AOSIS

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Hey Government of Australia,

In 2010, the current prime minister/ you're leader stated; "Climate change is a global problem. The planet is warming because of the growing level of greenhouse gas emissions from human activity. If this trend continues, truly catastrophic consequences are likely to ensue from rising sea levels, to reduced water availability, to more heatwaves and fires."

It is evident that Malcolm is smart enough to understand the consequences of this 'global problem', however in this year's budget his liberal colleague and representative Scott Morrison not only failed to even mention climate change in his budget speech but recent evidence also projects climate issue spending to drop from $3 billion to $1.6 billion next year.

How are the future generations going to cope with the climate refugee crisis that seems an inevitability if we don't act now? We think Manus Island will be full by that point.

Please explain.

Regards,
Neil Hussain, Socio-cultural officer
GREENPEACE ASIA PACIFIC

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The Government of Australia's position, with regard to 'climate refugees' is in adherence to United Nations international law and global obligations. The government's 2017-18 Budget is currently giving development and resilience aid generously to the Pacific Nations. Domestically, the Commonwealth Government's current policy on climate change is the lowering of emissions, and our Kyoto 2030 aim is on target to be met. We will continue to fund and implement our successful Emissions Reductions Fund, and continuously review and refine our policies and the implementation of such policies through evidence-based research cycles.

Internationally, we are consistently going above and beyond our global responsibilities in both the amount of Official Development Assistance we give, and the programs and developments we have in place to tackle climate change.  Our work with international partners in both the Platform on Disaster Displacement, and the Kiribati-Australia Nursing Initiative are just two examples of how we have exceeded our international obligations in working towards the best possible outcomes for the Pacific region. Alongside this, we also contributed to international initiative, The Climate Risk Early Warning System, to protect lives, and livelihoods, in Small Island and Least Developed Countries; a total of $5million over a 4-year period from 2016 to 2020.

Australia has beautiful land and wonderful people, who we are wholly committed to. National Security is of utmost importance to the Government of Australia and with our terror alert at a ‘high’ level, the safety of our citizens is of paramount importance. Refugees entering Australia must go through the proper processes and procedures if we are to ensure the protection of our borders. Moreover, for refugees and migrants to settle and integrate well into Australian society, our customs, values and laws must be embraced, regardless of background or origin. Critically, the 1951 United Nations Convention and Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees does not include individuals affected by climate change. As such, with the International Law of Preventing Statelessness - that we are abiding by - we are meeting our global obligations in relation to 'climate refugees' and global climate change.

Australia's contributions to the World Bank have increased to 5-times the level we gave in 2005. In addition, Australia will be contributing AUD $774.5million to the World Bank's International Development Association (2018). Our rationale to giving these funds are in line with our aid program priorities: promoting private sector development; boosting women's economic empowerment; effective governance; supporting fragile states; and tackling climate change. We are also partners with the World Bank on specific development programs which support our current policy priorities.

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Australia Pacific Official Development Assistance by Investment Priority

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Australia Pacific Official Development Assistance by Investment Priority

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2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Development Goals

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2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - Sustainable Development Goals

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13.Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries

13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning

13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible

13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities

* Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

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As the UNHCR is committed to aiding states follow their international obligations, we formally ask the Australian Government how they are committed to the International Law of Preventing Statelessness in regard to those that will be displaced from Climate Change?

Kind regards,
Allyson (UNHCR legal representative)

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Due to the detrimental impacts of climate change, those in regions of the pacific islands are at risk of losing their homes to natural disasters which have been occurring more frequently because of climate change. Rising sea levels, cyclones, coral bleaching and infiltration of salt water into drinking water, ultimately ruining any crops that where being grown.

This will lead to people being forced to leave behind their homeland behind. Numbers will continue to grow as the conditions on their islands worsens and climate change continues to wreak havoc on these regions. These refugees are being forced to uproot their lives and seek refuge in foreign countries.

Australia is hitting the benchmarks set, and global responsibilities, it will therefore not contribute any addition support as the Government of Australian is focusing on its priorities.

Due to a difference in cultural perspectives the Australian Government will not be actively participating in the process of accepting and rehabilitating climate refugees’. A significant difference in social norms and the way of living will contribute to a disarray in the Australian community. The Australian government exposes many concerns regarding the lack of contribution refugees may have on building Australia’s society. The perceived notion of a lack of education and illiteracy make those Australian citizens who are more accepting of refugees wary of hosting large numbers of culturally different foreigners due to the belief they could be taking the low skill occupations form Australians.

