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Núñez París, F. (2008). Teoría del currículum y didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras. Revista Nebrija de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Número 4.

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Competencias Clave
Alemañy (2009). Las competencias básicas en el área de inglés

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En este enlace podrás ver cómo enunciar los objetivos de aprendizaje.

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Learning Objectives - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Are you a teacher, parent, or student looking for a creative project idea? You should find this list of 62 project ideas to be a great resource for designing activities and projects.

When students create projects, they are the active agent in the learning process; the classroom is centered on the student rather than the teacher and the role of the instructor evolves to that of the facilitator. This list should give you great ideas to create projects for any topic of study. Leave a comment below to share how you've applied these ideas in your home or classroom.

1. Advertisements: create an advertising campaign to sell a product. The product can be real or imaginary. Try using this to teach persuasion, as an assignment for speech class, or to reinforce skills learned in a consumer class.

2. Album Covers: create artwork for an album. The album may be connected to a skill (such a multiplication) and should demonstrate or explain how that skill is used. Or the album cover may be connected to a novel and the art work might present a relevant theme in the story. Another use would be to have students create natural disaster album covers in a science class where the cover would depict and explain the event.

3. Autobiographies: write the story of your life. This assignment may help you teach autobiography or reinforce a broad range of writing skills.

4. Awards: create awards to present to historical figures, scientists, mathematicians, authors, or characters from a novel.

5. Banners: create an informational banner. Students could create time lines of the American civil war or the Spanish alphabet.

6. Bar Graphs: create illustrated bar graphs. These may be used to explore data sets, use statistics to support a point, or illustrate a growth or change in a market.

7. Biographies: write the life story of someone else. It could be a friend, family member, historical figure, or a fictional character.

8. Blogs: create blogs for literary characters or historical figures. Create an actual blog for free at blogger.com or just have students write and organize articles on white printer paper if the internet is not available.

9. Blueprints: create blueprints or floor plans of a scene described in a novel, an historic setting, or an earthquake proof bridge or structure.

10. Boardgames: create boardgames where students review course concepts. Game play should be based around answering review questions correctly.

11. Book Clubs: Students read either novels or selections from the text book and discuss the readings in small groups. Students might be required to take notes about the discussion or provide an audio recording of the discussion as the artifact to be evaluated. Students might also create discussion questions beforehand and have these approved by the instructor. This activity may be applied to reading selections in any subject.

12. Booklets: create an informational booklet. In the past I've had students create booklets showing comma rules, narrator's perspective, genre, figurative language, and more. Booklets can be applied to almost any unit of study and all they require to make are some blank white printer paper folded in half, one of my favorites.

13. Bookmarks: create illustrated bookmarks with relevant information. A bookmark might summarize previous chapters or contain the definitions of challenging vocabulary words.

14. Brochures: brochures can be made as either tri-fold or bi-folds. Students can create informational brochure's about geographic locations, a story's setting, or a natural event such as how a tidal wave is formed or how the food chain works.

15. Calendars: create a calendar charting the dates of key events. This can be applied to an historical event (like a famous battle), a scientific event (such a the path of Hurricane Katrina), or the sequence of events in story.

16. Casting Calls: select people (fictional, famous, or otherwise) to play the role in a movie version of story or historic event. Explain which character traits were considered in each selection.

17. Cheers: create a cheer explaining a scientific or mathematical process. Alternately, a cheer could summarize the events of a novel or an historic episode.

18. Classified Ads: create classified type ads as seen in newspapers. It could be a wanted ad or a M4F type ad depending on the age of your students. Update the concept and have students create Craigslist ads or Ebay listings. Example applications include covering vocabulary words, introducing multiple characters in a drama, examining figures in an historical event, or studying endangered and extinct plants and animals.

19. Coat of Arms: create a family coat of arms for a character from a novel or a person from history. A good activity for teaching symbolism.

20. Collages: create a collage or collection of images related to a topic. Images can be hand drawn, printed, or clipped from a magazine or newspaper. These work best with large thematic ideas that give students the ability to maneuver, like a collage representing slavery, the 1920s, or an entire story.

21. Comic Strips or Books: create an illustrated comic strip or book representing events from history or a work of fiction.

22. Crossword Puzzles: create a crossword puzzle to review definitions of challenging vocabulary words. Great for science, social studies, reading, and even math terms.

23. Diary Entries: create a diary entries for a person from history or a fictional character who experienced an historic event. Can also be applied to characters in a story or survivors of a disaster.

24. Dramas: create a play. Students might adapt an existing story or create original works and plays can be centered around any event in history.

25. Editorials: provide an opinion about a hot topic in history or science. Should the space program be reduced? Is US military intervention in current conflicts appropriate? Is global warming a concern?

26. Fables: create fables that teach a lesson. Students may create illustrated story boards of their original fables or even dramatic adaptations which they then perform. A good character building activity.

27. Flags: create a flag representing either an actual county (like Libya) or fictitious place (like Narnia). This project should be accompanied by a brief report explaining what ideas the colors and images on the flags represent.

28. Flash Cards: create cards helpful for study and review. Flash cards can be created for any subject and topic.

29. Flowcharts: students create flowcharts analyzing and representing a mathematical process, a natural event, or an event in history or literature.

30. Glossaries: If students need to understand a large array of vocabulary words, consider having them construct glossaries to help them study and review.

31. Hieroglyphics: create pictures that represent vocabulary words. Alternately, students could retell the events of a story or historical episode in simple pictures.

32. ID Badges: create identification cards for characters from a work of literature or for people involved in an historical event. Include relevant details on the badges.

33. Illustrated Quotes: Have students choose a meaningful quote from a text that they are reading. They should explain why the quote interests them and then write the quote on a blank sheet of paper and draw related images.

34. Instructions: write instructions on how to perform an operation or experiment, diagram a sentence, or start a World War.

35. Inventions: create and illustrate your new invention that address a problem in nature or society. Address environmental or sociological issues.

36. Limericks: write limericks about events from history or scientific discoveries such as, "There once was a man named Sir Newton..."

37. Magazines: create magazines covering large units of study such as the Industrial Revolution or Darwin's Theory of Evolution, that way many articles can be written. Images may also be drawn or printed and added to the publication.

38. Maps: create maps based on actual geographic or national boundaries and landmarks or maps illustrating the setting of a story and the journey of a character.

39. Merit Badges: create vocabulary merit badges where the term is defined in three or fewer words and a small image is drawn to represent the definition.

40. Movie Adaptations: plan a movie version of a novel, scientific discovery, or historical event. Pick who will play what role, plan scenes, write dialog, even create a soundtrack.

41. Murals: create a mural or a large drawing of many images related to a larger idea. A mural about the Harlem Renaissance might contain images of Langston Hughes,Â Countee Cullen, and W.E.B. DuBois.

42. Myths: write creation myths to account for scientific or historic events or for a creative writing assignment.

43. Newscasts: deliver important information from literature, history, science, or math in the form of a newscast. Newscast can be prerecorded or presented live.

44. Pen-pals: write letters to and from important people from history or the characters in a story.

45. Poems and Raps: write a poem or rap reviewing any topic.

46. Postcards: similar to the pen-pals assignment above, but postcards have illustrations representing thematic concepts.

47. Posters: create posters to review skills. As a bonus, many of these posters can often be displayed during state tests, so if your students create high quality posters, the posters may be a useful resource during the test.

48. Questionnaires: create a questionnaire and survey students to gather an understanding about thematic issues from a text or social problems for a speech or presentation.

49. Radio Broadcasts: create a script for a radio program covering any appropriate field of study.

50. Reader's Theater: silently act out the events of a story or text alone or with a group of people while someone reads the text aloud. Students should be given time to prepare their acting.

51. Recipes: students can create recipes about how atoms combine to form molecules (H2O), or how to create events like the French Revolution or World War I (add one Arch Duke).

52. Scrapbooks: create a scrapbook of your favorite poems or important events from a decade.

53. Skits: create a short skit to bring an historical event to life.

54. Slide Shows: if you have access to enough computers and a projector, I suggest having students create PowerPoint presentations. With just a little instruction, students should be able to create pretty flashy presentations, and you can combine this project with a research paper as a culminating activity.

55. Soundtracks: create a soundtrack for a movie version of a novel or historical or natural event. Use actual songs or just describe the mood of each song if you do not know song titles. Explain why you feel that each song matches the event. A good activity to review mood.

56. Stamps: students create commemorative stamps honoring people, depicting elements from the periodic table, or challenging vocabulary terms.

57. Storyboards: create story boards summarize a short story or to plan a narrative, movie, or presentation.

58. Tests: write a test to help you review unit goals and objectives. Questions can be multiple choice, matching, and true or false. Answer keys should be provided.

59. Vocabulary Quilts: create quilts with badges representing the meanings of vocabulary terms. Badges should have an image and a few words.

60. Websites: design websites that historical figures, scientists, mathematicians, authors, or characters from novels would have had. Also, student can create websites for historical movements, scientific theories, or literary concepts.

61. Worksheets: create review worksheets. Worksheets can be applied to any subject and topic of study.

62. Yearbooks: create yearbooks reviewing the characters and events from several stories that the class read or containing information about many important figures from history.

I hope this list of project ideas will prove to be a valuable resource in creating projects for your students or children. Feel free to share any of your ideas below in the comments and thank you for visiting.

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62 School Project Ideas | Ereading Worksheets

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Are you a teacher, parent, or student looking for a creative project idea? You should find this list of 62 project ideas to be a great resource for designing activities and projects. When students create projects, they are the active agent in the learning process; the classroom is centered on the student rather than the teacher and the role of the instructor evolves to that of the facilitator.

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Driving Question Tubric 2.0

The DQ Tubric 2.0 helps you practice writing Driving Questions by framing initial words, person or entity, action or challenge, and audience/purpose.

The Tubric is a fun, hands-on way to practice the often-challenging task of writing a Driving Question for a project.

Use the Tubric in professional development or collaborative planning time to help you and your colleagues design effective projects.

Log in to get this resource...

To view or download this resource, log in here.

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Driving Question Tubric 2.0 The DQ Tubric 2.0 helps you practice writing Driving Questions by framing initial words, person or entity, action or challenge, and audience/purpose. The Tubric is a fun, hands-on way to practice the often-challenging task of writing a Driving Question for a project.

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ESTAIRE, S.  PRINCIPIOS BÁSICOS Y APLICACIÓN DEL APRENDIZAJE MEDIANTE TAREAS

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ESTAIRE, S.  PRINCIPIOS BÁSICOS Y APLICACIÓN DEL APRENDIZAJE MEDIANTE TAREAS

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Vídeo 1.2.  "Aprendizaje basado en proyectos" - Ideas Clave #ABPmooc_intef

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Es general. Habrá que adaptarlo a la LE.

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Espacio de encuentro virtual en el que dialogamos con expertos de todo el mundo sobre la educación que, entre todos, queremos construir. La ministra de Educación de Colombia, María Victoria Angulo, y la directora general de ProFuturo, Magdalena Brier, conversaron para el Observatorio sobre algunas de las claves que deben marcar el futuro de la educación digital en las políticas públicas latinoamericanas.

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Learning by Doing: A Teacher Transitions Into PBL

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Learning by Doing: A Teacher Transitions Into PBL

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Project-Based Learning (PBL)

For a successful PBL unit, set clear goals, over plan, make students accountable, give concrete deadlines, share rubrics in advance, and reflect on your methods.

Photo credit: Tulane Public Relations via flickr (CC BY 2.0)

I have been a high school English teacher for 15 years. Every year, I try to do something a little different because I like learning from the process. After teaching AP Literature for a while, I became an AP Reader. Then, I presented at a national conference. I feel that I need to grow and develop every year. By the time I read Julius Caesar aloud in class for the 55th time, it was time for a change. That's why my new school was a project-based learning school.

The First Try

To be honest, I had not heard the term PBL until the job interview. I went through a week of in-depth training and met with some veteran PBL teachers. The idea sounded great in theory -- creating projects that helped students learn educational concepts. The first unit that I created taught the basic elements of writing through analyzing advertising campaigns. Students selected a product, determined the target audience, and then had to rebrand the product and create an advertisement directed at a new target audience. I spent a lot of time putting the unit together, and I thought it was pretty good.

I wish I could say that it went well, but it did not. I tried to embrace the idea of exploration and let the project grow organically. I wanted the students to discover things for themselves. I floated around the room to answer specific questions about the assignment, and I worked to make sure that students were on task. Some finished the assignment pretty quickly, but others were still in the early stages when the project was nearly due. For their presentations, I got a friend who works in marketing to come in and provide feedback for their finished commercials (the authentic audience component of PBL). Out of 12 groups, only two were able to present by the end of the period, and they were scrambling to get their presentation together at the last minute. I felt like a failure.

The next day, the students and I had a pretty good dialogue about the process. Many said that they felt embarrassed because they were not ready to present. It turned into a real teachable moment for both my students and myself. Many of them said that they felt overwhelmed by the assignment because it was so broad. I realized that I had made some judgmental errors as well. This productive discussion made me realize that I had learned a lot from that first project.

6 Lessons Learned

My school is on the 4x4 block, so I made the following changes in January, and I am happy to say that the projects became a lot better. Here are the lessons that I learned.

1. Set clear goals.

In order to be successful, the students have to know what is expected of them. If you can, save projects from previous units to model your expectations.

2. Over plan.

One of the great things about PBL is that it has differentiated instruction built into it. Students move at their own pace and ask questions when they don't understand something. The second time I assigned this project, I also had my students read an outside novel for homework. Those who finished tasks early could then read or work on something else instead of hanging out and distracting others.

3. Make students accountable for their time.

I had students share their work with me through Google Docs so that I could see their progress on a daily basis. One group didn't want to use the school-issued laptops, so I took pictures of their handwritten documents with my phone. One way or another, I was able to see progress every day.

4. Give concrete deadlines for products.

This helps make a project seem like a goal that can be accomplished. I added steps to be completed by the end of each day. When every step was completed, the project was done. My students knew what deliverables were due each and every day.

5. Share rubrics in advance.

Rubrics help give your students insight into the design of the project. This helps them understand what they should be taking away from the experience. For example, when my students had to write essays about their projects, they were kind of lost. They were summarizing instead of analyzing, so my second rubric listed terms and devices that I wanted to see in their essays.

6. Reflect on what you are doing.

One reason why the project went smoothly the second time was because I took notes about the positives and the negatives the first time that we did the project. Reflection and bouncing ideas off your peers can help solve problems before they arise.

As I stated earlier, I grow and develop each year. I am interested to hear of any additional practices or tips that other PBL teachers maybe utilizing as well. Let me know what works in your classroom!

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Learning by Doing: A Teacher Transitions Into PBL

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Project-Based Learning (PBL) For a successful PBL unit, set clear goals, over plan, make students accountable, give concrete deadlines, share rubrics in advance, and reflect on your methods. Photo credit: Tulane Public Relations via flickr (CC BY 2.0) I have been a high school English teacher for 15 years.

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Eight must do’s of MFL project-based learning

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Eight must do’s of MFL project-based learning

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ABP - Proyectos de INGLÉS del IES Cartima

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Proyectos interdiscipilnares:
BTOY
The Alhambra
Violencia de Género
@icartama
The weather forecast
Noise pollution
Proyectos para el autoconocimiento que refuerzan la acción tutorial.
The very best of me...

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Carretero Ramos, A. (2012) Lenguas extranjeras y altas capacidades: Las TIC como elementos clave para la diferenciación. Comunicación y Pedagogía, 261-262.

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Carretero Ramos, A. (2012) Lenguas extranjeras y altas capacidades: Las TIC como elementos clave para la diferenciación. Comunicación y Pedagogía, 261-262.

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En el mundo actual la comunicación es una herramienta vital; comunicarse a través de la web y en diferentes lenguas es algo casi imprescindible para cualquier joven del siglo XXI. Los sujetos con alta capacidad despliegan una predisposición hacia ambas destrezas; aún así, hemos de aprovechar esas capacidades y cultivarlas para conseguir un buen desarrollo del individuo.

Dentro del aula inclusiva, presentamos una revisión sobre el papel de las tecnologías a la hora de abordar un currículo sensible y adaptado a las necesidades de estas y estos adolescentes. Las tecnologías, de este modo, se convierten en interesantes alternativas metodológicas que, como elemento de apoyo al curriculum, mejoran la calidad de los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje de las lenguas extranjeras y proporcionan herramientas y recursos relevantes para la diferenciación, especialmente relacionada con el aumento de la complejidad y el aprendizaje autorregulado y autónomo.

EL AULA INCLUSIVA Y LAS NECESIDADES ESPECÍFICAS

El presente trabajo se sitúa dentro del aula inclusiva que persigue ofrecer a cada sujeto posibilidades para que se desarrolle al máximo según sus capacidades, intereses y motivaciones. El concepto de inclusión paulatinamente va en busca de un acercamiento más radical y multifacético al currículo (Lowe, 2006).

Se trata de un aula que atiende y toma en cuenta los diferentes modos en que el alumnado se enfrenta al proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje: estilos y ritmos de aprendizaje, experiencias y conocimientos previos, motivación y atención, diversas capacidades y ritmos de aprendizaje, ajuste emocional y social, etc. Significa aceptar al alumnado con su individualidad y singularidad y la adopción de un enfoque metodológico flexible y dinámico que favorezca este ambiente.

Si bien perseguir una pedagogía ideal para cada uno de los sujetos del aula es algo impensable y utópico, el modo de acercarse al currículo posibilita alternativas beneficiosas para la adaptación a las necesidades específicas. El objetivo es buscar " caminos comunes que se diversifiquen atendiendo a las distintas necesidades " (Parrilla, 2007: 27). Por consiguiente, aunque el foco de este trabajo lo constituya el muy heterogéneo grupo del alumnado con alta capacidad intelectual, nuestra reflexión y propuesta busca mecanismos que hagan avanzar a cada individuo de la clase, especialmente cuando la investigación muestra que la repercusión de este tipo de intervenciones favorece a todos los sujetos del aula (Reis y Renzulli, 2009).

Las medidas ordinarias para las necesidades específicas al alumnado con alta capacidad incluyen:

La presentación de contenidos de distinto grado de dificultad.

Propuesta de actividades de carácter interdisciplinar que requieran la conexión entre contenidos de distintas áreas y materias.

Diseño de actividades diversas, amplias, de libre elección, individuales.

Adaptación de materiales didácticos.

Organización flexible.

Adecuación de los procedimientos e instrumentos de evaluación. (Barrera, Durán, González y Reina, 2008: 27-28).

A estas ideas, y con gran relevancia para el área, debemos incluir la necesidad de conexión de los contenidos con el mundo real. En esta línea, y apoyados por las tendencias de la didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras que centran el aprendizaje en el aprendiz y/o usuario que aprende dentro de un contexto que facilita o inhibe el aprendizaje (al igual que las teorías que estudian las altas capacidades intelectuales), la actuación docente y el aula de idiomas se convierten en elementos claves para una intervención sensible a las características emocionales, cognitivas, sociales y motivacionales. Aunque, para ello, se ha de afrontar el proceso de modo diferenciado.

