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Canals

Railroads

Horses

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Religious Protestant farmers

- schools and churches

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Subsistence Farming

"Yankee ingenuity"

High tariffs

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Centers of art, culture, and education newspapers and books

crowded and dirty

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5 - 19 million in 1800-1860

2 million Irish and Germans

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Rocky

Hilly

Forests

Rivers

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warm summers

snowy winters