Refugees making such a drastic change of uprooting their lives means adapting to a new culture and social environment which may lead to a loss of culture.

As many Australians already have pre-existing notions of refugees, the social opinion leans to a lack of benefit to having them on Australian soil. There is a social opinion that having climate refugees will be a burden on Australian resources.

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Liberal Party- Securing Australia's boarders

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When John Howard left government in 2007, there were only four illegal maritime arrivals in detention - none were children.

Labor proceeded to unwind the Coalition's strong policies. The results were a disaster.

Under Labor:

Over 50,000 people arrived on over 800 boats.

1,200 deaths at sea (that we know of).

Over 8,000 children were detained while Labor was in government.

At the height of Labor's failure, in July 2013, there were 10,201 people in detention, including 1,992 children.

17 detention centres needed to open to deal with the influx of illegal arrivals.

Border protection failure led to a budget blowout of $11 billion.

STOPPING THE BOATS

Under Operation Sovereign Borders, we have turned around Labor's failure and taken back control of our borders from the people smugglers.

The Coalition Government has ended Labor's border chaos and restored policies including:

Turn-backs where it is safe to do so;

Offshore processing; and

Temporary Protection Visas.

This has acted as a significant deterrent to people smugglers, denying them a product to sell. Our strong border protection policies have meant:

It has been over three years without a boat arrival;

We have stopped deaths at sea;

We have closed 17 detention centres;

We have removed all children from detention;

Stopping the boats and closing detention centres have saved the Budget billions.

Having restored integrity to our immigration system, we are in a position to increase Australia's generous humanitarian program - rising from 13,750 refugees in 2013-14 to 18,750 by 2018-19.

Australia has also provided a generous humanitarian response to the Syrian crisis, through the additional intake of 12,000 Syrian refugees.

CANCELLING VISAS OF CRIMINALS

The Coalition Government amended the Migration Act to increase the Minister's power to cancel visas for non-citizens who are convicted of a crime with a sentence of 12 months or more, or who have been convicted of a sexual offence against a child.

This has resulted in a 12-fold increase in visa cancellations.

Since December 2014, the Coalition Government has cancelled the visas of over 3,000 dangerous criminals, including 61 murderers, 135 rapists, 260 child sex offenders and 170 criminal motorcycle gang members.

We have cancelled five times more visas of non-citizen criminals in the past two years than Labor did in their entire six years in Government.

CANCELLING CITIZENSHIP FOR TERRORIST CONDUCT (DUAL NATIONALS)

We are keeping Australians safe from dual nationals who support terrorist activities, including foreign fighters who seek to return to Australia.

In 2015, we passed legislation to revoke citizenship of any dual-national who: engages in a terrorist act or other specified terrorism-related conduct; engages in hostile activity with a terrorist organisation overseas; or is convicted of a terrorist act or other terrorism-related offence.

STOPPING DRUGS AT THE BORDER

We are improving our ability to stop drugs at their source. For example, since we established Taskforce Blaze - the first ever task force of its kind between agencies in Australia and China - Australian and Chinese authorities have intercepted more than 13 tonnes of illegal drugs destined for our streets - including more than 6 tonnes of Ice.

Since the Coalition Government amended the Migration Act to enable cancellation of visas of non-citizens who are convicted of a crime with a sentence of 12 months or more, we have cancelled the visas of around 500 drug dealers.
Information current as at March 2018

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When John Howard left government in 2007, there were only four illegal maritime arrivals in detention - none were children. Labor proceeded to unwind the Coalition's strong policies. The results were a disaster. Under Labor: Over 50,000 people arrived on over 800 boats. 1,200 deaths at sea (that we know of).

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Impact migration can have on refugee's

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As climate change causes sea levels to rise, vulnerable populations in countries like Tuvalu, Bangladesh and Vietnam are threatened with the very real prospect of losing their homes and migrating inland.

In some places, like Fiji, this is happening already.

In 2014, the entire village of Vunidogoloa on Vanua Levu was forced to move to higher ground 2 kilometres inland to escape coastal erosion and regular flooding - environmental impacts that villagers and the Fiji Government attribute to climate change.