Esta diferenciación o adaptación puede ser dirigida a los contenidos (en busca de complejidad y desarrollo cognitivo y metacognitivo), al proceso (es de vital importancia el enfoque metodológico y el clima con los que se implementa la enseñanza) y a los productos (los resultados, verbales o no verbales que elaboran los aprendices/usuarios tras asimilar y aplicar los nuevos contenidos). Ahora bien, tampoco se puede olvidar que una verdadera evaluación para el aprendizaje, es decir, una evaluación que obligue al sujeto con alta capacidad a tomar un papel activo y comprometido en su propio proceso de aprendizaje puede convertirse en la gran aliada para desarrollar una intervención diferenciada.

ALTAS CAPACIDADES: LA DIFERENCIACIÓN MEDIANTE LAS TIC

Verdugo y Parrilla (2009) señalan el uso las TIC como esenciales dentro del aula inclusiva. Sobre todo por las posibilidaes que ofrecen para abordar el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje de modo más adaptado e individualizado (Pérez y Beltrán, 2004) al proporcionar acceso a una serie de artefactos susceptibles de activar una amplia gama de habilidades cognitivas en tiempos y espacios diferentes.

Aunque no existen suficientes estudios que avalen los resultados, Pérez (2006) expresa el impacto beneficioso que tiene el uso de la tecnología en los ambientes de aprendizaje del estudiante con mayor capacidad, pues se adecúan en gran medida a las características cognitivas, metacognitivas y de personalidad que presentan estas y estos adolescentes. De hecho, se llega a afirmar que sus necesidades específicas se pueden resolver a través del uso adecuado de la tecnología (Nugent, 2001; Pérez y Beltrán, 2004).

Renzulli (2004) concluye que es necesario combinar las teorías del conocimiento, del aprendizaje y el uso de las TIC con teorías de enseñanza. De este modo, las TIC se convierten en un recurso para complementar las capacidades innatas del individuo con alta capacidad (Pérez y Beltrán, 2004), y para trabajar, en paralelo, debilidades o fortalezas presentes en el sujeto. No obstante, las tareas diferencidas que se propongan al alumnado deben ser cuidadosamente planeadas (Greene, Moos, Azevedo y Winters, 2008; Moursund, 2006) y deben venir acompañadas de un cambio metodológico y evaluativo.

Para una intervención adaptada, el/la docente ha de basar la elección de la herramienta en las destrezas lingüísticas o en los contenidos del área de lenguas extrajeras que desee presentar, profundizar o reforzar. Asimismo, debe considerar las posibilidades que ofrecen para contribuir en el avance sobre otros aspectos globales de su formación académica o, incluso, personal. Convirtiéndose entonces en verdaderos elementos de desarrollo competencial.

APORTACIONES DE LAS TIC EN EL AULA DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS

Para la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de las segundas lenguas, las TIC adquieren un especial papel al aportar al proceso autenticidad, dinamismo y motivación.

Siegle (2005) resalta las bondades del uso de internet para despertar y fomentar las capacidades y los talentos del alumnado con alta capacidad. Por su parte, Pérez Sánchez (2006) expone que, en general, las prácticas con Internet, el aprendizaje a distancia, y los instrumentos de presentación multimedia son las herramientas que el profesorado incluye con mayor frecuencia para una intervención específica. Ahora bien, dentro del aula de lenguas extranjeras, las tecnologías de la información, junto a los entornos de aprendizaje virtuales, la web 2,0 y el laboratorio de idiomas son potentes recursos que contribuyen muy positivamente a la actuación con el alumnado de altas capacidades. Algunas de estas ventajas son:

Abren la puerta a fáciles y rápidos intercambios personales: a través de comunicaciones sincrónicas (chats, conversaciones con skype) y asincrónicas (correo electrónico...) que pueden darse entre estudiante/docente, estudiante/estudiante y estudiante/experto. Un uso destacado puede ser para que el/la docente retroalimente y haga el seguimiento del avance del aprendiz en los procesos de trabajo autónomo.

Hacen posible crear y modificar todo tipo de producción propia, tanto oral (vídeo, podcast, etc.) como escrita (resumen, presentación, etc.). Es una potente herramienta para la evaluación propia y del otro. Promueve la reflexión sobre el propio aprendizaje. Una tarea retadora de ampliación puede ser grabar un podcast sobre un tema que se haya trabajado en clase. Mediante el 'audio diary' se puede realizar la grabación de una tarea semanal relacionada con un tema determinado.

Posibilitan el trabajo independiente y al propio ritmo de modo que se favorece la autorregulación y se atiende a los diferentes estilos de aprendizaje e intereses. Esta diferenciación se puede focalizar tanto en aspectos lingüísticos como en los contenidos con los que realizar una profundización o extensión.

Facilitan la comunicación con personas (alumnado, expertos, famosos, personajes de la vida pública, etc.) de otros países y sus culturas. De esta forma, se promueve el aprendizaje para vivir juntos, desarrollando la empatía, la comprensión y el respeto por los otros y su cultura y valores. Además ponen al alumnado en contacto con interlocutores reales.

Proveen al alumnado de materiales de todo tipo, auténticos y actualizados a través de internet. Se puede transportar a los aprendices a los países de la lengua meta, y así interactuar con los mismos materiales que interactúan los nativos. Esto permite un acercamiento y conocimiento directo, significativo y real. Lo que resulta muy motivador para estos jóvenes. Como consecuencia, el entorno de aprendizaje es realmente más enriquecedor, puesto que ofrece múltiples visiones, ideas, informaciones contribuyendo así a que puedan abordarlos desde puntos de vista diferentes.

Facilitan la inclusión de metodologías en las que hacer uso de situaciones comunicativas reales, practicando todas las destrezas. Por ejemplo, escribir un e-mail a una universidad de un país en el que se hable la lengua meta solicitando información sobre los requisitos para acceder a los estudios que allí se imparten; o participar en un foro (tal que para expresar su opinión sobre los vertidos de petróleo); o mantener una conversación en lengua meta por skype con un estudiante de otro país para conocer cómo viven allí las vacaciones de navidad, etc. Aspectos estos que se relacionan con el uso auténtico de la lengua, la resolución de problemas y los aprendizajes para toda la vida.

Proporcionan una gran variedad de experiencias de aprendizaje. Así, por ejemplo, para trabajar la pronunciación y la comprensión oral, disponemos del uso del audio, del vídeo, de la televisión por satélite y de los CD-ROM. Por otro lado, la presentación final de un proyecto puede ser completamente diferente según la competencia, la creatividad, los recursos, etc. que decida emplear el sujeto o el grupo para evidenciar sus nuevos conocimientos.

Aportan herramientas para el trabajo colaborativo del alumnado, lo que ayuda a la interacción y la negociación de significado en referencia a las lenguas y a la adquisición de otros conocimientos como pueden ser contenidos culturales, conceptos de otras áreas, estrategias de aprendizaje, etc.

Exponen al alumnado a lenguajes, realidades y culturas variadas. Así los aprendices brillantes pueden comprobar de primera mano las diferencias, establecer contrates y similitudes y en base a ellas configurar sus propias opiniones. Podrán profundizar e indagar en aquellos aspectos que consideren de su interés o sobre los que necesiten mayor información.

Ofrecen herramientas para almacenar, gestionar, evidenciar y reflexionar sobre el propio avance en el aprendizaje. Para esto los blogs o los portafolios digitales son elementos de mucho valor. También los ejercicios de lengua interactivos que ofrecen la autocorrección son muy útiles para el trabajo autónomo de ampliación.

Flexibilizan el tiempo y generan una atmósfera de trabajo adecuada. Cuando se trabaja en el laboratorio se crea un ambiente más relajado para la práctica de la lengua extranjera, los aprendices se involucran en mayor medida con la tarea (por tanto es un aprendizaje más activo) y, si el/la docente lo potencia, pueden llegar a realizar productos creativos e innovadores con los recursos que les proporcionan las nuevas tecnologías. Esto supone un estímulo para una creciente producción en la lengua meta. Además, pueden continuar con el trabajo en casa.

Refuerzan la autonomía e invitan a la práctica independiente y lúdica. El/la estudiante puede ser agente de su propio aprendizaje y utilizar la lengua meta para realizar actividades lúdicas o profundizar en temas que les interesen en su tiempo libre. Por ejemplo pueden participar en redes sociales y comunidades virtuales, con sus propios blogs y wikis como herramientas que les permiten crear sus propios contenidos según nivel y necesidades. Se convierten entonces en entornos informales de aprendizaje.

Brindan posibilidades de profundización en los contenidos puesto que es mucha la información de la que se puede disponer. Así el estudio de contenidos se puede complementar con visionados de vídeos sobre la temática, consultas en la wikipedia o enciclopedias digitales. Pérez Sánchez (2006) aconseja que se usen los ordenadores "como instrumentos de pensamiento final abierto y recursos de contenido". Indiscutiblemente, esto exige que los estudiantes desarrollen habilidades de selección, organización y elaboración de la información obtenida.

Aportan 'input' lingüístico de calidad y en cantidad lo que favorece las propuestas comunicativas y el aprendizaje por tareas o proyectos.

Ahora bien, para un verdadero ajuste con las características específicas, el uso eficaz de las TIC en las actividades de enseñanza y aprendizaje de lenguas debe estar inmersa en el marco de proyectos de comunicación, inscritos en situaciones reales, que tengan sentido para el alumnado y cuya finalidad sea la producción o interpretación de textos reales tanto de carácter oral como escrito. Y, como hemos dicho anteriormente, ésto pasa, no sólo por la incorporación de una serie de herramientas novedosas sino por un replanteamiento de la metodología, un cambio que oriente el aprendizaje de lenguas en torno a la mejora de los usos comunicativos del alumnado, evitando y cambiando la práctica rutinaria centrada en el análisis y la descripción de unidades lingüísticas descontextualizadas.

ALGUNAS CONSIDERACIONES

Álvarez nos recuerda que: "Las adaptaciones pueden llevarse a cabo de formas diversas, y una de ellas es el desarrollo de estrategias que permitan a los alumnos avanzar en los aprendizajes y en el conocimiento y dominio de las propias capacidades" (2002: 342). Algunas consideraciones para una intervención más apropiada pueden hacerse en relación a:

El trabajo autónomo

El trabajo autónomo destaca como estrategia de diferenciación que se acondiciona a las preferencias de aprendizaje del alumnado con alta capacidad. Ahora bien, para su buen aprovechamiento es imprescindible que haya momentos previos de diálogo y negociación entre estudiante y docente. Debe existir un compromiso y responsabilidad en la toma de decisiones sobre el propio aprendizaje por parte del alumnado y por parte del profesorado debe haber disponibilidad para dar voz y cabida a los intereses del aprendiz dentro del proceso y a modificar aspectos relevantes del currículo. Un ejemplo claro sería la evaluación (Carretero, 2010).

Rogers (2007) da cuentas de un estudio sobre el trabajo independiente de lenguas extranjeras a través del ordenador. En él, el alumnado con altas capacidades mostró una gran autodirección e hizo avances específicos a la hora de reconocer modelos en las estructuras lingüísticas, así como para adquirir una determinada conciencia cultural. Igualmente, Lam y Lawrence (2002) exponen que el trabajo con las tecnologías y los laboratorios de idiomas son instrumentos muy útiles para centrar el aprendizaje en el aprendiz, aportándole autonomía y control sobre su propio proceso.

El desarrollo metacognitivo

Aunque se piensa que el alumnado con alta capacidad es un buen estratega a la hora de aprender, es un ejercicio enriquecedor que identifique las estrategias que usan a través de la metacognición. De este modo reflexionan sobre su aprendizaje y adquieren autonomía y responsabilidad en el proceso.

En este sentido, las TIC nos proporcionan herramientas para trabajar estrategias centradas en la tarea (solución de problemas: los pasos mentales y las estrategias centradas en el sujeto (desarrollo de procesos cognitivos y afectivos: capacidades y valores). Las lenguas extranjeras les facilitan el acceso a contenidos de ambos campos.

Involucrar al estudiante en una evaluación formadora, diferenciada y encaminada a la propia mejora es a nuestro entender recomendable para potenciar esta capacidad. Así, buenos ejemplos podían ser el marcarse objetivos factibles, pedirles la justificación de por qué motivo califican a un trabajo como excelente, proponerles la explicitación de logros y dificultades ante un proyecto, etc.

La complejidad

Tener acceso a recursos apropiados para realizar las tareas de extensión e investigación es crucial para alcanzar un buen rendimiento. El alumnado brillante se aburre con las tareas repetitivas.

Los programas de autor permiten al docente ampliar o incorporar ejercicios adicionales. Son programas flexibles y abiertos que ofrecen la posibilidad de personalizar los ejercicios. Estas aplicaciones también pueden ser explotadas en el sentido inverso, es decir, los estudiantes se encargan de elaborar un ejercicio en JClick sobre unos contenidos estudiados. Esta tarea, motivadora y retadora para todos, es especialmente apropiada para el alumnado más capacitado que puede poner en marcha su creatividad, su pensamiento crítico y analítico con la información recibida, además de aplicar los conocimientos estudiados. La resolución de estos ejercicios creados puede servir como actividad de repaso o consolidación para el resto de la clase.

La webquest es otra estrategia que se caracteriza por activar pensamientos de orden superior. Tiene aspectos comunes con enfoque de trabajo por proyectos y resolución de problemas, además de ser interdisciplinar en su esencia. La tarea debe estar orientada a la consecución de los objetivos, tanto lingüísticos como no lingüísticos, que se quieren conseguir, pero el resultado de la tarea debe implicar un uso significativo y comunicativo de la lengua (Pérez Torres, 2010).

Asimismo, para activar procesos cognitivos de orden superior, se puede poner el énfasis educativo en la comprensión de la tecnología digital como herramienta de comunicación y/o como un conjunto de redes que les ofrece la oportunidad de acceder, manejar, integrar, evaluar y crear información. Los aspectos éticos y legales que rodean al acceso y uso de esa información pueden ser también objeto de trabajo.

La presentación de los productos finales

La web 2.0, actualmente, permite crear, publicar, compartir y recopilar información. En ella podemos encontrar infinitas herramientas con potencialidad didáctica, atractivas y de fácil uso y gestión: plataformas de edición y publicación como los blogs o los wikis, aplicaciones para elaborar y compartir documentos, presentaciones, vídeos, podcasts, mapas conceptuales, comics, carteles interactivos, líneas del tiempo, redes sociales...

El uso de portafolios electrónicos se convierte en una herramienta imprescindible para la elaboración de proyectos, recolección de datos, registro de notas, análisis de datos y otros elementos necesarios para abordar tareas que puedan ser requeridas para la aceleración y/o el enriquecimiento. Estos son de gran valor a la hora de establecer procesos de evaluación compartidos con el alumnado porque su uso logra introducir en el proceso de enseñanza/aprendizaje, no sólo la evaluación del aprendizaje sino que también es esencial para valorar la producción del aprendizaje (Fimia y Moreno, 2012).

Elaborar un vídeo o un podcast fomenta la planificación, la autorregulación, la investigación, la creatividad, el trabajo en grupo (si ha sido una tarea grupal); también lo hace el doblaje de una secuencia de dibujos animados, o el visionado de una película o fragmento de ésta. Todas ellas requieren activar el pensamiento de orden superior de las/os adolescentes y el/la docente debe exigirles un trabajo de calidad. Además, permite a las y los estudiantes disfrutar y experimentar el aprendizaje de las lenguas de manera diversa y divertida.

La comunicacion con iguales

Mönks y Pflüger (2005) nos muestran que los sistemas educativos tanto europeos como del resto del mundo van incrementando su concienciación por la atención al alumnado con alta capacidad. Por esa razón, tampoco debemos obviar las opciones que nos ofrecen las nuevas tecnologías para contactar con los denominados 'iguales intelectuales' con quienes compartir experiencias de aprendizaje. Los diferentes Programas Europeos (Comenius, Visitas de Estudios, e-Twinning etc.) posibilitan contactos entre docentes de diferentes países quienes pueden iniciar proyectos o grupos de trabajo en red entre alumnado procedente de diferentes países. Con la lengua extranjera como vehículo de comunicación. Así, se pueden iniciar proyectos comunes que profundicen en el conocimiento de temáticas de su interés (interculturales o en relación con otras áreas) lo que indiscutiblemente daría lugar a un crecimiento y motivación intelectual, además de situar la complejidad del trabajo en niveles elevados.

A MODO DE CONCLUSIÓN

Para atender la realidad escolar, cada día más heterogénea, se hace necesario buscar alternativas metodológicas que hagan posible una diferenciación dentro del currículo. Indiscutiblemente también se debe valorar y planificar cómo se va a ayudar a las personas brillantes a avanzar en lo que adquieren antes que sus compañeras/os o en aquello que ya conocen, o que pueden necesitar como personas en desarrollo.

En la actualidad existen un gran número de herramientas que pueden servir para desarrollar muy diversas competencias (generales y específicas) en el alumnado y que además les ofrece la posibilidad de exhibir productos elaborados por ellos mismos durante el aprendizaje en formatos diferentes y compartirlos con amplias audiencias de todo el mundo (Siegle, 2011). Así, las tecnologías digitales se convierten en un entorno inmejorable para el estudio de las lenguas extranjeras. Aprender implica un cambio, una transformación, es un proceso interactivo en el que el sujeto se relaciona con cierta información nueva, en un contexto, a veces formal y otras, informal y las TIC y el laboratorio de idiomas son recursos que ponen a nuestro alcance grandes y numerosas posibilidades.

Un buen uso de las TIC, además de ser una fuente ingente de información y de recursos, constituye para los jóvenes con altas capacidades el reto de transformar los modelos: editar, publicar, descargar, innovar y re-inventar la información. Además les permite un trabajo independiente y abierto que se asimila muy bien a su estilo de aprendizaje, a la par que puede favorecer que la lengua meta se convierta en portadora de nuevos conocimientos y experiencias.

Bibliografía:

ÁLVAREZ GONZÁLEZ, B. (2002). "Estrategias cognitivas para alumnos de altas capacidades: un estudio empírico, Programa DASE". Bordón, 54/2-3: 341-358.

BARRERA, A., DURÁN, R., GONZÁLEZ, J., Y REINA, C.L. (2008). Manual de atención al alumnado con necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo por presentar altas capacidades intelectuales. Consejería de Educación. Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla.

CARRETERO RAMOS, A. (2010). Respuesta de la institución escolar en la etapa de Educación Secundaria ante las necesidades educativas específicas de las personas altamente capacitadas: una mirada desde el área de las Lenguas Extranjeras. El estudio de un caso. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Málaga: Málaga.

FIMIA, Y & MORENO, I. (2012). El portafolio digital y su impacto en la calidad del proceso de evaluación del aprendizaje. EDUTEC, Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa, 39. Recuperado el 02/08/2012 de http://edutec.rediris.es/Revelec2/Revelec39/portafolio_digital_impacto_calidad_proceso_evaluacion_aprendizaje.html

GREENE, J. A, MOOS, D.C., AZEVEDO, R Y WINTERS, F.I. (2008). "Exploring differences between gifted and grade-level students' use of self-regulatory learning processes with hypermedia". Computers and Education. 50/3: 1069-1083.

LAM Y. Y LAWRENCE G. (2002). "Teacher-student role redefinition during a computer-based second language project: are computers catalysts for empowering change?" Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15/3: 295-315.

LOWE, H. (2006). "Including the gifted and talented: making inclusion work for more gifted and able learners. Edited by Chris M.M. Smith. British Journal of Educational Studies, 54/4: 494-496.

MÖNKS, F.J. Y PFLÜGER, R. (2005). "Gifted education in 21 European countries: inventory and perspective". [Documento de internet disponible en http://www.bmbf.de/pub/gifted_education_21_eu_countries.pdf]

MOURSUND, D. (2006). Computers in Education for Talented and Gifted Students: A Book for Elementary and Middle School Teachers. Universidad de Oregón: College of Education. Eugene, Oregón [Internet document available at http://www.thecanadianteacher.com/pdfs/ebooks/TAG.pdf]

NUGENT, S. A. (2001). "Technology and the Gifted: Focus, Facets, and the Future". Gifted Child Today, 24/4: pp. 38-45.

PARRILLA LATAS, M. A. (2007). "El desarrollo local e institucional de proyectos educativos inclusivos". Perspectiva CEP, 14: 17-31.

PÉREZ SÁNCHEZ, L. Y BELTRÁN LLERA, J. A. (2004). La educación de los alumnos superdotados en la nueva sociedad de la información. Informe: Centro nacional de Información y Comunicación Educativa. Madrid. CNICE. [Documento de internet disponible en http://ares.cnice.mec.es/informes/08/documentos/creditos.htm]

PÉREZ SÁNCHEZ, L. (2006). "El uso de la tecnología en la educación de los alumnos con alta capacidad". Revista de Orientación Educacional, 20/38: 91-103.

PÉREZ TORRES, I. (2010). "Webquests y webtasks, en el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua". Cuadernos de Pedagogía, 401: 57-59.

REIS, S. M. Y RENZULLI, J. S. (2009). "Myth 1: the gifted and talented constitute one single homogeneous group and giftedness is a way of being that stays in the person over time and experiences". Gifted Child Quarterly, 53: 233-235.

RENZULLI, J. S. (2004). "Expanding the umbrella: an interview with Joseph Renzulli". Roeper Review, 26/2: 65-67.

ROBINSON, A. Y KOLLOF, P. B. (2006). "Preparing teachers to work with high-ability youth at the secondary level. Issues and implications for licensure". The handbook of secondary gifted education. Eds. F. A. Dixon y S. M. Moon: Waco, Texas: Prufrock Press Inc. 581-610.

ROGERS, K. B. (2007). "Lessons learned about educating the gifted and talented: a synthesis of the research on educational practice". Gifted Child Quarterly, 51/4: 382-396.

SIEGLE, D. (2005). "Six Uses of the Internet to Develop Students' Gifts and Talents" Gifted Child Today, 28/2: 30-37.

SIEGLE, D. (2011). "Technology: Presentations in the Cloud With a Twist". Gifted Child Today, 34/4: 54-58.

VERDUGO, M. A. Y PARRILLA, A. (2009). "Presentación. Aportaciones actuales a la educación inclusiva". Revista de Educación, 349: 15-22.

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LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS Y ALTAS CAPACIDADES: LAS TIC COMO ELEMENTOS CLAVES PARA LA DIFERENCIACIÓN

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En el mundo actual la comunicación es una herramienta vital; comunicarse a través de la web y en diferentes lenguas es algo casi imprescindible para cualquier joven del siglo XXI. Los sujetos con alta capacidad despliegan una predisposición hacia ambas destrezas; aún así, hemos de aprovechar esas capacidades y cultivarlas para conseguir un buen desarrollo del individuo.

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Ofrece inspiración.

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A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product and/or performance that serve as evidence of learning. Unlike a selected-response item (e.g., multiple-choice or matching) that asks students to select from given alternatives, a performance task presents a situation that calls for learners to apply their learning in context.

Performance tasks are routinely used in certain disciplines, such as visual and performing arts, physical education, and career-technology where performance is the natural focus of instruction. However, such tasks can (and should) be used in every subject area and at all grade levels.

Characteristics of Performance Tasks
Here are seven general characteristics of performance tasks:
Performance tasks call for the application of knowledge and skills, not just recall or recognition.

While any performance by a learner might be considered a performance task (e.g., tying a shoe or drawing a picture), it is useful to distinguish between the application of specific and discrete skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball) from genuine performance in context (e.g., playing the game of basketball in which dribbling is one of many applied skills). Thus, when I use the term performance tasks, I am referring to more complex and authentic performances.
2. Performance tasks are open-ended and typically do not yield a single, correct answer.
In other words, the learner must actually use their learning to perform. These tasks typically yield a tangible product (e.g., graphic display, blog post) or performance (e.g., oral presentation, debate) that serve as evidence of their understanding and proficiency.
3. Performance tasks establish novel and authentic contexts for performance.
Unlike selected- or brief constructed- response items that seek a "right" answer, performance tasks are open-ended. Thus, there can be different responses to the task that still meet success criteria. These tasks are also open in terms of process; i.e., there is typically not a single way of accomplishing the task.
4. Performance tasks provide evidence of understanding via transfer.
These tasks present realistic conditions and constraints for students to navigate. For example, a mathematics task would present students with a never-before-seen problem that cannot be solved by simply "plugging in" numbers into a memorized algorithm. In an authentic task, students need to consider goals, audience, obstacles, and options to achieve a successful product or performance. Authentic tasks have a side benefit - they convey purpose and relevance to students, helping learners see a reason for putting forth effort in preparing for them.
5. Performance tasks are multi-faceted.
Understanding is revealed when students can transfer their learning to new and "messy" situations. Note that not all performances require transfer. For example, playing a musical instrument by following the notes or conducting a step-by-step science lab require minimal transfer. In contrast, rich performance tasks are open-ended and call "higher-order thinking" and the thoughtful application of knowledge and skills in context, rather than a scripted or formulaic performance.
6. Performance tasks can integrate two or more subjects as well as 21st century skills.
Unlike traditional test "items" that typically assess a single skill or fact, performance tasks are more complex. They involve multiple steps and thus can be used to assess several standards or outcomes.
7. Performances on open-ended tasks are evaluated with established criteria and rubrics.
In the wider world beyond the school, most issues and problems do not present themselves neatly within subject area "silos." While performance tasks can certainly be content-specific (e.g., mathematics, science, social studies), they also provide a vehicle for integrating two or more subjects and/or weaving in 21st century skills and Habits of Mind. One natural way of integrating subjects is to include a reading, research, and/or communication component (e.g., writing, graphics, oral or technology presentation) to tasks in content areas like social studies, science, health, business, health/physical education. Such tasks encourage students to see meaningful learning as integrated, rather than something that occurs in isolated subjects and segments.

Since these tasks do not yield a single answer, student products and performances should be judged against appropriate criteria aligned to the goals being assessed. Clearly defined and aligned criteria enable defensible, judgment-based evaluation. More detailed scoring rubrics, based on criteria, are used to profile varying levels of understanding and proficiency.

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A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product...

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See pages 1-11.

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Clipboards: A Tool for Informal Assessment

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Clipboards: A Tool for Informal Assessment

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Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. What kinds of notes does Ms. McPhillips take?

2. How does Ms. McPhillips use her notes?

3. What can you learn from Ms. McPhillips about assessment?

School Details

John F. Deering Middle School
2 Webster Knight Drive
West Warwick RI 02893

Data Provided By:

Teachers

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Clipboards: A Tool for Informal Assessment

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Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more. Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more. What kinds of notes does Ms. McPhillips take? How does Ms. McPhillips use her notes?

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To assess learning we have to make it visible by questioning it through oral or written questions that are constructed to accurately evaluate the quality of the learning. However, assessing the quality of learning is problematic because there are stages to the learning process. Students do not meet a new concept in a lesson and leave the lesson 50 minutes later having 'learned' it. Tom Sherrington talks here about the Learning Arc .

How to assess

1. Consider the 6 stages of learning

Initial understanding: Do the students GET IT. This is the first crucial step in learning. In , Rosenshine found that Principles of Instruction "Less successful teachers ask fewer questions and almost no process questions... [whilst] the most successful teachers spent more time...asking questions [and] more time checking for understanding."

Task fluency: Can the students DO IT? In , Rosenshine suggests that, " that, " Principles of Instruction A success rate of 80 per cent shows that students are learning the material, and it also shows that the students are challenged." Harry Webb points out the importance of simple as well as complex assessment. He argues by mimicking the performances of experts we obscure the areas that novices need to develop." He advocates " a mixed economy of assessment. If you have an independent means of assessing, say, history content knowledge then you will be better able to isolate the particular issues surrounding the writing of a history essay."

Process fluency: Can the students DO IT DIFFERENTLY? In Daniel Willlingham points out that only shallow understanding has occurred while " Why Don't Students Like School? knowledge is tied to the analogy or knowledge that has been provided." In order to develop deeper understanding, students must be able to practice across examples.

Research found that " assessment which encourages students to think for themselves - such as essay questions, applications to new contexts, and problem-based questions - shifts students... towards a deep [learning] approach."

Understanding of deep, rather than surface, structure: Can the students UNPICK IT? Do students have an expert understanding of the underlying principles? In Daniel Willlingham points out that, ", that this demands a different approach to the task: " Why Don't Students Like School? to see the deep structure, you must understand how all parts of the problem relate to one another." Sweller and Tricot argue novices work backward from the goal... using a means-ends strategy...while experts work forward from the givens."

Permanent learning: Can the students RECALL IT from their long-term memories? 'Learning' is not enough. As Nuthall points out in " that, " The Hidden Lives of Learners Make it Stick as learning occurs, so does forgetting." Information only becomes 'learned' rather than 'learning' when it is transferred to the long-term memory. Brown et al. write in to be useful, learning requires memory, so what we've learned is still there when we need it."

Synoptic learning: Can the students DO IT ANYWHERE, for example when it is interleaved with other tasks? Brown et al. write in that, " Make it Stick mass practice give[s] rise to feelings of fluency that are taken [incorrectly] to be signs of mastery." For secure understanding, students need to be able to apply learning in circumstances that are:

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Meaningful Manageable Assessment - Love Learning Ideas

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To assess learning we have to make it visible by questioning it through oral or written questions that are constructed to accurately evaluate the quality of the learning. However, assessing the quality of learning is problematic because there are stages to the learning process.

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Solo para encontrar algunas ideas.

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Play your cards right

40 Quick Marking Strategies

Too many decisions in the classroom are currently being made based on what 'they' might think, whether 'they' are SLT or Ofsted. The danger is that teachers are not owning their pedagogical choices.

Kevin Lister explains it perfectly . " The problem comes when we forget why we're doing something, and just do it without thinking, without questioning... As professional teachers we should actively seek out as wide a range of methods and techniques for teaching as we can... We then need to use our professional judgement to select from this range... To do something because someone else has told us to do it... is to abdicate our professional responsibilities...teaching practice should be a conscious, deliberate act. Decisions need to be taken actively rather than received passively, and improvements actively sought."

I don't have time to know the pedagogy...

A definition for 'learned helplessness' is " a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a persistent failure to succeed."

If teachers don't understand and utilise the pedagogy behind marking, we run the risks of:

Failing to make the most effective and efficient choices about what works

Marking which hinders students' progress. Dylan Wiliam points out that in 38% of well-designed studies, feedback actually made performance worse

Being held hostage by the decisions of others

Being unable to engage effectively in necessary discussion about what works

Reinforcing 'learned helplessness'

This blog is meant to be read in conjunction with last week's blog here, which outlines in more detail the pedagogy behind effective and efficient marking.

Know your marking hand and play it wisely...

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Reclaim Your Marking - Love Learning Ideas

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Play your cards right 40 Quick Marking Strategies Too many decisions in the classroom are currently being made based on what 'they' might think, whether 'they' are SLT or Ofsted. The danger is that teachers are not owning their pedagogical choices. Kevin Lister ex

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Baleghizadeh, Sasan. (2015). The Procedural Syllabus and the Task Syllabus: How Similar, How Different?. How, 22(2), 104-113. 

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Baleghizadeh, Sasan. (2015). The Procedural Syllabus and the Task Syllabus: How Similar, How Different?. How, 22(2), 104-113. 

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http://dx.doi.org/10.19183/how.22.2.153
The Procedural Syllabus and the Task Syllabus: How Similar, How Different?

Sílabo procedimental y sílabo basado en tareas: semejanzas y diferencias
Sasan Baleghizadeha
aShahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran. E-mail: s_baleghizadeh@sbu.ac.ir.

Received: February 12, 2015. Accepted: July 10, 2015.

How to cite this article (APA 6th ed.):
Baleghizadeh, S. (2015). The procedural syllabus and the task syllabus: How similar, how different? HOW, 22(2), 104-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.19183/how.22.2.153.

This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. License Deed can be consulted at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

The present paper aims to convince readers that the terms procedural and task syllabuses, often used interchangeably and synonymously, are fundamentally different from each other. After reviewing the underlying principles of these two syllabuses, it is contended that they both view pedagogic tasks as the point of departure in designing second/foreign language courses. Besides, neither of them is built on any pre-specified linguistic units such as structures, functions, notions, etc. In spite of this striking similarity, it is argued that these two syllabus types differ from each other in terms of task selection, task gradation, task implementation, and input characteristics.

Key words: Procedural syllabus, task-based language teaching, task syllabus.

Este artículo busca persuadir al lector de que los términos sílabo procedimental y sílabo basado en tareas, a menudo tratados como sinónimos, son fundamentalmente diferentes. Tras una revisión de los principios subyacentes en estos dos tipos de sílabos, se discute que ambos toman las tareas pedagógicas como punto de partida en el diseño de cursos para la enseñanza de lenguas. Además, ninguno de los dos se construye alrededor de unidades lingüísticas previamente especificadas como estructuras, funciones, nociones, etc. A pesar de esta similitud, se argumenta que los dos tipos de sílabos se diferencian en términos de la selección, secuencia e implementación de tareas y en las características de las muestras.

Palabras clave: enseñanza de lenguas mediante tareas, sílabo basado en tareas, sílabo procedimental.

Introduction

In recent years, the term task-based language teaching (TBLT) has become an often-heard and widely-used term in the literature of second/foreign language pedagogy (Ellis, 2003, 2013; Nunan, 2004; Robinson, 2011; Skehan, 2003; Willis & Willis, 2007). TBLT is a perspective within the communicative approach, which views language learning as a process of doing a set of communicative tasks, "the purposes of which extend beyond the practice of language for its own sake" (Brown, 2001, p. 50). A brief review of the existing literature on TBLT (e.g., Ellis, 2013; Nunan, 1991, 2004; Willis & Willis, 2007) reveals that this approach to language teaching is characterized by the following features:

A heavy emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

Using authentic materials as far as possible.

Creating opportunities for learners to focus both on language and on the learning process.

An attempt to link classroom learning with language activation outside the classroom.

The original impetus for TBLT comes from the celebrated Bangalore Project (Prabhu, 1987), which reacted against both the traditional form of English as a foreign language (EFL) used in India, and against the type of communicative language teaching practiced in Europe (Cook, 2001). Prabhu and his colleagues were perhaps among the first language teaching researchers who applied the principles of task-based instruction in an EFL project of nationwide scope in India. The syllabus type designed by Prabhu and his colleagues is called the procedural syllabus, which consisted of a set of pedagogic tasks. The procedural syllabus is often confused with the task syllabus, another recent development in language teaching. Despite the striking differences existing between these two syllabus types, the terms procedural and task syllabuses are sometimes used interchangeably (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992; Richards & Schmidt, 2010). Richards et al. (1992), for instance, use these two terms synonymously and describe them as "a syllabus which is organized around tasks, rather than in terms of grammar or vocabulary" (p. 373).

This paper aims to highlight the differences between procedural and task syllabuses and argue that despite the similarities between them, they are not one and the same thing.

The Procedural Syllabus

As mentioned earlier, the procedural syllabus is associated with the work of Prabhu and his colleagues in the Bangalore Project. Dissatisfied with the structural-oral-situational (S-O-S) method, which was widely practiced in the 1960s and 1970s in India, Prabhu decided to bring about a change in the traditional English language teaching (ELT) methodology of his country. Prabhu (1987) had observed that the students who had been taught English through S-O-S for several years at school were still unable to use it outside the class for communicative purposes.

As a result, Prabhu decided to introduce the principles of communicative language teaching in his well-known experimental project. Starting in 1979 and lasting for five years, this project involved eight classes of children ranging in age from 8 to 13. These students received their English instruction based on what Prabhu calls the procedural syllabus. This is an approach to language teaching which is learning-centered rather than learner-centered (White, 1988). The syllabus does not focus on any predetermined language content. Rather, class time is spent on doing a number of problem-solving tasks, which are intended to promote language acquisition. According to Prabhu (1987), language acquisition occurs when learners' attention is on meaning rather than on language forms. This is best achieved when learners are asked to do a number of meaning-focused activities, which result in natural communication in the classroom. It is, in fact, the firm conviction of Prabhu that optimal learning takes place when the target language is taught through communication and not simply for communication.

Communicative teaching in most Western thinking has been training for communication, which I claim involves one in some way or other in preselection; it is a kind of matching of notion and form. Whereas the Bangalore Project is teaching through communication; and therefore the very notion of communication is different. (Prabhu as cited in Long & Crookes, 1993, p. 29)

Prabhu (1987) argues that teaching through communication takes place when learners are involved in doing a set of tasks. A task is an activity which gets learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through a process of thought, and which allows the teacher to control this process. As can be observed, this definition of task has a cognitive orientation, that is, it involves learners in a thinking process (Prabhu, 1987).

Each lesson in the procedural syllabus consists of a pre-task, a task, and a quick marking component. The task and the pre-task are two similar and parallel activities in that they require similar process of reasoning, and consist of similar question types, situations, sets of facts, and so forth. The pre-task, however, is a teacher-guided, whole-class activity which helps learners overcome the difficulties they might be faced with while doing the task. Thus the pre-task could be viewed as preparation for the task which is to follow.

The pre-task phase serves another function. It gives extrovert learners an opportunity to learn by making an attempt, and introvert learners the opportunity to learn without taking the risk of public failure. In other words, it is a confidence building activity which all learners can benefit from.

After the completion of the pre-task publicly, it is time for the students to do the task individually. They are allowed to do the task in pairs or in groups; however, this is neither recommended nor encouraged on the grounds that it is likely to result in fossilization. In Prabhu's (1987) opinion, it is necessary for learners' internal system to be firmed up by superior data; that is, input which comes from native or native-like sources.

Finally, there comes the third component of each lesson which is the marking stage. At this stage, the teacher checks the students' work and gives them some feedback on the basis of their accuracy in performing the task, not their accuracy in producing well-formed sentences.

Another point which should be mentioned about the tasks in the procedural syllabus is that they should be at a reasonable level of difficulty. In other words, students should face some challenge in doing the task. If the task is too easy, students may not take it seriously. If, on the other hand, it is too difficult they might be reluctant to give it a try. A task is reasonably challenging if approximately half of the students in the class are successful in doing approximately half of the task. This, in fact, is the formula by which teachers can grade and sequence the tasks of the subsequent lessons. The following is an example of a task used in the procedural syllabus, where students received a set of instructions to draw a simple picture:

1. Draw a line, from left to right.

2. Write b at the right end of the line, and a at the left end.

3. Draw another line below ab.

4. Write d at its left and c at its right end.

5. Join bd. (Prabhu, 1987, p. 33)

The last point worth noting about the procedural syllabus is related to the way language errors are corrected. In Prabhu's (1987) methodology, error correction is done incidentally rather than systematically. In other words, the teacher provides students with the correct form, but he or she does not attempt to focus on a linguistic form by teaching them the rules of grammar.