Vunidogoloa was moved 2 kms inland to escape the impacts associated with climate change. Picture: The United Nations Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs

A further 80 villages have now been identified as at risk, and in need of relocation.

As President of this year's UN Climate Change Conference of Parties (COP23) in Bonn, Germany, Fiji has the opportunity to bring this plight to the world stage, and represent other Small Island Developing States facing similarly devastating situations.

Dr Celia McMichael from the University of Melbourne's School of Geography researches climate-related migration in Fiji in collaboration with local researchers. She says lower-income areas are among the most vulnerable to climate-related migration risks, including associated health risks.

"People and populations that are displaced after experiencing environmental disasters like flooding can be exposed to heightened risk of infectious disease and poor water and sanitation," she says.

The deadly ingredients in a tropical hurricane

"Forced migration also generates complex psychosocial impacts as people are dislocated and their everyday routines and social structures are interrupted.

"Displacement can provoke a loss of belonging and social networks; entire livelihoods and cultural practices are altered. This can lead to depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder."

The Vunidogoloa way

One hundred and twenty people from 26 households in Vunidogoloa were relocated due to coastal erosion and flooding that damaged homes and crops. With the support of the Fijian Government and international agencies, the community has created new houses and livelihood opportunities.

Fiji is one of the first countries to introduce government-run programmes that relocate communities impacted by climate change, including those affected by sea- level rise. With plans in place to relocate 80 vulnerable populations across Fiji, lessons can be learned from the Vunidogoloa experience.

Dr McMichael says adverse health consequences can be reduced or avoided with careful management.

"Villagers, government agencies and donors are keenly aware of the need to ensure ongoing food security including small-scale farming, to build water systems that can provide sufficient potable water in sites of relocation, and to develop and maintain livelihoods particularly where they have moved away from existing jobs," says Dr McMichael.

But, she says, we need to learn more about the different aspects of climate migration and to develop international laws and frameworks to support these migrants. She adds that migration shouldn't be seen as the only adaptive approach to the consequences of climate change.

Communities in Tuvalu are facing the very real prospect of losing their homes. Picture: Getty Images

"In the Pacific and other countries, people are saying 'We're not climate refugees. We want to adapt. Migration isn't our only option'," says Dr McMichael.

"If they do have to migrate then they want to be supported to migrate with dignity. Or to migrate in ways that support their futures."

She says that whilst climate migration is a last resort, it should be done in a way that supports livelihoods and social networks, and works to minimise physical and mental health impacts.

Like other Small Island Developing States in the Pacific Region, Fiji faces financial challenges responding to climate disasters. As a result, climate finance is a high priority for discussion at COP23 for Fijian Prime Minister and incoming COP23 President Frank Bainimarama.

Global warming could accelerate towards 1.5℃ if the Pacific Ocean gets cranky

The Fijian government recently hosted a COP23 delegation for some pre-COP 'Partnership Days', where he described the plight of his people.

"It matters that you have come to Fiji, to where we live, to see the impact that climate change is having on our way of life," he said. "And to perhaps understand better the specific vulnerability of people living in Small Island Developing States".

He also gave a summary of Fiji's vision for COP23, and articulated the importance of action and progress.

"Fiji's vision is for a Presidency that is transparent and inclusive of all, advances the Paris Agreement and accelerates climate action for all vulnerable societies, drawing on our own experiences as a Small Island Developing State in the Pacific.

"We are all vulnerable and we all need to act."

Michael Traeger, Raveena Grace, Maddison Brian and Jack Simkin are masters students at the University of Melbourne. They wrote this article as part of their coursework for the subject Science Communication (SCIE90012).

Banner: Getty Images

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Dr Celia McMichaelLecturer, School of Geography, University of Melbourne

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As climate change causes sea levels to rise, vulnerable populations in countries like Tuvalu, Bangladesh and Vietnam are threatened with the very real prospect of losing their homes and migrating inland. In some places, like Fiji, this is happening already.

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Government of Australia Position: Political-Ethical

The Government of Australia is currently on track to meet our global climate targets, and as such our global climate responsibilities. Our responsibilities are first and foremost to Australia and our peoples, jobs, sustained economic growth, and national security. With this in mind, we will meet this target in a “balanced way that supports investment and supports employment, particularly in regional Australia” (DEE). We have already met and beat our first Kyoto Protocol target and our projections show we in track to meeting our 2030 target.