The methodological principles underlying the procedural syllabus were briefly introduced in this part of the article. Next, we shall look at the principles which guide the task syllabus.

The Task Syllabus

In the late 1980s and early 1990s language teaching scholars (Long & Crookes, 1992; Nunan, 1988) began to question the efficiency of synthetic syllabuses which would break language into smaller units and then encourage learners to master it piece by piece. Wilkins (1976) originally defined this approach to language teaching as follows:

A synthetic language teaching strategy is one in which the different parts of language are taught separately and step by step so that acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure has been built up. (p. 2)

Initially, synthetic syllabuses were equated with grammatical syllabuses. However, it was argued later that situational, functional, notional, lexical, and even topical syllabuses are synthetic in that "syllabus content is ultimately based on an analysis of the language to be learned" (Long & Crookes, 1992, p. 33). This approach to language teaching has often been criticized on the grounds that it is against the nature of language. Language is not something to be broken apart and then put together like different parts of a machine. Rather, it should be viewed as a living organism (Rutherford, 1987). This suggests a holistic approach to language teaching, which is manifested in recent proposals for task-based learning and task syllabuses (Ellis, 2003; Long & Crookes, 1992; Willis & Willis, 2007). Thus, dissatisfied with synthetic approaches, Long and Crookes, in a series of articles in the 1980s which resulted in their seminal paper, "Three approaches to task-based syllabus design" in 1992, laid the foundation for their task syllabus which views pedagogic tasks as the point of departure in the design process and as an appropriate tool in facilitating the teaching process. According to Nunan (2001), "a pedagogic task is a piece of classroom work having a beginning, middle, and an end, and a focus principally (although not exclusively) on meaning" (p. 315). Pedagogic tasks are usually designed with respect to target tasks which are often identified through a needs analysis process. Once the target tasks are identified, they are classified into target task types.

For example, in a course for trainee flight attendants, the serving of breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks and refreshments might be classified as serving food and beverages. Pedagogic tasks are then derived from the task types and sequenced to form the task-based syllabus (Long & Crookes, 1992, p. 44).

Needless to say, it is the pedagogic tasks which are often worked on in the classroom, and they are graded on the basis of some criteria which will be briefly discussed later on.

The conclusion which can be drawn up to this point is that in both the procedural and the task syllabus, the content of the course is not determined by any pre-selected linguistic items such as structures, functions, notions, and so forth. Moreover, both of them use pedagogic tasks as the point of departure in designing language courses. For this reason, it might be falsely assumed that these two syllabus types are the same and the terms task and procedural syllabuses can be used interchangeably. However, there are some differences between these two syllabuses, which will be discussed below.

The Procedural Syllabus Compared With the Task Syllabus

There are four basic differences which distinguish the procedural syllabus from the task syllabus. These syllabuses differ in terms of (1) task selection, (2) task gradation, (3) task implementation, and (4) input characteristics.

1) Task selection. It was previously argued that both procedural and task syllabuses use pedagogic tasks as an appropriate vehicle for language teaching. In task syllabuses, the selection of tasks is guided by the results of a needs analysis process. In other words, pedagogic tasks are designed with reference to the real-world target tasks that learners are expected to do such as buying a plane ticket, renting an apartment, writing business letters, and so on.

This point, however, is not observed in the procedural syllabus. The tasks in the Bangalore Project were selected because of their intrinsic pedagogic merits, not because of their real-world target uses. Long and Crookes (1992) take this as a weak point of the procedural syllabus by arguing that "it is impossible for anyone to verify the appropriateness of particular pedagogic tasks for a given group of learners without objective evaluation criteria, one of which must surely be relevance to learner needs" (p. 37).

2) Task gradation. This is the second area in which the procedural and task syllabuses differ. Earlier it was mentioned that, in Prabhu's opinion, a good task is one which is at a reasonable level of difficulty. This was determined through the simple rule that if half of the learners in a class can do half of a task then its challenge is reasonable enough. It is on the basis of this criterion that tasks are graded and sequenced. As Long and Crookes (1992) observe, "[this] criterion for assessing difficulty is not a satisfactory solution, for it makes task achievement a norm-referenced issue, reveals nothing about what made a task easier than another, and thereby precludes any generalizations to new materials" (p. 37).

The advocates of task syllabuses, however, have some more objective criteria in determining task difficulty. Ellis (2003), for example, has offered a number of criteria based on which tasks can be sequenced. These factors are (a) input factors, including medium, code complexity, cognitive complexity, context dependency, and familiarity of information; (b) task conditions, including conditions relating to the negotiation of meaning, task demands, and the discourse mode required by the task; (c) factors related to the process of performing a task, including the type of reasoning needed; and (d) factors relating to task outcomes, including the medium, the scope, the discourse domain, and the complexity of outcome. These criteria are the ones which can partially guide course designers as well as teachers to sequence tasks. Obviously, a model of this sort allows a more practical space for task gradation than Prabhu's previously stated formula.

3) Task implementation. The third difference between the procedural and task syllabuses concerns how the tasks are implemented in each lesson. According to a widely-used framework (Willis, 1996), task-based teaching comprises three components: the pre-task, the task cycle, and the language focus (see Figure 1).

The function of the pre-task is to help students understand the objectives of the task. In this phase, the teacher can brainstorm ideas with the class, highlight useful words and phrases, give students preparation time to think how to do the task, and so on. This is quite different from the pre-task component of Prabhu's procedural syllabus, which involved students in a whole-class activity working on a task similar to what they were expected to do individually later on.

In the second phase-the task cycle-students are encouraged to do the task in pairs or small groups and the teacher walks round and monitors their work. Students then prepare to tell the rest of the class how they did the task and what the outcome was. The teacher then asks some pairs to report to the whole class how they went about doing the task. Again, there is a difference between this stage compared to what occurs in Prabhu's methodology. It should be noted that students in the Bangalore Project were not encouraged to work in pairs or small groups. Moreover, they would not report the outcome of their work to the rest of the class.

Finally, in the language focus phase, students do some language-focused tasks based on the texts they have read or listened to. For example, they are asked to find words ending in s or 's and say what the s means. This differs from Prabhu's methodology, which places no emphasis on form-focused activities.

4) Input characteristics. The very last point mentioned in the previous heading, that is, form-focused instruction, brings us to the last difference between procedural and task syllabuses. In Prabhu's methodology, negative evidence seems to have no role in the process of language learning. For this reason, students in the Bangalore Project did not receive any feedback on the accuracy of the sentences they produced. Moreover, whenever they made an error, they were corrected incidentally not systematically. In other words, they were not provided with any explicit grammar instruction. In the task syllabus, however, there is an emphasis on form-focused instruction (Long & Crookes, 1993). The term focus on form originally used by Long (1991) is defined as follows: "focus on form . . . overtly draws students' attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication" (pp. 45-46). Long insists that focus on form should not be confused with focus on forms, which is nothing but the structural syllabus. Thus focus on form is an attempt to get students conscious of linguistic code features in the context of a communicative classroom. These occasional shifts of attention to linguistic elements provide learners with negative evidence, which has been strongly supported in recent years (see for example Fotos & Nassaji, 2007).

Table 1 summarizes the differences between these two syllabuses.

Conclusions

I began with a brief historical overview of TBLT. Two innovative approaches to syllabus design which take pedagogic tasks as the main tool of language instruction, that is, procedural and task syllabuses were described. The procedural syllabus is associated with the work of Prabhu (1987) and his colleagues in the Bangalore Project, who developed a version of the communicative approach with an emphasis on teaching learning through communication. The task syllabus, on the other hand, is associated with the work of Long and Crookes (1992). Both procedural and task syllabuses view pedagogic tasks as the main tool of language instruction. Moreover, neither of them is built on any pre-selected linguistic units such as structures, functions, notions, and so on. This, however, does not suggest that they are synonymous terms. They differ from each other in terms of task selection, task gradation, task implementation, and input characteristics. First, in the task syllabus, pedagogic tasks are selected on the basis of a needs-identification process, but this does not hold true for the procedural syllabus. Second, task gradation in the task syllabus is determined by more objective criteria. Third, the procedural syllabus favors teacher-fronted classes, while the task syllabus encourages pair work and group activities. Finally, the task syllabus welcomes the role of negative evidence (e.g., focus on form) in language classes. This, however, is not recommended in the procedural syllabus.

Drawing a conclusion about which of these two syllabuses is better for teaching foreign languages is not easy as it depends on a variety of factors such as the context of teaching, goal of instruction, proficiency level of the learners, etc. Although both are communicative syllabus types, the focus on the form phase of the task-based syllabus makes it more suitable for EFL contexts where accuracy is both needed and emphasized (Fotos, 2002). This is largely due to the fact that learners in most EFL contexts (e.g., Iran, South Korea, and Japan) are expected to take form-based English exams to be admitted to universities, so knowledge of grammatical forms is of paramount importance to these learners. In contrast, the procedural syllabus seems to be more suitable to learners in English as a second language (ESL) context where learners have ample opportunity to be exposed to English outside the classroom. The goal of instruction is also another determining factor. The procedural syllabus with little emphasis on systematic error correction and focus on form seems to be more suitable for those who want to learn English for survival purposes, while the task-based syllabus seems more ideal for those who wish to pursue academic goals. Finally, it seems that the procedural syllabus works better with elementary and pre-intermediate students, while the task-based syllabus is more compatible with intermediate students and above. This is mostly because beginning students need a course in which they can freely communicate removed from any form issues, while more advanced students need courses where there is a degree of focus on form through which they can produce accurate language.

References

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An integrative approach to language pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Longman. [ Links ]

Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and language teaching (3rd ed.). London, UK: Arnold. [ Links ]

Ellis, R. (2013). Task-based language teaching: Responding to the critics. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 8(1), 1-27. [ Links ]

Fotos, S. (2002). Structure-based interactive tasks for the EFL grammar learner. In E. Hinkel & S. Fotos (Eds.), New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms (pp. 137-154). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ Links ]

Fotos, S., & Nassaji, H. (2007). Form-focused instruction and teacher education. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ Links ]

Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1993). Units of analysis in syllabus design: The case for task. In G. Crookes & S. M. Gass (Eds.), Tasks in a pedagogical context: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 9-54). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. [ Links ]

Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus design. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ Links ]

Nunan, D. (2001). Second language teaching and learning. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. [ Links ]

Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ Links ]

Richards, J. C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (2nd ed.). London, UK: Longman. [ Links ]

Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2010). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (4th ed.). Harlow, UK: Routledge. [ Links ]

Rutherford, W. E. (1987). Second language grammar: Teaching and learning. London, UK: Longman. [ Links ]

White, R. V. (1988). The ELT curriculum: Design, innovation and management. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. [ Links ]

Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ Links ]

Willis, J. (1996). A flexible framework for task-based learning. In J. Willis & D. Willis (Eds.), Challenge and change (pp. 52-62). Oxford, UK: Macmillan Heinemann. [ Links ]

Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ Links ]

The Author

Sasan Baleghizadeh is an Associate Professor of TEFL at Shahid Beheshti University (G.C.) in Tehran, Iran, where he teaches courses in applied linguistics, syllabus design, and materials development. He is interested in investigating the role of interaction in English language teaching and issues related to materials development.

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The Procedural Syllabus and the Task Syllabus: How Similar, How Different?

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http://dx.doi.org/10.19183/how.22.2.153 The Procedural Syllabus and the Task Syllabus: How Similar, How Different? Sílabo procedimental y sílabo basado en tareas: semejanzas y diferencias Sasan Baleghizadeha aShahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran. E-mail: s_baleghizadeh@sbu.ac.ir. Received: February 12, 2015. Accepted: July 10, 2015. How to cite this article (APA 6th ed.): Baleghizadeh, S.

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by Terry Heick

How do you measure what a student understands?

Not give them an assessment, score it, then use that score to imply understanding. Rather, how do you truly 'uncover' what they 'know'-and how 'well' they know it?
The Challenge Of Outcomes & Standards-Based Assessment
First a preface: itemizing ways to measure understanding is functionally different than students choosing a way to demonstrate what they know-mainly because in a backward-design approach where the learning target is identified first, that learning target dictates everything else downstream.

If, for example, a student was given a topic and an audience and was allowed to 'do' something and then asked to create something that demonstrated what they learned, the result would be wildly different across students. Put another way, students would learn different things in different ways.

By dictating exactly what every student will 'understand' ahead of time, certain assessment forms become ideal. It also becomes much more likely that students will fail. If students can learn anything, then they only fail if they fail to learn anything at all or fail to demonstrate learning anything at all. By deciding exactly what a student will learn and exactly how they will show you they learned it, three outcomes, among others, are possible:

1. The student learned a lot but not what you wanted them to learn

2. The student learned exactly what you wanted them to learn but failed to demonstrate it in the assessment

3. The student failed to learn

But what if you, as a teacher, have been misled?

For an analogy, consider a car. If we want the car running at its best-to be safe to operate, to start when we want to go somewhere, to attain the fuel efficiency that we want, to look and smell the way we want, etc., we need data about those conditions. The look and smell are easy enough, and the fuel efficiency is a matter of math. The reliability is a little more abstract-cut and dry but the product of many other maintenance factors and so requires more abstraction to predict. And the safety bit? Equally abstract-and subjective, to boot.

Imagine being concerned about the reliability of the car (as anyone would be), so you developed tests that could be used to predict the future likelihood that the car would start. (It's at this point that I'm realizing I could've chosen a much better analogy, but I'm sticking with the car/starting thing. Sorry.) So imagine giving a bunch of tests to predict today whether the car would start tomorrow. It makes sense on paper because we want to monitor that idea, but it seems a little wasteful, right?

And it gets wasteful fast when you consider the possibility that the car may fail test after test after test and still continue to start. This means that the tests we developed to predict whether or not the car would start likely measured something but not what we wanted them to measure. The tests were bad and the data misleading and any conclusions drawn accordingly invalid.

In an outcomes-based and data-driven circumstance, the data and the decisions made using that data are everything. If that data is misleading, it's not hard to realize that we will be misled-as teachers and learners-too.
First, Determine The Purpose Of The Assessment
If all students are all going to have their height and weight measured, a common standard makes sense; If students are all going to have their attractiveness measured, any kind of 'standard' is creepy.

Measuring knowledge and mastery of competencies and skills isn't quite as subjective as 'beauty,' but isn't anywhere close to as cut and dry as height and weight. We can give the same test that measures the same thing in the same way for all students and do no damage really-provided we are all on the same page that we're not measuring understanding but rather measuring performance on a test.

In a perfect world, we'd have countless ways to measure that understanding-all valid, universally understood, engaging to students, etc. In pursuit, I thought it'd make sense to brainstorm different ways to measure understanding. Some will be more or less useful depending on content areas, grade levels, student motivation, etc., not to mention what the purpose of the assessment is.

Do you need a snapshot?

Do you need to measure mastery or growth?

Do you want it to be flexible for a variety of learners or more binary-you either pass or you fail?

Do you want students to be able to return to the assessment periodically or is this a one-shot kind of deal?

Is the assessment for the teacher or the student?

If you're not clear about why you're assessing (and what you're going to do with the data the assessment provides) you're wasting a lot of time, energy, and resources-your own and that of the students.

With that mind, see below for 50 ways to measure understanding. Some are assessment forms (e.g., exit slips), some are models (e.g., Bloom's Taxonomy) and some are more frequently thought of as teaching strategies (e.g., Socratic Discussion).

50 Ways To Measure Understanding

Assessment Forms For Measuring Understanding

These can be thought of as reasons to test

In 6 Types Of Assessment, we offered up exactly that-six 'kinds' of tests that imply the purpose of and standard for the assessment.
1. Norm-Referenced Assessments
Norm-referenced assessments are assessments used to compare students to one another rather.
2. Criterion-Based Assessments
A criterion-based assessment assesses a student's performance against a clear and published goal or objective. This is in contrast, for example, to a test that students hope to 'do well on' but without a clear and concise objective and/or without clear performance standards for that objective.
3. Standardized Assessments
A standardized assessment is any assessment containing elements that are the same for all students universally. The perceived benefit is that standardization ensures all students are being weighed equally and that there is a common 'bar' for students to be measured with.
4. Standards-Based Assessment
A form of standardized assessment, a standards- based assessment is one that is based on an academic content standard (e.g., ' Determining an author's purpose...').
5. Personalized assessments
While these aren't necessarily 'different' kinds of assessments, they do reflect different reasons to assess.
6. Pre-Assessment
Pre-assessment is any kind of evaluation, analysis, or measurement of student understanding that occurs before the teaching/learning process begins.

The purpose of pre-assessment varies-it can be to help plan lessons and activities, revise curriculum maps, create personalized learning pathways for individual students, help inform grouping strategies, plan future assessments, etc.
7. Formative Assessment
Formative assessment generally occurs during the teaching and learning, though it's not that simple and a better way to think about formative assessment is to consider that it provides data to form and inform the teaching and learning on an ongoing basis. A common example of a formative assessment is a quiz. Types of quizzes? Pop quizzes, planned/scheduled quizzes, timed quizzes, and so on.

This can also be thought of as 'diagnostic assessment,' and is ideally the most common form of assessment in K-12 learning environments (because the purpose is to measure understanding to better create future learning experiences).
8. Summative Assessment
A summative assessment is any assessment done when the 'teaching is done.' This makes the process of 'summative assessment' a curious thing unless there are no more opportunities to teach and learn (like the end of a school year).
9. Timed Assessment
This one is self-explanatory-any assessment that is time-bound is a timed assessment (though technically that timing can be minutes or even years depending on the nature and purpose and scale of the assessment.

Timed Assessments can also be combined with other forms-a timed project or timed essay, for example. The idea is the constraint of time somehow shapes the scope of the test and the performance of the student.
11. Untimed Assessment
Untimed assessments are less common than timed assessments if for no other reason than the scheduled-nature of modern education necessitates it.
12. Open-Ended Assessment
In contrast to a timed, standards-based and standardized assessment, an open-ended assessment is generally designed to provide a proving ground for the students to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and competencies. Through open-ended assessment, student autonomy, creativity, and self-efficacy play a larger role in their performance.

Due to the nature of this approach, the mindset of the learner is crucial. Without confidence, ownership, and a clear sense of how and what they might demonstrate what they know, learners can feel uncertain-and worse, may fail to 'show what they know' and misinform future planning of learning experiences because of this 'failure.

A learning blend is an example of an open-ended assessment.
13. Game-Based Assessment
A game-based assessment is often technology-based (e.g., video games), but an athletic contest can be considered game-based assessments as it's the performance within a given set of rules that determines what the learner knows and can 'do.'
14. Benchmark Assessment
Benchmark assessments evaluate student performance at periodic intervals, frequently at the end of a grading period. Can predict student performance on end-of-the-year summative assessments.
15. Group Assessment
Group assessment is what it sounds like it might be-assessment done in a group with (at times) varying roles and responsibilities.

Obviously, a design challenge is Group Assessment is to know exactly what you're assessing as social dynamics and individual roles and responsibilities can obscure the analysis of student learning.

Different Assessment Forms For Measuring Understanding
These can be thought of as 'types of tests' 16. Short Responses Tests
Example: Short, written or verbal responses to questions or prompts

17. Extended Responses (On-Demand, Essays, etc.)

Example: Like the above but longer-anywhere from a few paragraphs to entire research essays
18. Multiple-Choice Tests
Not sure this needs explaining-multiple-choice assessments are great for providing data but are highly dependent on the quality of the questions and responses-and even then favor highly-literate and motivated students over others.
19. True-False Tests
If you're good at creating very nuanced True/False assessment items, they can challenge students with a strong grasp of content by forcing them to closely consider whether something is 'true' or not. True/False assessments can also be useful for struggling or 'hesitant' students because the barrier to answering is so low (like a multiple-choice assessment) but there are only two 'answers' to choose between.

Tip: You can allow students to revise the true or false statement until it seems true to them based on what they know. The changes they make can go a long way in helping to diagnose what they're misunderstanding.
20. Matching Items
The strength of matching items is that they're simple to create, complete, and score-and well-designed, can be surprisingly effective in uncovering what students know. The challenge with these kinds of assessments is that they do very little to demonstrate depth of understanding and are only useful with certain kinds of content.

21. Performance & Demonstration (i.e., watching the student attempt to demonstrate understanding/competency/skill in real-time)

Example: Watching a student try to hit a free throw in basketball or make a specific pass in soccer, etc. It doesn't have to be athletic-based, however. Students can also demonstrate the effect of gravity on planetary orbits or how propaganda works, etc.
22. A Visual Representation
Example: Students can create a visual representation of the water cycle-how it works, all the forms it takes, its benefits, the physics of the process, etc. What is visualized is obviously part of the assessment.

They could also create one for the use of transitional phrases in writing-what they do, when they're used, what their effects are, etc.
23. Analogies
Analogies are underrated assessment tools; students can 'answer' analogies you create, modify them to create new meanings, explain why an analogy you create is wrong, or create their own analogies to demonstrate understanding.

Example: If you wanted to assess a student's understanding of thesis statements, you could have students 'answer' an analogy you create by completing the analogy.
Thesis Statement: Essay:: Company:________ (mission or slogan) 24. Concept Maps
25. Graphic Organizers (like analogies, these are also very underrated ways to measure understanding)
26. A Physical Artifact
27. A Question (i.e., a student asking/revising a question as a form of assessment)
28. A Debate 29. A Conversation/Group Discussion/Socratic Discussion 30. Question Stems
See here for examples of question stems for critical thinking. You can also let students create their own stems and quiz/test one another.

31. Role-Playing (e.g., role-playing historical figures to assess biographical knowledge-this is similar to #21)

32. QFT Session
33. Observable Metacognition
This non-traditional assessment form is asking to (somehow 'watching' the student think about their own thinking an using it to 'measure' understanding

34. Self-Assessment (where the student evaluates their own understanding with or without the help of the teacher)
35. Peer-Assessment 36. Expert Assessment
This one is obviously better suited to more skilled and knowledgeable learners (in high school and college, for example.) An example of Expert Assessment is a talent show like American Idol

Any kind panel evaluation (where a third party chooses one or more of the above forms) that seeks to evaluate and measure understanding where the assessment and feedback depend on the specific and often narrow expertise of the panel itself is an 'expert assessment.'
37. RAFT Assignments
RAFT is a common ELA activity that stands for Role Audience Format Topic (or Theme/Thesis/Tone). I hesitated to put this on the list because it's best-suited to English-Language Arts/Literature/Writing/Literacy and is hard to explain it's utility as an assessment tool even in that narrow domain.

The idea here is to alter elements of an activity or assignment to force students to think critically to complete it, and it doesn't have to be 'RAFT'-you can frame anything in any number of ways. (If you've never used RAFT before, you're probably best off skipping this one until you're more familiar with it. Email me if you have any questions.)

Example: Students studying the Declaration of Independence can revise it for a specific audience or communicate the same ideas in a different format or tone (rather than the letter/political tone of the original).
38. A Challenge
Creating a challenge for students to complete in order to demonstrate understanding is another non-traditional form of assessment but can be useful to engage hesitant learners or bring out the best in gifted students. Gamification is useful in challenge-based assessment.
39. Teacher-Designed Projects
Create a project that produces a 'thing' whose quality will or will not demonstrate student understanding.
40. Student-Designed Projects
The same as above but the student designs the project (likely with the teacher). This will confuse a lot of students-you'll know fast if this is going to be useful for your purpose for assessment or not.
41. Self-Directed Learning
By supporting the student to reflect on, prioritize, plan, and complete their own learning experiences on their own, students will inherently have their understanding measured.

Self-Directed Learning is a form of open-ended assessment-you can see one of the self-directed learning models I created here.

Frameworks & Assessment Models For Measuring Understanding

These can be thought of as ways to frame the thinking about the content being assessed in the test
42. Bloom's Taxonomy 43. The TeachThought Learning Taxonomy 44. UbD's 6 Facets Of Understanding 45. Marzano's New Taxonomy 46. Assessing 'Transferability'
It is common for assessments to be standardized, universal, and practiced in those standardized and universal forms (for example, a multiple-choice assessment with a set number of items and a standardized amount of time to complete).

This is great for norm-referencing, but a terrible way to truly measure what a student understands-and the strength and depth of that understanding. That's where transfer of understanding comes in. You can read more about different kinds of learning transfer.
47. A Graded Assessment
This is the most common form of formal assessment-one that is scored, feedback is given, and data is shared (even if only via a letter grade).
48. An Ungraded Assessment
This is less common than graded assessments-which is strange because the most useful purpose of assessment is to provide data to revise planned instruction. Feedback is also useful, but the scoring, grading, and communication of a grade can take time, distract learners emotionally, and most critically obscure data about that understanding.

That's not to say that assessments should never be graded, but scoring, documenting a score, then communicating that score to students, parents, colleges, etc., significantly alters the tone, scale, and reach of that assessment. It becomes more like a public performance than a way to measure understanding.
49. Feedback-Only Assessment
Learning Feedback-only Assessment is similar to ungraded but focused intently on providing detailed feedback to individual learners to help them mastery the standard, competency, or skill.
50. Pass/Fail Assessment
While feedback can be given, time limits can be imposed, and various taxonomies can be used, the primary characteristic of pass-fail assessment is that letter grades and points are generally not given and the standard for performance is binary-that is, the standard either was or was not met.

An athlete trying to vault over a 6-meter bar is participating in a kind of 'pass/fail' assessment in that they either will or will not clear the bar.
51. Ongoing 'Climate of Assessment'
A 'Climate of Assessment' is a personal favorite of mine.

In this approach, critical and complex ideas and skills are constantly revisited and iterated upon in various ways, forms, and contexts while supplemented by less complex/quicker-to-master content. Assessment is frequent, playful, clear, compelling, and always formative.
52. Snapshot of Assessment
This is an assessment of what the student seems to know at that moment based on that given assessment form. These can be misleading but useful if they're preceded and proceeded by additional snapshots in the aforementioned 'climate of assessment.'
53. A Measurement Of Growth Over Time
In this kind of assessment, mastery isn't measured-nor are students compared to one another (as they are in norm-referenced assessments).

Instead, the focus is on far the student has (or has not) 'come.' One strategy here is grading backward. This approach, while complex, is naturally differentiated for each student, has a positive tone, and makes it much more difficult to 'fail' unless the student actually literally atrophies in terms of skills and understanding.
54. Concept Mastery
This kind of assessment is mainly distinguished by what's being assessed-the focus here is a grasp of concepts and ideas rather than skills and competencies (like the item below).
55. Competency & Skill Mastery
Many academic standards combine concepts and skills-which is fine because that's often what the 'real world' is like.

But when you're trying to troubleshoot student achievement and evaluate what they actually, truly understand (versus how they did on the test), being able to separate what they 'know' and what they can 'do' can make remediation more efficient-and make the student feel better about their own 'lack of mastery' because they are able to see what they do and don't know, what they can and cannot do, etc., which is more precise and comforting than 'I missed the question' or 'I failed the test.')

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by Terry Heick How do you measure what a student understands? Not give them an assessment, score it, then use that score to imply understanding. Rather, how do you truly 'uncover' what they 'know'-and how 'well' they know it?

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USING BOOK CREATOR FOR FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

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USING BOOK CREATOR FOR FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

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Using Book Creator for Formative Assessment

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Regularly checking for understanding during a lesson or project is vital. This book covers workflows for students and ways to use Book Creator to make sure your learners stay on track.

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From Assessment OF Learning to Assessment FOR Learning

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From Assessment OF Learning to Assessment FOR Learning

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Ali Saukah is a professor at Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia. He is a frequent speaker at language conferences in the Asian region and has published extensively in international peer review journals. His research interests include assessment, teacher professional development, and publication writing.

Abstract

This paper reports on findings from an investigation of teachers' understanding of assessment for learning and how their understanding affects their ways in doing follow up actions. Overall, the findings indicate some gaps between the beliefs and perceptions of the teachers and the classroom practices.

Introduction

Assessment or "any systematic method of obtaining information from tests and other sources, used to draw inferences about characteristics of people, objects, or programs" (Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, published by American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, National Council on Measurement in Education, Joint Committee on Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (U.S.)., 2014) is an important part of education.

Assessment has been widely used as an instrument to measure the learning outcomes of the students at the end of an educational program (or their proficiency) for promotion from one level to a higher level of education, for graduation decisions, and for certification purposes. It has also been used as an instrument for school or college admissions and other selection purposes. The role of assessment designed to serve such purposes seems to cease right after its purposes have been served. Such assessment can be labelled as assessment of learning.

Assessment is also expected to contribute to collecting information about the strengths and weaknesses of the students to maximize their learning outcomes, as feedback for the teachers to modify teaching and for the students to modify learning. Assessment designed to serve such a purpose has been recognized as formative or diagnostic assessment. Such assessment can be labelled as assessment for learning.

The effect of assessment of learning and assessment for learning can be observed from the following evidence: "Students given marks are likely to see it as a way to compare themselves with others; those given only comments see it as helping them to improve. The latter group outperforms the former." (Black et al., 2004)
Assessment for Learning: Diagnostic Language Assessment (DLA)
As a subfield of language assessment, Diagnostic Language Assessment (DLA) can be considered as assessment for language learning. Two fundamental goals of DLA are to identify language learners' weaknesses and deficiencies, as well as their strengths, in the targeted language domains and provide useful diagnostic feedback and guidance for remedial learning and instruction (Lee, 2015a). In other words, DLA seeks to promote further learning designed to address the test-takers' weaknesses and increase their overall growth potential. Thus, it is important to create meaningful linkages between outcomes of diagnosis and subsequent learning and instruction when designing the DLA system.

According to Lee (2015b), there are three core components of DLA: diagnosis, feedback, and remedial learning. Each is described below.

Diagnosis is the core component of DLA. The central goal of diagnosis in DLA is to identify not only one's strengths but also weaknesses that prevent the learner from moving beyond the current level of learning (or knowledge, proficiency, ability, or competence) to the next level. Diagnosis requires developing and using various diagnostic instruments (including tests, questionnaires, and tools) and procedures for collecting, analyzing, and scoring the test-takers' data, estimating the learners' pattern of strengths and weaknesses in a targeted domain, and, if necessary, classifying the learners into groups of learners with the same (or a similar) pattern of strengths and weaknesses.

Feedback is designed to describe, summarize, and present the results of diagnosis to the learners, teachers, and other stakeholders of assessment in various formats. Once the strengths and weaknesses (along with the root causes of the weaknesses) are identified, such information should be communicated effectively to the learners and teachers, so that they can take necessary or recommended actions to strengthen the identified weaknesses and increase the overall learning potential.

Remedial learning (or treatment/intervention) is a set of learning activities that are designed to help the learners improve on the attributes that were identified to be weak and thereby reach the desired goals of learning and proficiency in the targeted domain of language and communication.
Studies in Diagnostic Language Assessment
There are some studies related to Diagnostic Language Assessment (DLA). Each would be presented below.

Alderson et al. (2015) developed a tentative framework which can be translated into a set of five principles for the diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses in second or foreign language:

1. It is not the test which diagnoses, it is the user of the test.

2. Instruments themselves should be designed to be user-friendly, targeted, discrete and efficient in order to assist the teacher in making a diagnosis. Diagnostic tests should be suitable for administration in the classroom, designed or assembled by a trained classroom teacher, and should generate rich and detailed feedback for the test-taker. Most importantly, useful testing instruments need to be designed with a specific diagnostic purpose in mind.

3. The diagnostic assessment process should include diverse stakeholder views, including learners' self- assessments.

4. Diagnostic assessment should ideally be embedded within a system that allows for all four diagnostic stages: (1) listening/observation, (2) initial assessment, (3) use of tools, tests, expert help, and (4) decision-making.

5. Diagnostic assessment should relate, if at all possible, to some future treatment.

One of the key practical outcomes of this set of principles is the proposal for an "ideal" diagnostic process in principle 4 which is illustrated and expanded in the figure below.

Note that this four-stage process addresses principles 1, 2, 3 and 5 in its recommendations for: stake-holder involvement (including learners themselves) (principle 3); targeted, purpose built diagnostic tools, selected from a bank according to purpose (principle 2); rich and detailed feedback (principle 2); and treatment or intervention to address specific problems which have been identified (principle 5). All of this is performed by a skilled "diagnostician" 2 (principle 1).

Another example of the development of Diagnostic Language Assessment is of Reading: Diagnostic English Language Tracking Assessment (DELTA) which tests a range of subskills across various text types and addresses a range of different topic areas. The figure below presents the reading subskills tested in DELTA, and gives an example of which subskills a particular learner performed poorly on (indicated with a "x" and highlighted). The diagnostic report is "based on the item difficulty relative to the student's proficiency. If they are not answered correctly, they indicate possible weakness in that particular subskill" (Urmston, Raquel, & Tsang, 2013, p. 74 in Harding et al. 2015).

Another example, which is related to listening, is as shown in the table suggested by Harding et al. (2015) below. The table presents a set of diagnostic tools, which take into account the strengths and weaknesses in various linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge sources that are crucial for meaning-making and for building a structure of a listening event.

Another study related to reading was done by Kim (2015) in exploring how a placement test score could be used for diagnosing the L2 reading ability of incoming students to an adult ESL program. The list of L2 reading attributes was developed by drawing upon previous literature on language ability models as shown below:

A study on making use of national exam in Indonesia for assessment for learning purposes was conducted by Wulansari & Kumaidi (2015). The study was aimed at finding information around the National Examination on Elementary School Mathematics in the 2012/2013 academic year. The information includes: (1) the underlying attributes of the test items, (2) the materials in the questions that cause many students to make mistakes, (3) types of mistakes made by the students, (4) the location of the dominant student's misconceptions, and (5) the main cause of the student's misconceptions. Content analysis was used in descriptive quantitative research. The sources of the data were the student answer sheets and national exam booklet.

All of the previous studies indicated the importance of assessment for learning particularly the Diagnostic Language Assessment (DLA) to improve the quality of the teaching and learning process in the classroom. However, there has not been an in depth study conducted to describe in detail the teachers' understanding of assessment for learning and how their understanding affects their ways in doing follow up actions.

Methods

A survey involving 108 respondents of lecturers and teachers, mostly in EFL contexts from different parts of Indonesia, is aimed at describing EFL educators' awareness of assessment for learning. The respondents completed questionnaires distributed through emails to students, ex-students, and their colleagues.

There were some questions raised:

In addition to using the results of mid-term tests for assigning grades, do you use them for any follow-up actions?

In addition to using the results of final tests for assigning grades, do you use them for any follow-up actions?

If you use the results of mid-term tests not only for assigning grades, what kinds of follow-up actions do you do?

If you use the results of final tests not only for assigning grades, what kinds of follow-up actions do you do?

Do you analyze the students' responses to the tests?

If you do, what kinds of analysis do you do?

Do you know the difference between "assessment of learning" and "assessment for learning"?

If you do, describe the difference between "assessment of learning" and "assessment for learning".

Some questions were written in the closed-ended format; while the others were in open-ended format.

Findings

The following apple-pie charts showed the frequency of practices of follow-up actions reported by the respondents and proportions of the respondents who thought they knew or did not know about assessment for learning.

The Frequency of Teachers who Used the Results of Mid-Term Test for Any Follow-up Actions

The Frequency of Teachers who Used the Results of Final-Term Test for Any Follow-up Actions

The Frequency of Teachers who Analyzed Their Students' Responses to the Tests

The Number of Teachers who Understood the Concept of Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning

The open-ended questions were intended to reveal the match between what the respondents reported as implementation of assessment for learning and the operational definitions of assessment for learning, and the match between what they reported as "knowing" and their explanation about "assessment for learning". The results were as follows:

The answers of the open-ended questions about follow-up actions of midterm tests were summarized into two different categories considered to be "assessment for learning related follow-up actions" (35%) and "NOT-assessment for learning related follow-up actions" (65%).

The answers of the open-ended questions about follow-up actions of final tests were summarized into two different categories considered to be "assessment for learning related follow-up actions" (31%) and "NOT-assessment for learning related follow-up actions" (69%).

The answers of the open-ended questions about conducting test response analysis to implement "assessment for learning" were summarized into two different categories considered to be "assessment for learning related analysis"(22%) and "NOT-assessment for learning related analysis" (78%)

The answers of the open-ended questions about awareness of "assessment for learning" were summarized to reveal a match between their choice "know" and "what they know about assessment for learning" (50% match).

Discussion

The results of the study showed some interesting findings. First, there was an imbalance between the implementation of assessment of learning and that of assessment for learning. Second, there were gaps between respondents' perceptions (what they think they do) and practices (what they describe in implementing assessment for learning). There were also gaps between respondents' beliefs (what they think they know) and knowledge (what they describe about assessment for learning). In that case, a strong linkage must be established among research, policy and practice.

There are, for example, some potential research topics investigating:

why assessment for learning is imbalance with the assessment of learning,

how assessment of learning can be combined with assessment for learning,

how assessment for learning can be effectively integrated into classroom assessment,

how the results of assessment of learning (achievement and proficiency tests) can be analyzed to promote teaching and learning,

the effect of assessment for learning on the improvement of the students' English, and

how to develop diagnostic language assessment in harmony with the EFL curriculum in Indonesia.

Based on research, curriculum implementation policy should allow and facilitate teachers to implement assessment for learning integrated into teaching and maintain the balance between assessment of learning and assessment for learning. As for classroom practice, teachers are encouraged to implement assessment for learning to promote teaching and learning

Conclusion

There is a need and potential for increasing the role of assessment for learning to improve the quality of education in Indonesia, especially language learning. The overall findings of this research indicate a need for more research in this field and a need for informing teachers about assessment for learning. Such knowledge will influence the teachers' actions and decisions in their classrooms.

References

Alderson, J. C., Brunfaut, T., & Harding, L. (2015). Towards a theory of diagnosis in second and foreign language assessment: Insights from professional practice across diverse fields. Applied Linguistics, 36 (2), 236-260

American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, National Council on Measurement in Education, Joint Committee on Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (U.S.). (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: AERA.

Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2004). Assessment for Learning in the Classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 1(86), 8-21.

Harding, L., Alderson, C., & Brunfaut, T. (2015) Diagnostic assessment of reading and listening in a second or foreign language: Elaborating on diagnostic principles. Language Testing, 3(32), 317-336.

Kim, A. (2015). Exploring ways to provide diagnostic feedback with an ESL placement test: Cognitive diagnostic assessment of L2 reading ability. Language Testing, 2(32), 227-258.