We currently have 23 climate change programs, 7 policies, and 7 tools in place to lower our climate impact, which have allowed us to reach and surpass our international responsibilities. Our climate change policies must keep degrees of flexibility, sustainability and transparency. The current Australian Government will continue to fund and advocate our successful Emissions Reduction Fund, and continuously improve the operations of the policy, using 'review and refine' cycles.

Examples of our policies and programs are:

·         Our contribution to the initiative, Climate Risk Early Warning System, to help protect lives, and livelihoods in Small Island and Least Developed Countries ($5million over 4 years – 2016 to 2020);

·         Our $200million commitment to the Green Climate Fund (GCF) (2015 to June 2018) to support developing countries grow their economies in a sustainable way. The GCF also aids countries adapt to climate change and reduction emissions with continued benefits to their economies.

Our 2017/18 budget projected sending a total of $1.1billion in Official Development Assistance (ODA) aid to the Pacific. These funds go towards Effective Governance (the eradication of corruption in governments and efficient use of funds). We have committed $1billion over 5 years specifically to Climate Change around the world.  We have also allocated $300million specifically for Climate Change and Resilience – from 2016/17 to 2019/20 – just to Pacific nations, which will “improve forecasting and reporting on climate, tides and the ocean and deliver practical information on drought conditions, water storages, and malaria," (DFAT).

Our priorities are first to Australians and Australia’s security as a nation. The issue of ‘Climate Refugees’ will be an upcoming topic but currently the Government of Australia is doing the all necessary to avoid the displacement of Pacific Nations’ peoples by the ODA given to the countries in a preventative method.

References:

Commonwealth of Australia 2017, ‘Government and International Initiatives’, Department of Environment and Energy (DEE), <http://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/government>.

Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Overview of Australia’s assistance for climate change’, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), <http://dfat.gov.au/aid/topics/investment-priorities/building-resilience/climate-change/Pages/climate-change.aspx>

Commonwealth of Australia 2017, 2017 Review of Climate Change Policies, Department of Environment and Energy, <http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/18690271-59ac-43c8-aee1-92d930141f54/files/2017-review-of-climate-change-policies.pdf>.

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Group Government of Australia Position - Political Ethical.docx

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The extreme effects of climate change, impacting land, heath and economy, within the Pacific Islands have caused the citizens of the communities to become, what has been dubbed as, “climate refugees. “The Australian Government is strongly affirmed that within an economic sphere, we are meeting our international and domestic responsibilities. Australia has subject to being generous to neighbouring states, and has future plans to endeavour this. Through our government’s commitment, over the years 2016-2020, Australia will donate $300 million towards climate change and resilience within the Pacific Islands alone. This was in response to a similar program titled, ‘Pacific Risk Resilience Program’ which spent $16.95 million within 2012-2018 to encourage the aspect of resilience among Pacific Islanders.

The official development assistance (ODA) towards “Australia’s Pacific Regional aid program” in 2017-18 is estimated at $180.1 million. This was targeted to create better living standards to allow for economic growth within the communities, for citizens to be more resilient, and more specifically to empower women and girls. The quest to better the social economic environment of the Pacific Islands and its citizens is the main reason in which we offer foreign aid. The Australian Government has various appeals around the world in which we have supported including Afghanistan 2016 and Iran 2016. With the large issues that require a copious amount foreign aid from us, the issue of “climate refugees” is essentially is not of the highest priority for us.

To push our pursuit for better relations alongside a better environment for the climate refugees is outlined Australia’s new development policy and performance framework. We hope to increase our aid for trade expenditure to 20 percent by 2020. This will include not only infrastructure support and productivity, along with the flow of goods across borders, but it is also focussed on the aspect of human development in partner countries such as the Pacific Islands.

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On the issue of so-called “climate refugees”, as ever, the Australian government is committed to its obligations in international law. According to the 1951 United Nations Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is someone who is “unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion”. Australia is currently not party to any treaties or international conventions legislating for the treatment of individuals affected by climate change in foreign territories. As a sovereign nation state, we have a right to protect our borders, and will alter policy in our people’s best interests.

We are not only satisfied that we are meeting our international obligations, but going above and beyond in our world leading action in both the regional and global fight against climate change, and the mitigation of its impacts. Our work with international partners in both the Platform on Disaster Displacement, and the Kiribati-Australia Nursing Initiative are just two examples of how we have exceeded our international obligations in working towards the best possible outcomes for the region. Now, more than ever, we must work with our international partners to find the best possible outcomes for our region, and our planet. Through the exceeding of our Kyoto Protocol emissions targets, we have demonstrated our commitment to international agreements and cooperation, and will work as hard as possible to build on this success.

At this time, the Australian government is therefore confident that a continuation of current policy towards both climate change and its impacts will ensure the best outcomes for the region, and will look forward to future discussions on the area with our regional partners.

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More government and international initiatives in relation to climate change.

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Department of the Environment and Energy

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Department of the Environment and Energy

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Australia is meeting its climate change targets, improving the environment and supporting an effective international response.

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The Government’s climate change plan includes:

Reducing emissions by 5 per cent below 2000 levels by2020.

Reducing emissions by 26 to 28 per cent below 2005 levels by 2030.

Doubling Australia’s renewable energy capacity to be achieved in 2020 which is driving innovation, creating jobs and providing a cleaner future

Helping improve energy productivity by 40 per cent, by 2030.

Ensuring big business and Australia’s largest emitters do their part and continue to reduce emissions.

Helping expand and protect our green spaces and iconic places such as the Great Barrier Reef

Spurring businesses, communities, households and individuals into ongoing action to reduce emissions.

Investing in innovation and clean technology to help capture the opportunities of a cleaner future.

Managing climate risks by building resilience in the community, economy and environment.

http://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/government

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2017 (December) Review of Climate Change Policies.

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The law n stuff

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UNEP has been conducting its environmental law activities on the basis of sequential ten-year Montevideo Programmes for the Development and Periodic Review of Environmental Law, setting the strategy for UNEP's engagement in the field of environmental law.
Key Activities
Preventing Transboundary Environmental Crime
Enhancing International Cooperation to deal with Offenses against the Environment, in particular trafficking in Hazardous Wastes, Wildlife and Illegal Timber, and such offenses committed by organized criminal groups. Environmental crime is currently one of the most profitable forms of criminal activity. INTERPOL estimates that global wildlife crime is worth billions of dollars a year.

Progressive Development of Environmental Law
UNEP has been conducting its environmental law activities on the basis of sequential ten-year Montevideo Programmes for the Development and Periodic Review of Environmental Law, setting the strategy for UNEP's engagement in the field of environmental law.

Water Law: Supporting the Development and Implementation of National, Regional and Global Legal Instruments and Policies for the Sustainable use of Freshwater Resources
Effective governance of freshwater resources (both surface and ground water) is one of the most pressing environmental issues today. Freshwater ecosystems have been experiencing rapid and severe degradation and loss in the past 50 years due to over-exploitation, pollution, and other human activities.

Human Rights and the Environment
UNEP, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, and the UN Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment have joined efforts to identify, promote and exchange views on good practices relating to the use of human rights obligations and commitments to inform, support and strengthen environmental policymaking, especially in the areas of environmental protection and management.

Law and Environment Ontology(LEO): Web-tools for the Implementation and Enforcement of International Environmental Law and Internationally Agreed Targets/GOALS
LEO aims to provide an agreed to semantic standard for any institution or organization that collects and manages data, information and knowledge in the field of Environmental Law and Governance.

Green Customs Initiative
A partnership of international organisations aimed at enhancing the capacity of customs in facilitating legal trade, and preventing illegal trade, of environmentally sensitive commodities

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International Environmental Law | UN Environment

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UNEP has been conducting its environmental law activities on the basis of sequential ten-year Montevideo Programmes for the Development and Periodic Review of Environmental Law, setting the strategy for UNEP's engagement in the field of environmental law.

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A brief/vague article on the impacts of climate change in Australia

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Department of the Environment and Energy

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The coast is a relatively narrow dynamic zone where the atmosphere, ocean and land interact. The coast is not only the shoreline, it includes estuary systems which are permanently or sometimes connected to the ocean and extend inland. More than 85 per cent of Australians live within 50 km of the shoreline, and the coastal region generates most of the country's economic activity.

Climatically, coastal areas are exposed to sea-level fluctuations, coastal inundation and river flooding from short-term weather cycles and episodes of extreme events, even without climate change. This poses risks to households and settlements, businesses, infrastructure and essential services (water and energy) and industry such as fishing and tourism.