Lee, Y.W. (2015a). Future of diagnostic language assessment. Language Testing, 3(32), 295-298.

Lee, Y.W.. (2015b). Diagnosing diagnostic language assessment. Language Testing, 3(32), 299-316.

Wulansari, W, & Kuamidi. (2015). Analisis Kesalahan Konsep Siswa Dalam Menyelesaikan Soal Ujian Nasional Matematika SD. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan (JIP), 1(21), 97-105.
Please check the Methodology and Language for Secondary course at Pilgrims website. Please check the Teaching Advanced Students course at Pilgrims website.

From Assessment OF Learning to Assessment FOR Learning
Ali Saukah, Indonesia

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From Assessment OF Learning to Assessment FOR Learning

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Ali Saukah is a professor at Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia. He is a frequent speaker at language conferences in the Asian region and has published extensively in international peer review journals. His research interests include assessment, teacher professional development, and publication writing.

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Revisiting Dylan Wiliam’s Five Brilliant Formative Assessment Strategies

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Revisiting Dylan Wiliam’s Five Brilliant Formative Assessment Strategies

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In many of Dylan Wiliam's talks and publications he references five 'key strategies' that support the implementation of effective formative assessment. The five strategies each get a chapter in his excellent book Embedding Formative Assessment (2011) which builds on the work he developed with other colleagues in the 90s and 00s.

The five strategies were expressed as early as 2005:

1. Clarifying, understanding, and sharing learning intentions

2. Engineering effective classroom discussions, tasks and activities that elicit evidence of learning

3. Providing feedback that moves learners forward

4. Activating students as learning resources for one another

5. Activating students as owners of their own learning

Leahy, Lyon, Thompson and Wiliam (2005).
Very commonly, Wiliam presents these ideas in this helpful table, linking the strategies to core assessment concepts:

In my work as a consultant and teacher trainer, I give a lot of 'evidence-informed' advice to teachers. Of late, this has been influenced largely by discussions about a knowledge-rich curriculum and my reading of Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction, cognitive load theory, and various other papers linking cognitive psychology to classroom practice.

However, it occurred to me recently that most of this overlaps entirely with Wiliam's five strategies and that is what I want to explore here. To some extent, schools and teachers often feel they have have 'done AfL to death' in countless CPD sessions over the last 15 years. Time was when you couldn't get a job unless you said 'AfL' about 12 times in an interview. Sadly, my sense is that the wisdom at the heart of Wiliam's ideas about responsive teaching/formative assessment gets washed out either a) by the delusion that the strategies are already embedded in day-to-day practice or b) by the sense that this is a box ticked and people are really ready to move to the new thing. Truth be told, a lot of 'AfL' was and is a mile away from the formative assessment practice Wiliam is talking about.

Essentially, I feel that, among the important things every teacher should know, the five strategies should be there, part of the core curriculum for teacher development. Here's how I see it all connecting:
1.Clarifying, understanding, and sharing learning intentions
Wiliam says 'if you don't know where you're going, you'll never get there'. This is largely about curriculum planning. I read 'learning intentions' as meaning: what do we want all students to know and be able to do? In the detail, this means spelling out what knowledge - in all its forms - they should have and how to apply this knowledge in new contexts. It chimes perfectly with the wave of work being done around curriculum design. It also resonates with the strand of Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction around sequencing concepts, providing models and appropriate scaffolding.

It also means 'what does excellence look like?'. This connects to ideas about assessment and comparative judgement and teachers knowing the standards. Significantly, the implication from Wiliam is that in 'clarifying, understanding and sharing' - teachers, students and their peers all need to know both the knowledge requirements and the criteria for excellence in any performed task. This goes far, far beyond writing a mandatory one-line LO on the board at the start of every lesson! (Aarrghh!). It suggests a lot of very explicit exposition and discussion about the target knowledge and the features of any endeavour that constitute ever increasing degrees of success.

This, in turn, feeds into ideas about self-regulation and metacognition. Successful learners will be good at self-regulation, planning and monitoring their progress towards learning goals in a deliberate self-directed manner. Knowing the learning intentions very well is essential for that process to work.

So the links here are numerous: curriculum, knowledge, standards, self-regulation, scaffolding, modelling.
2. Engineering effective classroom discussions, tasks and activities that elicit evidence of learning
In some ways, this 'strategy' is a one-line summary of most of the rest of Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction. 'Discussions, tasks and activities' covers a lot of possibilities. At the centre of it is the idea of 'responsive teaching'. Instructional teaching has to be highly interactive so that teachers are getting feedback from their students about how well their schemas for the material in hand are forming and how fluent they are becoming retrieving and using what they've learned. The challenge for teachers is to involve as many students as possible which leads to the need for good questioning routines and good knowledge-check routines where the ratio of student involvement is high and the information received has a good diagnostic component.

Rosenshine talks about the need for checking for understanding and asking lots of questions in a probing style. Wiliam focuses on question design - including good diagnostic multiple choice questions - and the role of all-student response techniques.

Links: Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction. Shimamura's 'Generate-Evaluate' model. Ideas about retrieval practice. Nuthall's ideas about 'hidden lives' and the idea that we can't be remotely confident about learning taking place until we check - now, and again later.
3. Providing feedback that moves learners forward
Feedback is a thorny issue, woven into discussions about the use of formative and summative assessment, marking and workload, grading and the value of data as a tool to improve learner outcomes. The key in Wiliam's work is the emphasis on moving learners forward. It's this thinking that informed the ideas I expressed in this ' feedback as actions ' post.

Some of the key messages that Wiliam offers in relation to feedback that I cite very often are:

Feedback is only successful if students' learning improves - and this depends on their capacity to understand it and inclination to accept and act on it. It's got an interpersonal, motivational element that can't be brushed aside. Giving feedback isn't a purely technical, objective task - although it does have to suggest actions students can actually take rather than offering a nebulous retrospective critique.

The goal is to change the students' capacity to produce better work, not just to improve their work. Austin's Butterfly is wonderful - because it shows what effective feedback can achieve - but Austin has only truly benefitted if, later, he is more able to 'look like a scientist' or draw beautiful butterflies without feedback: he needs to be able to generate his own feedback and become more independent.

This links formative assessment to metacognition and self-regulation and Rosenshine's ideas about moving from guided to independent practice. If we're still reliant on external feedback to tell us if we've succeeded (SatNav style), then we've still got a long way to go. Effective learners can link their work to the success criteria and generate their own ongoing self-correcting feedback narrative.

Links: Ethic of excellence, Rosenshine guided to independent practice, self-regulation.
4. Activating students as learning resources for one another
I think this is the feature of Wiliam's five strategies that deserves more attention. All too often teachers create major bottlenecks by forcing all classroom interactions to pass through them. However, if teachers develop strong routines where students support each other's learning in a serious structured manner, then the ratio, quality and frequency of student interactions with the knowledge in hand can increase significantly. We can't have a dialogue with every student at once but they can all be involved in meaningful dialogues with each other to support the process of working out 'where the learner is' and 'how to get to where the learner is going'. This is where disciplined ' think pair share ' becomes so powerful.

Wiliam cites Slavin in showing that well-designed collaborative learning can yield significant gains - but it has to be done such that everyone is learning. There are so many ways to do this e.g students checking their partners' answers using all manner of quizzing formats and generative processes and elaborative-interrogative questions (why? how?). Pairs are probably the most efficient and effective use of this strategy - because of the ease of switching in and out of the interactions. If one person in a pair acts as the verifier for the other, using exemplars, fact sheets, mark schemes as a reference, the extent of retrieval practice and feedback can be increased hugely. Another example might be using structured dialogues for practising the use of language or rehearsing explanations and arguments. Provided that there is a strong process for evaluating students' responses for accuracy and quality, a high volume of peer-to-peer interactivity is powerful.

Links: Hattie's 'reciprocal teaching', Shimamura's 'think it, say it, teach it', Slavin's collaborative learning, Sumeracki and Weinstein on elaborative interrogative questions and retrieval practice.
5. Activating students as owners of their own learning
In all honesty, I find that implementation of the strategy behind this feel-good-phrase, often falls into the dust of 'noble intent' rather than delivering something tangible. However, it is actually highly actionable and links directly to many other ideas. 'Owning your own learning' is at the heart of strong self-regulation and metacognition: setting learning goals, planning, monitoring and evaluating success in tasks links to those goals; forming effective schemata that take account of big-picture questions and themes that inform subsequent conscious rehearsal and elaboration. However, these 'goals' are not broad brush life goals; they are learning goals - the next steps in improving writing fluency, science knowledge, confidence with maths and languages, physical fitness etc.

The point is that these characteristics of effective learning can be fostered by setting up good routines and expectations. Teachers can help students to know where they are going and where they are on the curriculum journey. This can be supported by:

giving students access to long-term topic plans, the syllabus, the wide scope overview before diving down into the details;

setting out milestones in the progress journey so that students can take their bearings and plan their own next steps through appropriate forms of practice, becoming increasingly independent.

setting out clear relational models for conceptual schema building - as per Shimamura's Relate in MARGE.

providing exemplars of performance at various levels of success up to a high/exceptional level so students can compare their own work against a scale and see for themselves where they are and what short-run learning goals might be achievable to move forward.

If a student knows for themself what they need to do in order to improve and gains the experience of being able to achieve success through applying effort to these self-determined goals, then they begin a positive upward spiral of confidence building, growth mindset-inducing, self-regulation that fuels even more success.

Links: Rosenshine: practice; Shimamura: Relate; Growth mindset; self-regulation.

To some extent I feel that the issue has been that 'AfL' or even 'formative assessment' has been too broad a term; too much of a catch-all, thereby allowing various degrees of corruption and dilution to take root. I think that it's when you get into understanding and deploying the five separate strategies that it finds form. That's the understanding of formative assessment that teachers need. It's powerful stuff, right there, where it's been for years.
Key References:
Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. (2007). Integrating assessment with instruction: what will it take to make it work? In C. A. Dwyer (Ed.), The future of assessment: shaping teaching and learning(pp. 53-82). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Wilam, D (2011) Embedded Formative Assessment. Solution Tree Press.

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Revisiting Dylan Wiliam's Five Brilliant Formative Assessment Strategies.

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In many of Dylan Wiliam's talks and publications he references five 'key strategies' that support the implementation of effective formative assessment. The five strategies each get a chapter in his excellent book Embedding Formative Assessment (2011) which builds on the work he developed with other colleagues in the 90s and 00s.

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Recopilación de enlaces muy interesantes

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Recopilación de enlaces muy interesantes

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Educational technology for K-16 educators

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20 Ways To Provide Effective Feedback For Learning

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20 Ways To Provide Effective Feedback For Learning

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contributed by Laura Reynolds

While assessment gets all the press, we often misunderstand effective feedback for learning.

When feedback is predominately negative, studies have shown that it can discourage student effort and achievement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, Dinham). In my experience, the only thing I knew is that I hated public speaking and I would do anything possible to get out of it. As a teacher, most of the time it is easy to give encouraging, positive feedback.

However, it is in the other times that we have to dig deep to find an appropriate feedback response that will not discourage a student's learning. This is where the good teachers, the ones students remember forever in a positive light, separate themselves from the others.

A teacher has the distinct responsibility to nurture a student's learning and to provide feedback in such a manner that the student does not leave the classroom feeling defeated. Here you will find 20 ideas and techniques on how to give effective learning feedback that will leave your students with the feeling they can conquer the world.

20 Ways to Provide Effective Feedback

1. Feedback should be educative in nature.

Providing feedback means giving students an explanation of what they are doing correctly and incorrectly. However, the focus of the feedback should be based essentially on what the students is doing right. It is most productive to a student's learning when they are provided with an explanation and example as to what is accurate and inaccurate about their work.

Consider using the concept of a 'feedback sandwich' to guide your feedback: Compliment, Correct, Compliment.

2. Feedback should be given in a timely manner.

When feedback is given immediately after showing proof of learning, the student responds positively and remembers the experience about what is being learned in a confident manner. If we wait too long to give feedback, the moment is lost and the student might not connect the feedback with the action.

3. Be sensitive to the individual needs of the student.

It is vital that we take into consideration each student individually when giving feedback. Our classrooms are full of diverse learners. Some students need to be nudged to achieve at a higher level and others need to be handled very gently so as not to discourage learning and damage self-esteem. A balance between not wanting to hurt a student's feelings and providing proper encouragement is essential.

4. Ask the 4 questions.

Studies of effective teaching and learning (Dinham, 2002, 2007a; 2007b) have shown that learners want to know where they stand in regards to their work. Providing answers to the following four questions on a regular basis will help provide quality feedback. These four questions are also helpful when providing feedback to parents:

What can the student do?

What can't the student do?

How does the student's work compare with that of others?

How can the student do better?

5. Feedback should reference a skill or specific knowledge.

This is when rubrics become a useful tool (single-point rubrics, for example). A rubric is an instrument to communicate expectations for an assignment and a useful way to provide effective feedback for learning. Effective rubrics provide students with very specific information about their performance, compared to an established range of standards. For younger students, try highlighting rubric items that the student is meeting or try using a sticker chart.

6. Give feedback to keep students 'on target' for achievement.

Regular 'check-ins' with students let them know where they stand in the classroom and with you. Utilize the '4 questions' to guide your feedback.

7. Host a one-on-one conference.

Providing a one-on-one meeting with a student is one of the most effective means of providing feedback. The student will look forward to having the attention and allows the opportunity to ask necessary questions. A one-on-one conference should be generally optimistic, as this will encourage the student to look forward to the next meeting.

As with all aspects of teaching, this strategy requires good time management. Try meeting with a student while the other students are working independently. Time the meetings so that they last no longer than 10 minutes.

8. Feedback can be given verbally, non-verbally, or in written form.

Be sure to keep your frowns in check. It is imperative that we examine our non-verbal cues. Facial expressions and gestures are also means of delivering feedback. This means that when you hand back that English paper, it is best not to scowl.

9. Concentrate on one ability or skill.

It makes a far greater impact on the student when only one skill is critiqued versus the entire paper being the focus of everything that is wrong.

For example, when I taught Writer's Workshop at the elementary level, I would let students know that for that day I was going to be checking on the indentation of paragraphs within their writing. When I conferenced with a student, that was my focus instead of all the other aspects of their writing. The next day would feature a new focus.

Utilize this strategy when grading papers or tests to provide effective feedback for learning. This strategy allows you the necessary time to provide quality, written feedback. This can also include using a rotation chart for students to conference with at a deeper more meaningful level. Students will also know when it is their turn to meet with you and are more likely to bring questions of their own to the conference.

11. Educate students on how to give feedback to each other.

Model for students what appropriate feedback looks like and sounds like. As an elementary teacher, we call this 'peer conferencing.' Train students to give each other constructive feedback in a way that is positive and helpful. Encourage students to use post-it notes to record the given feedback.

12. Ask another adult to give feedback.

The principal at the school I taught at would often volunteer to grade history tests or read student's writing pieces. You can imagine how the student's quality of work increased tenfold! If the principal is too busy (and most are), invite a 'guest' teacher or student teacher to critique work.

13. Have the student take notes.

During a conference over a test, paper, or a general 'check-in,' have the student do the writing while you do the talking. The student can use a notebook to jot down notes as you provide verbal feedback.

14. Use a notebook to keep track of student progress.

Keep a section of a notebook for each student. Write daily or weekly, dated comments about each student as necessary. Keep track of good questions the student asks, behavior issues, areas for improvement, test scores, etc. Of course, this requires a lot of essential time management but when it is time to conference with a student or parent, you are ready to go.

Returning papers and tests at the beginning of class, rather than at the end, allows students to ask necessary questions and to hold a relevant discussion.

16. Use Post-It notes.

Sometimes seeing a comment written out is more effective than just hearing it aloud. During independent work time, try writing feedback comments on a post-it note. Place the note on the student's desk the feedback is meant for. One of my former students had a difficult time staying on task but he would get frustrated and embarrassed when I called him out on his inattentive behaviors in front of the class.

He would then shut down and refused to do any work because he was mad that I humiliated him. I resorted to using post-it notes to point out when he was on task or not. Although it was not the most effective use of my time, it really worked for him as a way to provide effective feedback for learning.

17. Give genuine praise.

Students are quick to figure out which teachers use meaningless praise to win approval. If you are constantly telling your students 'Good Job' or 'Nice Work' then, over time, these words become meaningless. Make a big deal out of a student's A+ on that vocabulary test. If you are thrilled with a student's recent on-task behaviors, go above and beyond with the encouragement and praise.

Make a phone call home to let mom or dad know how thrilled you are with the student's behavior. Comments and suggestions within genuine feedback should also be 'focused, practical, and based on an assessment of what the student can do and is capable of achieving' (Dinham).

18. "I noticed...."

Make an effort to notice a student's behavior or effort at a task. For example; "I noticed when you regrouped correctly in the hundreds column, you got the problem right." "I noticed you arrived on time to class this entire week." Acknowledging a student and the efforts they are making goes a long way to positively influence academic performance.

19. Provide a model or example.

Communicate with your students the purpose of an assessment and/or feedback. Demonstrate to students what you are looking for by giving them an example of what an A+ paper looks like. Provide a contrast of what a C- paper looks like. This is especially important at the upper learning levels.

20. Invite students to give you feedback.

Remember when you finished a class in college and you were given the chance to 'grade' the professor? How nice was it to finally tell the professor that the reading material was so incredibly boring without worrying about it affecting your grade? Why not let students give you feedback on how you are doing as a teacher?

Make it so that they can do it anonymously. What did they like about your class? What didn't they like? If they were teaching the class, what would they do differently? What did they learn the most from you as a teacher? If we are open to it, we will quickly learn a few things about ourselves as educators.

Remember that feedback goes both ways and as teachers, it is wise to never stop improving and honing our skills as teachers.
20 Ways To Provide Effective Feedback For Learning; A version of this post first appeared on opencolleges.edu.au;

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20 Ways To Provide Effective Feedback For Learning

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One way to provide effective feedback for learning is a 'feedback sandwich' to structure your feedback: Compliment, Correct, Compliment.

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Currículum: objetivos, contenidos y criterios de evaluación

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Currículum: objetivos, contenidos y criterios de evaluación

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Currículo by Aurora Carretero Ramos on Genially

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Discover more about Currículo ✌️ - Presentation

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Diseño Universal para el Aprendizaje (DUA)

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Reenvisioning the UDL Guidelines

Because the UDL Guidelines are meant to be informed by feedback from the field as well as new research, they have been updated several times in the past. We are in the process of updating the Guidelines once again in our UDL Rising to Equity initiative.

This update will focus specifically on addressing systemic barriers that result in inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. CAST aims to develop a transparent, inclusive, and community-driven process. If you are interested in collaborating and staying updated on our progress, we invite you to complete a brief survey.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

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Importante para especificar la estrategia de aprendizaje que queremos utilizar con el alumnado. ¡¡Estrategia=intención!!

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Promoviendo la adaptación saludable de nuestros adolescentes 

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Promoviendo la adaptación saludable de nuestros adolescentes 

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Útil de manera general y para proyectos relacionados con temáticas de Orientación. Inspirador.

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¿Cómo se hace un guion de radio? (tutorial)

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Diseño Universal para el Aprendizaje de idiomas en personas con diversidad funcional

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Diseño Universal para el Aprendizaje de idiomas en personas con diversidad funcional

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Apparently, the term originates in biology when a response comes back to an organism (Rinvalucri, 1994) but coming from an engineering background, I had my own idea of the word 'feedback' when I first started to teach.

Having now taught English for more than 15 years, it has a different meaning to me. People study English to get feedback on their language skills, their progress and the tasks they complete. It is hard to find someone who doesn't like or want to be corrected. After all, speaking correctly and properly is one of the reasons people attend language/skills courses.

The only problem is that most students want their teacher to correct them while teachers often have the aim of helping students to learn from their peers and be independent. Feedback is given to students at different stages of a lesson for different purposes.

speaks about the following six methods you can use for oral feedback and correction in her book, 'A Course in Language Teaching (Ur, 2012)' :

recast, elicitation, clarification request, metalinguistic feedback, explicit correction

Can you think of an example for each? If you are now thinking about focusing on 'form' in giving feedback and correcting students, read Scott Thornbury's post here:
https://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/tag/correction/
It is crucial for a teacher to know when to focus on content and when on language. Watch to see what can happen if you focus on the wrong thing.

We should keep in mind that feedback on 'content' is as important as feedback on 'language'. It shows the teacher is interested in the conversation and is 'actively' listening. It actually makes the student more enthusiastic to communicate with the teacher rather than just focusing on making some grammatically correct sentences.

There are different reasons why we teach writing and there should be different methods how we mark them to address those different reasons; but in the general sense of dealing with writing tasks in and outside the classroom, there is a lot of controversy regarding our attitude towards feedback and correction. Let's start by having a quick look at what normally happens in a writing session.

This is what usually happens:

1. The teacher selects the topic and gives it to the learners.

2. The learners spend some time either in the classroom or at home to write about the topic.

3. The learners give their 'final product' to the teacher for 'final marking'.

But this doesn't look right, does it? The main purpose of teaching is to facilitate learning but I don't see any 'learning to write' points, as mentions in his writing book. gives the following stages to make the writing process more productive:

1. Teacher or students select the topic.

2. Pre-writing activities e.g. note taking, brainstorming, creating spider-grams, etc.

3. Teacher comments on the notes and makes suggestions.

4. Student writes draft 1.

5. Teacher and students read drafts and comment on the content.

6. Student writes draft 2.

7. Student reads draft 2 with guidelines and makes changes.

8. Teacher reads draft 2 and indicates good points and areas for improvement.

9. Student writes draft 3.

10. Student edits and proofreads.

11. Teacher evaluates progress.

12. Teacher assigns follow-up tasks to help in weak areas.

In what usually happens in the classroom, the focus is more on the end product, so the learners focus on creating something and giving it to the teacher and the moment they hand their end product in, they feel they have no responsibility towards their writing any longer and it's the teacher's job now to work on it.

On the contrary, the second 12-step process focuses on the 'path' rather than the 'destination' and the students will learn during the writing process.

There are different ways to edit, comment and provide feedback and just like any other form of correction, these can be done in forms of 'self-', 'peer-' or 'teacher-' correction and editing codes can be taught at the beginning of the course to create ground rules to stick to till the end. , in her book '' (Hedge, 2005: 140) mentions the following most common codes language teachers can use to mark writing tasks.

Web Tools

Much has been said about editing codes and the way we can teach them in writing lessons so I am going to write about some novel methods to help you wiht editing stages in writing lessons.

The following platforms are the ones I have been using for some time. They make editing and commenting easy, fun, tech-based, green and more productive:

Audio feedback can actually help learners improve their listening skills as well and a lot of research has been conducted to prove their higher rate of productivity in comparison with ordinary written feedback. Audacity is a free open-source programme which gives you the ability to create audio files and edit them easily. There is a straightforward tutorial on how to create audio podcasts using Audacity . Teachers can ask their learners to send their first and second drafts to them to receive quick audio feedback before they start writing the final version. While audio feedback can be a productive way to help our learners, there are a couple of tips we should keep in mind:

Remain positive and keep a motivating tone.

Sequence your feedback and signpost the feedback stages.

Be clear and speak with a clear voice.

Limit your comments and prioritise errors (just as you would do in written feedback).

Begin with positive feedback, be specific and descriptive while giving constructive (negative) feedback and end with positive overall feedback. (sandwich the negative points).

Audio feedback can be given in many different ways. You can even record your voice with Windows voice recorder and send it to your students, too.

If you really hate all these applications and want something hassle-free and entirely web-based, then try Online Voice Recorder or .

Jing is a free TechSmith product which can help you create screencasts and share them easily on the internet. Your casts will also be available on your profile. TechSmith gives you 2GB free storage on Screencast and you can go Pro if this is not enough for your purposes. After you install Jing, the software's toolbar appears on top of your desktop and can be accessed right from there while you are doing anything in any other programmes. So you can open a word document, start editing it and video the whole process for the learner to watch at a later time.

QuickTime Player - the video feedback platform

Apple's QuickTime Player which is also available for PC users has some new and unique features which have made life easy for Mac users. Just launch QuickTime, double-finger tap the icon in the dock and click on 'new screen recording' (you can also create ordinary voice or video recordings using your Mac camera.) and the application starts recording your screen. You can also talk on the recording at the same time to create a high-resolution video feedback. When you are done, click on 'stop screen recording' and choose the quality you need and the file is ready!

If you have some time and want to create something really impressive, this is where you should look for it. Create a presentation of the feedback, play the presentation and use a camera to add your own video to the feedback. So your learners have the chance to see the online edition of their work being corrected while they can watch their teacher talking about it at the same time. Knovio has an which gives you the same functions there as well. It is primarily an application to help you add your video to your presentations which is a very useful tool for flipped classes but can also be used to provide extraordinary feedback video files!

Kaizen means 'good change' in Japanese and is some sort of philosophy towards continuous improvement. This innovative online tool works seamlessly with Google Drive and Google Docs. If your learners send you first drafts through Google Drive, then this is the tool you shouldn't miss. You can work on the documents on their website or you can add their add-on to your Google Drive and work on documents right within Google Docs. In Kaizena you can highlight parts of the document and record your voice in small segments. Kaizena has even taken a step forward and creates unique teacher URLs and this means the learners can request feedback on a specific part of their document and an e-mail is sent to the teacher to come back to the file and give the feedback the student needs. This is a two-way platform which means the students can listen to the audio feedback and record their own voice and reply to the teacher's comment.
Gmail
Google Drive has already given us a lot of features to help with teacher's feedback. You can now edit Word documents directly from your mailbox without having to convert anything.
Microsoft Office
The Word's 'track changes' and 'compare documents' features are fantastic tools for language teachers when it comes to error correction and feedback. 'Track changes' has several customisable features including colour-coding. Click on the 'review' tab in a Word document and you will see this in the middle. 'Compare documents' gives the learners the opportunity to compare the text they have written with a model text in a writing lesson or to compare their answers to an activity with the answer key. This feature can also be found in the 'review' tab in a Word document. The usual 'comment' feature can also help add notes to the text just like what we do on a piece of paper. Don't forget that the whole process in a Word document can be recorded using any of the methods we have talked about here.

All teachers agree that effective feedback is time-consuming but no one can deny their value to our learners. We are very lucky to have all these 'tech' tools which make effective feedback easier than it used to be in the past (but most probably still more difficult than in the future!). So why not take the risk and leave our comfort paper zone and help save the planet while improving our feedback effectiveness in our writing lessons?
Bibliography:

Hedge, T. (2005) 'Writing' Second Edition, Oxford University Press

Rinvolucri, M. (1994). ' Key Concepts in ELT ' ELT Journal Volume 48/3 July 1994, Oxford University Press

Raimes, A. (1983) 'Techniques in Teaching Writing', Oxford University Press

Thaine, C. (2010) 'Teacher Training Essentials- Cambridge Copy Collections', Cambridge University Press

Thornbury, S. (2006) 'An A-Z of ELT', Macmillan Books for Teachers, Macmillan

Ur, P. (2012) 'A Course in English Language Teaching', Cambridge University Press

Tribble, C. (1997) 'Writing', Oxford University Press

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/conducting-feedback-exercises-tasks

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Apparently, the term originates in biology when a response comes back to an organism (Rinvalucri, 1994) but coming from an engineering background, I had my own idea of the word 'feedback' when I first started to teach. Having now taught English for more than 15 years, it has a different meaning to me.

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Inevitably, teachers feel that the whole class needs and deserves to know the correct answer or response to a question, and students expect to be told whether their answers are right or wrong, but there are alternatives to traditional whole-class feedback conducted by the teacher or teacher-nomination in a lockstep pattern. Traditional feedback is teacher-led, involves little communication between learners and tends to be contrary to current good classroom practice.

The teacher is in control and responsible for important group decisions such as when to move onto the next question.

Considerable teacher talking time may occur, particularly if the teacher reads out the questions in full (often unnecessary as students already have these in front of them) or 'echoes' students' answers for no apparent reason.

Whole-class feedback is unlikely to reveal whether all or most of the students know what the correct answer is.

Less-able students often get lost during the feedback, particularly if they are trying to use strategies for understanding their errors or attempting self-correction.

Anxiety may be caused for students who are unsure of the correct response.

The correct answer may be established, but understanding is not checked.

Why feedback?
Teacher-led feedback, usually involving only one student at a time, can be predictable, monotonous and time-consuming. It may also be unnecessary for more able learners and potentially demotivating or embarrassing for the less-able. However, some form of feedback is required for a variety of reasons:

Feedback on an activity satisfies students' expectations and needs, both as a measure of success or failure and as reassurance that they have at least completed the task properly.

As tasks, in particular the practice exercise type, are in effect a form of test, feedback which indicates a degree of success can be motivating. Often an element of competitiveness enters into feedback which encourages learners to participate. The negative aspects of competition, together with the risk of demotivating some learners, can be reduced by the judicious use of nomination and sensitive management of feedback by the teacher.

Clearly, feedback is more speedily conducted when the majority of student responses are correct. In language practice exercises, the likelihood of this is often a product of clear, contextualised presentation, a systematic focus, either inductive or deductive, on form and function, and the use of concept-checking questions to ensure understanding of meaning.

Feedback is an ongoing process, and a good deal of gentle correction may take place while the teacher is monitoring, thus ensuring a minimum of feedback at the end of the task. The teacher may also notice specific difficulties and choose to conduct feedback only on problematic questions.

Anticipating problems, grading tasks so that they are manageable and designating time for feedback rather than leaving it open-ended are all prerequisites for efficient feedback.

Feedback acts as an effective signpost, signalling the end of a task or stage of a lesson.

Teacher question - student answer is conducted randomly to keep individual students on their toes.

The teacher refers the students to a grammar reference while checking their answers.

Answers are provided on the back of the question paper.

Answers are provided on an OHT, IWB or PowerPoint slide.

Students are given a reading text containing all the answers.

Students are put into teams and compete for points given correct answers.

A variety of analytical skills can be fostered through the way that feedback is conducted. Learners not only need to know if their answers are correct, but also why they are correct or why they are making errors. Useful correction or reteaching may take place during feedback on exercises, while reading skills may be enhanced by identifying clues in a text or checking a listening task by referring to the tapescript. Students may also provide useful information by indicating which questions they found most difficult and why.

Peer checking. Encouraging students to give each other feedback after activities and introducing the appropriate task language, not only provides opportunities for discussion, but also the opportunity to use language for a real purpose. Students practise conversational strategies of negotiating, agreeing and disagreeing and turn-taking as well as thinking skills such as rationalising and problem-solving. Peer-checking also provides the teacher with a reason to recombine pairs and particularly to encourage stronger students to help the less able ones. Some students will always finish exercises more quickly than others and it is often useful to tell them how many of their answers are correct, but not which, so that they have a purpose for reflecting on their work.

Learners can be encouraged to take on the role of the teacher, by asking one student to conduct feedback, giving the answers to an exercise to a group representative, or giving each student in a pair half the answers.

Student nomination. Students, rather than the teacher, nominate others to provide answers. This can be particularly effective during the first week of a course when learners are still in the process of getting to know each other.

Students are given a numbered strip of an OHT and write their answer to the corresponding question. The teacher then collects the strips of OHT and puts them onto the OHP. Students check their answers and discuss any difficulties in open class.

One student or group leader has the answers and adopts the role of the teacher.

In mixed ability classes, it may be possible to give the less able students responsibility for conducting feedback. In more homogeneous classes, questions in extended consolidation exercises may be divided between students to encourage peer checking and even peer teaching.

Learners' performance in tasks performs an important diagnostic function. Errors may indicate the need for clarification, reteaching or repair work, while successful completion of a task may indicate that learning has taken place and that the teacher is free to move on. However, repair is rarely accomplished by setting a similar task, while accurate conclusions can only be drawn from tasks that are manageable but achievable rather than too easy or too difficult.

Pre-empting lengthy feedback
The need for time-consuming whole-class feedback can be minimised by effective teaching and classroom management, not only during the activity but also in earlier stages of the lesson.

Teacher-led feedback alternatives
There is an element of security in both teacher and learners knowing that an exercise has been completed satisfactorily. Where exercises are completed individually and the focus is predominantly on accuracy, the teacher may opt to take control of the feedback process. Even so, control can be partially relinquished, and there are alternatives to the teacher either reading out answers or nominating students in turn.

Student-led feedback alternatives

The introduction of peer-checking and student-centred feedback is a gradual process, particularly with students who are accustomed to whole-class feedback, teacher question-student answer, or giving their work to the teacher to mark. Students may feel uncomfortable or insecure being told an answer by another students or taking the responsibility for feedback. The process involves explaining strategies, establishing routines and training learners to use the techniques to best effect. The first step may be to get students into the habit of checking each others' answers, in which case some input of 'task language' is needed:

"I think...."
"What do you think about...?"
"What have you got for number three?"
"I think so too" / "Me too"
"I don't agree, I think it's......because......."

Task language gives learners the opportunity to communicate about the task, and avoids the issue of students immediately slipping into their mother-tongue, though this may still occur where disagreements arise or where metalanguage is required. It may be particularly useful to focus on task language as 'language input' during the first lesson with a new class, as the complexity of such utterances can be graded to suit the level of the group.

Conclusion
Whether getting feedback to an exercise or giving feedback to learners on an activity or writing task, teachers should always remember that feedback should be accompanied by praise and encouragement in order to build trust and confidence. If teachers use student-centred activities in their classrooms, it seems logical to support these with student-centred feedback on those activities. In many ways, feedback on tasks is similar to checking test papers in that the results are of little value unless something is learned or gained from them. Traditional feedback still has its place under certain circumstances, but a variety of feedback techniques relieves the monotony of the procedure, particularly if those techniques encourage learner involvement, responsibility and co-operation. The teacher is then left to field questions, clear up problems and respond to the diagnostic function, while feedback serves a real, meaningful and communicative purpose.

Steve Darn, Freelance Trainer, Turkey
Nick Baguley, Freelance Trainer, Cyprus

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Conducting Feedback on Exercises and Tasks

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Inevitably, teachers feel that the whole class needs and deserves to know the correct answer or response to a question, and students expect to be told whether their answers are right or wrong, but there are alternatives to traditional whole-class feedback conducted by the teacher or teacher-nomination in a lockstep pattern.

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Rod Ellis: Using tasks in Language teaching

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Rod Ellis: Using tasks in Language teaching

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Simple y claro. Muy ilustrativo

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Rod Ellis - Using tasks in language teaching

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Muy interesante

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¿Qué es el aprendizaje generativo? Dibujo resumen de la imagen, cortesía de Óscar Paula Rivera (@odepaula80) Comenzamos una serie de tres entradas basadas en dos libros. El origen se encuentra en el libro "Learning as a Generative Activity" de Logan Fiorella y Richard Mayer. En este libro, se define el aprendizaje como un cambio en lo que se sabe causado por la experiencia. Algunas teorías consideran el aprendizaje como el fortalecimiento de una respuesta para un estímulo determinado, como aprender a decir "cuatro" cuando el profesor dice: "¿Qué es dos más dos?" Otras teorías ven el aprendizaje como la adición de hechos a la memoria para su posterior recuperación, como la memorización de la definición de aprendizaje de la segunda frase de este párrafo. Estas concepciones del aprendizaje pueden ser útiles para determinadas situaciones de aprendizaje, como el aprendizaje por respuesta o la memorización, respectivamente. Sin embargo, en estas entradas nos c

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¿Qué es el aprendizaje generativo? Dibujo resumen de la imagen, cortesía de Óscar Paula Rivera (@odepaula80) Comenzamos una serie de tres entradas basadas en dos libros. El origen se encuentra en el libro "Learning as a Generative Activity" de Logan Fiorella y Richard Mayer.

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Referencias útiles y actualizadas

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Autoeficacia, autoestima y autoconcepto La investigación acerca de la motivación sugiere que las percepciones pueden superar la realidad, al menos hasta cierto punto. Más todavía, si cabe, cuando esas percepciones afectan a la visión que tenemos de nosotros mismos. Podemos pensar en las creencias acerca de nosotros mismos como una serie de niveles, una jerarquía...

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El blog que comenta, resume y traduce la investigación educativa para que puedas aplicarla.

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Sobre aprendizaje.

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Técnicas de aprendizaje según la ciencia | Héctor Ruiz, neurobiólogo

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Language Objectives:A Step by Step Guide

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Language Objectives:A Step by Step Guide

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Un vídeo ilustrativo.

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Do you want to know how to write language objectives? Download the Language Objective Guide to use the graphic organizer with this process. This guide will walk you through how to write language objectives step-by-step. You may be thinking what is a language objective? You might not be sure about content objectives. Teacher talk can get a little overwhelming. I know when I first started I had no idea what all these words mean. Here is a list of commonly used words with their definitions.

A content objective tells the student what they will be learning during the lesson. For example, I can analyze the connections and distinctions between individuals, ideas, or events in a text. A language objective tells how the students will learn and/or demonstrate their learning through the four domains of language. The four domains of language are reading, listening, speaking, and writing. Here is an example of a language objective: I can write the connections between events in a text.

If you were anything like me, I was confused on how to write language objectives. Here is a step by step process of how to write a language objective. Remember to ask yourself "How will the students show me through reading, listening, speaking, and writing that they understand the content objective?" Below is a video that I made that explains in detail how to write a language objective.

1. Identify the content objective. What do you want the students to learn from the lesson?

2. Think about where your students are in their language learning process. Even in mainstream classrooms where are you students in regards to the four domains of language.

3. Identify the domain that you are asking students to do in the lesson. For example, there is a lesson where the students will be presenting to the class. The domain you are asking them to demonstrate their understanding would be speaking.

Now that you have gathered the information above here is how you write the language objective:

Sample Language Objective (Writing): I can summarize " Little Red Riding Hood" using sentence frames with a partner.

1. Download the Language Objective Guide to use the graphic organizer with this process.

2. Looking at the chart identify the language domain you will be using in class (Listening, Reading, Speaking, and/or Writing)

3. Find the action verb that you will be using. The action verbs vary based on Bloom's Taxonomy. Use the chart in this document to help you in deciding on the action verb.

4. What is the topic of the lesson?

5. Include any scaffolds/supports you will have for the students. A scaffold is teacher added supports for the students so they can master the objective of the lesson.

Take a sneak peak into the Language Objective Guide below!

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Language Objectives: A Step by Step Guide - My Adventures in ESL

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Do you want to know how to write language objectives? Download the Language Objective Guide to use the graphic organizer with this process. This guide will walk you through how to write language objectives step-by-step. You may be thinking what is a language objective? You might not be sure about content objectives.