Climate change exacerbates existing climate risks for our coasts and creates new risks:

Rising sea levels increase the risk of damage caused by storm surges. This in turn exacerbates coastal erosion, with the risk of damage to coastal infrastructure, removal of sediment from beaches and loss of land.

Coastal settlements may be affected by flooding, particularly in low-lying communities. Rising sea levels, combined with extreme events, like inland flooding, could result in further damage.

Coastal assets are at risk from other variables and hazards, such as ocean acidification, warmer sea surface temperatures, bushfires, increased wind speeds, and the increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves.

Coastal assets include both built and natural assets. Built assets include, for example:

Residential and commercial buildings

Ship terminals, ports and harbours

Bridges

Beach protection works such as groynes and jetties

Artificial reefs

Navigational channels

Natural assets are natural resources from which goods are produced and services provided, e.g. landforms, flora, fauna, waterways, wetlands, etc. Examples of the services provided by natural assets include, for example:

Dwelling in proximity to the coastline

Recreational opportunities that link closely with our lifestyle choices

Indigenous, spiritual and cultural values and heritage

Habitat and nursery grounds for many coastal and estuarine plants and animals

Mangroves and sand dunes that have biodiversity values and protect our developments during storms

Waterways that filter pollutants and provide sources of water

Climate regulation

More than two thirds of Australia's population are now living in a capital city. And over two thirds of Australia's economic activity is generated in the capital cities. Climate change and natural disasters impact the location and design of our cities and the built environment, and the way we manage the natural resources that support human settlements. Climate change poses challenges to a range of publicly and privately-owned and managed assets.

Key climate risks to Australian cities include:

Gradual impacts (sea-level and temperature rise) and extreme events (floods, heatwaves and bushfires) may pose challenges to assets and infrastructure, including commercial and residential buildings, energy, water and communications utilities, and transport systems.

Hotter, drier conditions, and increased bushfire risk and the incidence of heatwaves, means greater risk of human injury and interrupted labour force productivity.

In the coastal zone, more intense storms and cyclones and rising sea levels could worsen storm surge, coastal inundation and erosion with impacts on the built environment.

Damage to biodiversity and ecosystems that support social wellbeing, provide services such as clean air and fresh water, and offer protection from natural disasters.

Failure in one part of a city's social, economic or infrastructure networks may have cascading or unanticipated effects elsewhere.

The extent that population growth and urbanisation shifts to areas at higher risk of adverse climate change impacts could increase Australia's exposure to natural hazards as a whole.

More information

Primary industries, such as agriculture, forestry and fisheries, are highly sensitive to weather extremes and variations in climate. Climate change presents new challenges in some locations and industries, while presenting new opportunities in others. Over the coming decades, projected climate change is likely to increase productivity risks for agriculture, forestry and fisheries in different ways:

The increased frequency of drought conditions in southern Australia has the potential to affect agricultural yields.

Increasing temperatures and more frequent extreme heat events are likely to place livestock at greater risk of heat stress, reducing livestock productivity and reproductive rates.

Forestry is facing an increased risk of declining productivity and tree mortality in some regions as a result of reduced rainfall, increased temperatures, natural disasters and water loss.

Crops and horticulture are facing changes in growing season and changed frequency and intensity of heatwaves and storms.

More information

Australia's rainfall varies greatly from one year to the next and from one decade to the next, and is strongly influenced by large scale phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña. Despite this large natural variability, underlying longer-term trends are evident in some regions, and these are likely to be climate change related.

There has been significant drying across southern Australia, especially across the cool April-October growing season. For the continental southeast, rainfall for the period 1996 to 2015 decreased by about 11% since national rainfall records began in 1900. The drying trend is dominant between May and July over southwest Western Australia, with rainfall since 1970 around 19% less than the long-term average. Since 1996, this decline from the long-term average has increased to around 25%.

The recent decrease in rainfall across southern Australia, at an agriculturally and hydrologically important time of the year, is associated with a trend towards high atmospheric pressure (high mean sea level pressure) in the region. This trend is associated with a shift in large-scale weather patterns. There has been a reduction in the number of cold fronts impacting the southwest and a decrease in the incidence and intensity of weather systems known as 'cut-off lows' in the southeast. A recent attribution study shows extremely high pressures as seen across southeast Australia in August 2014 are more likely to occur in the future due to climate change.

There has been a net increase in summer rainfall across much of the continent over the past 30 years. Research is continuing into the underlying cause.

Groundwater is vulnerable to climate change and climate variability. Potential climate risks for groundwater include reduced groundwater recharge and supplies, seawater intrusion to coastal aquifers, reduction of freshwater availability on small islands, and increased demand from communities and industries.

Supply from surface and groundwater is not the only risk to our water resources. For example, increased extreme weather events, such as bushfires and floods, can affect water quality and water infrastructure. Increasing temperatures may increase the risk of bacterial contamination in water supplies, blue-green algal outbreaks and acid-sulphate soil issues.

In 2017, the Government released the NWI module: Considering climate change and extreme events in water planning and management, a supporting document to the National Water Initiative Policy Guidelines for Water Planning and Management. The module provides guidance to jurisdictions on how to consider and incorporate possible impacts from climate change and extreme events in water planning and management. It provides a suite of options for managing climate risks, allowing water planners to develop an approach tailored to their local circumstances such as the type of water resource, and level of demand for water.

The 2016 State of the Environment report found climate change is one of the main pressures on the Australian environment and exacerbates other pressures including land-use change, habitat fragmentation and degradation, and invasive species.

Climate change, particularly rising temperatures, increases the impact of these existing pressures, undermining the resilience of native species.

Scientists expect climate change to cause changes to the abundance and geographic range of many species, restrict or alter species movement and interfere with their lifecycles (such as the timing of germination). Climate change presents a biosecurity risk for Australia's ecosystems by altering the distribution of pest and weed species.

Ecosystems have a limited capacity to manage these multiple pressures compared to human systems. Rates of climate change, together with other pressures, limit the capacity of species to adapt in situ or migrate to more climatically suitable areas, where such areas exist.

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Human health is linked with environmental factors such as temperature, and air and water quality. Australia's greatest health threats from climate change are expected to come from extreme weather events (such as heatwaves), rising temperatures and the changing variability of rainfall.

The increasing incidence of heatwaves is leading to a greater risk of injury, disease and death. Heatwaves have caused more loss of life than any other natural hazard in Australia over the past 100 years.

The increasing frequency and intensity of other extreme weather events poses risks to human health, including injuries, disease and death, and disruption to health services.

Drought has been linked to decreased mental health, particularly in rural communities.

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The costs of extreme weather events range from environmental impacts and financial costs incurred by governments, businesses and households to impacts on the physical and psychological health of individuals. Although Australia is experienced at preparing for and responding to natural disasters, the influence of climate change on extreme weather will place pressure on our capacity to manage these events.

For example, the changing frequency, magnitude and distribution of extreme weather may result in natural disasters occurring in new areas and where emergency management experience is limited. Natural disasters could increasingly occur in close succession, limiting the time available for a community to recover between events.

Over many parts of Australia there has been an increase in extreme fire weather as indicated by the Forest Fire Danger Index, and an increase in the length of the fire season since the 1970s. This increase is especially pronounced in southern and eastern Australia, driven by higher temperatures and reductions in cool-season rainfall. There is substantial variability from year to year, with generally lower fire danger in major La Niña years such as 2010‑11.

Some parts of Australia do show a tendency over the post-1950 period towards a higher proportion of rainfall from extreme events. Extreme rainfall events are highly variable in time and space, and any underlying trend would need to be large in order to be detectable with a high level of statistical significance. Climate model projections generally indicate a higher proportion of total rainfall from extreme events, with more extreme rainfall events projected even in those regions where total rainfall is expected to decrease.

The number of tropical cyclones in the Australian region varies with El Niño and La Niña events. Once variability is accounted for, observations show that since 1982 (when high quality data became available) there has been a reduced number of tropical cyclones in the region which Australia is responsible for observing. There is no clear trend over this time in observations of tropical cyclone intensity. Climate model projections generally indicate a likely decrease in tropical cyclone numbers but an increase in the intensity of those cyclones which do occur.

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Department of the Environment and Energy

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Australia faces significant environmental and economic impacts from climate change across a number of sectors. Decisions made today will have lasting consequences for future generations. Read about some of the impacts of climate change on: Click on a heading below or Show all | Hide all

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