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A DRIVING QUESTION is the main question of a PBL Unit that guides students throughout the PBL process. Driving Questions are provocative, open-ended, discipline-centered, challenging, and consistent with curricular standards and frameworks. This page offers a guide on how to develop a driving question, blogs, and examples so you can create effective driving questions for your own Project Based Learning Units.

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Driving Questions in PBL - Magnify Learning

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A DRIVING QUESTION is the main question of a PBL Unit that guides students throughout the project. Driving Questions are provocative, open-ended, discipline-centered, challenging, and consistent with curricular standards and frameworks. This page offers a guide on how to develop a driving question,

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In the past I've shared many PBL activities that I've completed in my classroom. When I first heard about Project-based Learning, I was hesitant to try it because I had a many students labeled special education, ELL, or ED. I knew how to differentiate for these students with a textbook or a worksheet. It was scary to try something new with these students and explore different aspects of differentiated instruction.

It didn't take me long to figure out that good project-based learning has differentiated instruction built in. If you've seen my Youtube video about the essential elements of PBL, you may already have seen some of the elements of PBL that allow for differentiation. I also talked a little bit about this topic in my Classroom Management During Project-based Learning post earlier this month.

Today I'll break it all down for you, and give you some real ideas to use in your classroom to help differentiate during PBL!
Different approaches of lesson delivery
In project-based learning, students have many chances to understand the content. Before you start planning a PBL, you always want to have a goal in mind. What skills do you want them to practice? What do you want them to show in the end? Once you've answered those questions, you can come up with multiple ways to deliver the information to help with differentiated instruction. This connects close with different learning styles. What learning styles do you have in your classroom, and what approaches of lesson delivery have worked well with these students?

Here are some easy things to incorporate into PBL to deliver your lesson in different ways:

Videos

Reading selections

Writing assignments

Building a 3D model

Discussion

Different learning styles
One of the essential elements of PBL is student choice and voice. Not only do students have a choice in how to show what they've learned in the project they turn in, but they also have several choices throughout the project. All of my math-focused project-based learning activities include a choice in each step. Students can choose where they want to go with their project and how to get there. Everyone has to do the math calculations, but it can be done with the strategies and tools that work for the individual student. PBL gives students a chance to learn through technology, text, art, multimedia, and much more. It accommodates every learning style with built-in differentiated instruction.
Grouping to differentiate
During PBL, I strategically move my groups around often. Not only does it keep it fresh and new for students, but it allows for me to implement differentiated instruction through grouping.

Every year I've had one or two students that other students just don't like working with. Moving groups around a lot keeps students from getting frustrated with each other. Sometimes I pull small groups of advanced learners to challenge them or struggling students to give extra help, but I usually walk around to facilitate learning and leave my time open for whoever needs me. With correct grouping, I only have one or two students at a time that really need me to intervene or help.
Don't forget to plan questions for low and high students before you start project-based learning. You can pose these questions individually and in small groups. I've been adding suggested discussion questions to all of my project-based learning activities because these questions really guide the students to your intended outcome!
Different groups to try in your classroom:

Create homogeneous groups & pull a small group of struggling students.

Group heterogeneous groups.

Group students by interests. There are a lot of choices during PBL, so get some students together that make the same choice!

Try groups of 2, 3, or 4.

Try partnerships of 1 boy + 1 girl.

Allow time for students to work independently, but leave an area if they want to come work in a "whisper group".

Give group or class roles

Using a rubric to differentiate
We have all encountered students that have incredible intelligence and talents, but fail every multiple choice test. I know it's scary to take a step back from the big scary test and focus on making learning fun again. It took me a long time to get up the courage to do this, but I am so glad that I did. My students actually scored higher on the tests when I stopped directly teaching to the test!

Throughout PBL, I still give my students pre and post tests to check on the skills I want them to learn and practice throughout the activity. They're not multiple choice because I want to see their process, and I only use them for informational purposes. I create grading rubrics for each PBL and give them to students before we even start, so that they know what I expect to see by the end of their project. We refer to the rubrics on a daily basis. The rubrics are open-ended and allow for students to show something in multiple ways. With a good rubric, every single student can show some sort of success and achievement.

Rubrics also allow students to show growth. I had a student the first year I began using PBL that scored a zero on every test and had absolutely no self-confidence. She struggled with basic math skills. There was no way she was going to pass a 5th grade test when she was still working on 2nd grade math skills. Handing her zeros every week was not helping her master those skills. During our first PBL ( Kid in a Candy Store... it's always a big hit!), she needed help on every single math calculation. I allowed her to use a calculator and helped her learn to use it. She mastered the calculator and we did all of the calculations together so that we could "check to make sure the calculator was accurate". This allowed for her to be more independent and also work at the same pace of the other students. She blew her final project presentation out of the water by building a 3D candy display with actual candy at home one day. She used the math from the project to come up with the dimensions and amount of candy that went in the real display she built. Not only did she do the math, but she interpreted it correctly and put it into real context. To me that's more important than any multiple choice test. This was her first of many successes in my classroom thanks to this approach for differentiated instruction.
Enrichment for advanced learners
I have a student this year that finishes everything in 20 minutes or less. When she's done, she pushes the assignment aside and gets her book out to start reading. Her answers are all correct, and she's not bothering the other students. How awesome is that? Not as awesome as it seems. I love that she's reading a book, but I'm obviously not challenging her on the activity we're working on. I'm missing a great opportunity to extend her learning every time she pushes that completed assignment to the corner of her desk.

I believe that challenging advanced learners is equally important to helping the struggling ones. A lot of times we're so busy trying to help students catch up that we just don't get to the gifted or advanced students. Having varying challenges built into your project-based learning allows you to differentiated for these learners without having to do anything extra during the actual activity.

One of the ways I differentiate for these learners is to give them more responsibility. When we do math PBL, I usually set them up in different parts of the classroom in special desks with a sign that says "accountant". Students (including them) need to visit an accountant before they finalize their math for each step of of the PBL. Looking for errors in other student work and helping the student fix those errors helps these advanced learners master the standards themselves. They may be able to do the math on paper in 5 minutes, but it's one step further if they can teach or explain it.

Another way I differentiate for these students is by creating extra challenge activities. My Create a Personal Budget PBL has a challenge activity built in- most students use gross monthly income, but advanced students calculate net monthly income using federal tax brackets. My Plan a Trip to Space PBL has great opportunities for researching space topics (including difficult distance and measurement problems). You always keep your struggling students in mind when planning activities, so don't forget about your advanced students!

My Project-based Learning Activities include suggestions for differentiation!

Remember to keep in mind that great project-based learning takes time to plan and implement. Start small and don't allow for yourself to get overwhelmed or burnt out! If you use a couple of these differentiation strategies and some tips you learned from my classroom management during PBL post, you'll be sure to have success! If you teach 4th, 5th, or 6th grade, you can purchase ready-made project based learning to save yourself time and get ahead of the learning curve. You can also subscribe to my YouTube channel by clicking on the red subscribe box in the right corner beneath my green banner. You'll see new videos on PBL pop up throughout the school year. And as always, you can e-mail me or contact me on social media with any questions about project-based learning!

Learn how to implement project-based learning in your classroom, from start to finish!

#3 - Differentiated Instruction for PBL

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In the past I've shared many PBL activities that I've completed in my classroom. When I first heard about Project-based Learning, I was hesitant to try it because I had a many students labeled special education, ELL, or ED. I knew how to differentiate for these students with a textbook or a worksheet.

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A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product and/or performance that serve as evidence of learning. Unlike a selected-response item (e.g., multiple-choice or matching) that asks students to select from given alternatives, a performance task presents a situation that calls for learners to apply their learning in context.

Performance tasks are routinely used in certain disciplines, such as visual and performing arts, physical education, and career-technology where performance is the natural focus of instruction. However, such tasks can (and should) be used in every subject area and at all grade levels.

Characteristics of Performance Tasks
Here are seven general characteristics of performance tasks:
Performance tasks call for the application of knowledge and skills, not just recall or recognition.

While any performance by a learner might be considered a performance task (e.g., tying a shoe or drawing a picture), it is useful to distinguish between the application of specific and discrete skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball) from genuine performance in context (e.g., playing the game of basketball in which dribbling is one of many applied skills). Thus, when I use the term performance tasks, I am referring to more complex and authentic performances.
2. Performance tasks are open-ended and typically do not yield a single, correct answer.
In other words, the learner must actually use their learning to perform. These tasks typically yield a tangible product (e.g., graphic display, blog post) or performance (e.g., oral presentation, debate) that serve as evidence of their understanding and proficiency.
3. Performance tasks establish novel and authentic contexts for performance.
Unlike selected- or brief constructed- response items that seek a "right" answer, performance tasks are open-ended. Thus, there can be different responses to the task that still meet success criteria. These tasks are also open in terms of process; i.e., there is typically not a single way of accomplishing the task.
4. Performance tasks provide evidence of understanding via transfer.
These tasks present realistic conditions and constraints for students to navigate. For example, a mathematics task would present students with a never-before-seen problem that cannot be solved by simply "plugging in" numbers into a memorized algorithm. In an authentic task, students need to consider goals, audience, obstacles, and options to achieve a successful product or performance. Authentic tasks have a side benefit - they convey purpose and relevance to students, helping learners see a reason for putting forth effort in preparing for them.
5. Performance tasks are multi-faceted.
Understanding is revealed when students can transfer their learning to new and "messy" situations. Note that not all performances require transfer. For example, playing a musical instrument by following the notes or conducting a step-by-step science lab require minimal transfer. In contrast, rich performance tasks are open-ended and call "higher-order thinking" and the thoughtful application of knowledge and skills in context, rather than a scripted or formulaic performance.
6. Performance tasks can integrate two or more subjects as well as 21st century skills.
Unlike traditional test "items" that typically assess a single skill or fact, performance tasks are more complex. They involve multiple steps and thus can be used to assess several standards or outcomes.
7. Performances on open-ended tasks are evaluated with established criteria and rubrics.
In the wider world beyond the school, most issues and problems do not present themselves neatly within subject area "silos." While performance tasks can certainly be content-specific (e.g., mathematics, science, social studies), they also provide a vehicle for integrating two or more subjects and/or weaving in 21st century skills and Habits of Mind. One natural way of integrating subjects is to include a reading, research, and/or communication component (e.g., writing, graphics, oral or technology presentation) to tasks in content areas like social studies, science, health, business, health/physical education. Such tasks encourage students to see meaningful learning as integrated, rather than something that occurs in isolated subjects and segments.

Since these tasks do not yield a single answer, student products and performances should be judged against appropriate criteria aligned to the goals being assessed. Clearly defined and aligned criteria enable defensible, judgment-based evaluation. More detailed scoring rubrics, based on criteria, are used to profile varying levels of understanding and proficiency.

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A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product...

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We have a few answers to this question. One is that personalized learning always involves these core four elements - targeted instruction, data-driven decisions, flexible content, and student reflection and ownership. Check out our Core Four white paper for a more detailed description of these elements, as well as classroom examples.

Another answer is that, "it depends" - we believe strongly in the design thinking process, and that school leaders and teachers are in the best place to put together instructional models that meet the needs of their students. Check out this great blog post on the process by my colleague, Kelly!

That being said, we realize that we can never answer this question enough. In response to this demand, here is a short collection of videos, photos, artifacts, and teacher testimonies that we hope will help illustrate what personalized learning could look like at your school or district. Some of these examples are from Education Elements districts and schools, and some are from other places!

Personalized learning is: Incorporating Self-Reflection and Goal-Setting

In Middletown, NY , the school culture incorporates student reflection and goal-setting starting with the youngest grades. Check out these classroom photos of goal-setting artifacts.

From a Middletown teacher: "[Students] use a Google form, and t
he forms are sent to me automatically so I am able to instantaneously see how they are self-assessing. It gives them a sense of accountability and it also lets me be aware of how they think they did... I use their self-assessment to help guide my instruction and to help group them for math and ELA." Check out this classroom teacher as she talks about her approach to Student Ownership & Reflection
Personalized Learning is: Flexible & Intentional Master Schedules

In Wake County, NC, school leaders at Rogers Lane Elementary School have created a master schedule that's aligned to their three core principles: Agents of Change, Out of this World Learning, and Intentional and Reciprocal Relationships. While it's still a work in progress, the schedule does a wonderful job of showing the back-end work it takes to explicitly incorporate co-teaching, multi-level classrooms, student choice, and blocks for targeted small-group instruction.

Additionally, to help parents and students better understand how this schedule would affect a student's daily experience, Rogers Lane created a "Day in the Life of" Primer .
Check out this classroom teacher as she talks about her approach to Flexible Path and Pace Check out this video from a high school teacher, where she describes how she has students use a digital tool to demonstrate their ability to collect and analyze data from a field exercise.
Personalized Learning is: Using Digital Content and Tools in a Purposeful Way - Flexible Path and Pace
Check out from an elementary school teacher about how he uses a portfolio of digital content tools in his classes. These last 2 videos are part of a larger collection of great this video videos from BetterLesson on blended learning strategies.

Personalized Learning is: Incorporating Personalized Playlists

Many personalized learning classrooms incorporate flexible pacing by having students go through content via playlists. However, not all playlists are personalized.

My colleague Brittany, in partnership with teachers and school leaders at Rochester School District, NH, put together this helpful Playlist Building 101 Guide that describes how to build a personalized learning playlist.

Personalized Learning is: Planning for Flexible Seating
Photo: Loudoun County Public Schools (VA), Twitter #LoudounPL Photo: Loudoun County Public Schools (VA), Twitter #LoudounPL

Flexible seating is a popular strategy because it is a physical manifestation of targeted, fluid instruction. With a focus on student choice and comfort, flexible seating is a great way to convey to students, "You matter."

Edutopia has a terrific article specifically focused on flexible seating at the high school level, including classroom photos and teacher testimonies. Ashley Rice Broomfield, a 1st grade teacher, shares, " I am in my 13th year of teaching, but this is my first year incorporating flexible seating into my classroom. I will never go back to traditional seating."

EdSurge also has a great post on 10+ brain-based methods to redesign your classroom, and how to include your students in the redesign process. We love this quote: "A good friend of mine often reminds me that we aren't raising a class of second graders, but in fact, we are raising future adults. She says, 'If they're old enough to do it for themselves, they should not only be allowed to, but expected to do so.'"

Finally, see these pictures above from our awesome partners in Loudoun County Public Schools, VA!

check out the BONUS:#LoudounPL hashtag for more amazing pictures of how Loudoun County schools are personalizing learning.

Personalized Learning is: Involving Students in Grading Conversations

Prolific blogger Catlin Tucker offers another great strategy - including "grade interviews" with students. Tucker shares, " As grade reporting approaches, I sit down with every single student for a grade interview. Students come to these grade interviews prepared with a formal argument. These conversations are invaluable. Students walk away knowing exactly what they need to work on or what they are doing well. Also, I feel like I know my students so much better because we sit down and chat about their learning every 5-6 weeks!" Check out her full blog post !

Additionally, student-led conferences (SLC's) can be a great way to engage both students and parents in reflection. In an SLC, a student might not only explain what progress he or she is making, but why it is that progress is occurring. This Edutopia post has a great set of resources on SLC's, sourced from articles like this Atlantic piece to protocols and videos of SLC's in action.

To learn more about how these examples build on the core four elements of personalized learning, check out our white paper.

More Personalized Learning reading

Blog: Personalizing Learning: Getting it Right

Blog: Personalizing Learning: Reflection and Goal-Setting

Blog: How to Pick the Right Instructional Model for Your Classroom

Blog: Personalizing Learning: Flexible Pace & Path

Blog: Personalizing Learning: Targeted Instruction

Blog: Personalizing Learning: Collaboration & Creativity

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Six Examples of What Personalized Learning Looks Like

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Personalized learning takes different forms in different classrooms - here are six examples of what personalized learning looks like.

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Cognitive Rigor & DOK Focus Area

The Hess Cognitive Rigor Matrices (CRMs)

and translated for use in many countries around the world!

See an excerpt from Rigor by Design, Not Chance (2023) - THE ACTIONABLE ASSESSMENT CYCLE

​

Did you miss my September 2021 webinar, sponsored by Mentoring Minds? Watch now on demand: Looking for Rigor in All the 'Right' Places

Module 1 of my Local Assessment Toolkit provides an in-depth approach to introducing cognitive rigor and using the Hess CRMs to plan instruction and design assessments.

To Download the Hess CRMs, click onto each TOOL below

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- Tool #1: Close Reading & Listening CRM

- Tool #2: Math & Science CRM

-Tool # 5A: Fine Arts CRM

SPANISH versions of Hess CRMs: Tools #1-5D

7 Common Misconceptions about Rigor & DOK

Some of the resources referencing Karin's work or have chapters by Karin:

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Ainsworth, L. & Donovan, K. (2019). Rigorous Curriculum Design. (second edition). The International Center for Leadership in Education.

Ainsworth, L. (2015) Common Formative Assessment 2.0. Corwin.

Ainsworth, L. (2014). "Unwrapping" the Common Core (second edition).

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Bailey, K. & Jakicic, C. (2016). Simplifying Common Assessment. Solution Tree Press.

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Blackburn, B. (2022) Rigor in your Classroom: A Toolkit for Teachers - Second Edition. Routledge.

Brulles, D., Brown, K., & Winebrenner, S. (2016). Differentiated Lessons for Every Learner. Prufrock Press.

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Center for Collaborative Education. (2012). Quality Performance Assessment: A Guide for Schools and Districts . Boston, MA: Author.

Colby, R. (2017). Competency-Based Education: A New Architecture for K-12 Schooling. Harvard Education Press.

Francis, E. (2021). Deconstructing Depth of Knowledge: A Method & Model for Deeper Teaching and Learning. Solution Tree.

Francis, E. (2016). Now That's a Good Question! ASCD.

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Gibson, V., Cárdenas-Hagan, E., & Hess, K. (2019). Ready to Advance: A New Comprehensive Early Learning Curriculum. Benchmark Education Company.

Hogan, M. & Smart, S. (2020). Fundamentals of Literacy Instruction and Assessment, PreK-6, Second Edition. Paul Brookes Pub.

Love, S. & Strobaugh, R. (2019-2021). Critical Thinking in the Classroom: A Practitioner's Guide. Tyler, TX:Mentoring Minds.

Pijanowski, L. (2018). Architects of Deeper Learning Intentional Design for High Impact Instruction. The International Center for Leadership in Education.

Sousa, D. (2022). How the Brain Learns, 6th edition. Corwin

Stack, B. & Vander Els, J. (2017). Breaking with Tradition: The Shift to Competency-Based Learning in PLCs. Solution Tree.

Vander Els, J. & Stack, B. (2022). Unpacking the Competency-Based Classroom: Equitable, Individualized Learning in a PLC at Work. Solution Tree.

Walsh, J.A. & Sattes, B. D. (2017). Quality questioning: Research-based practices to engage every learner. (2nd Ed). A Joint Publication: McREL International & Corwin.

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Winebrenner, S. & Kiss, L. (2014). Teaching Kids with Learning Difficulties in Today's Classrooms. Free Spirit Publishing.

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Cognitive Rigor and DoK | Karin Hess, PhD

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Cognitive Rigor & DOK Focus Area The Hess Cognitive Rigor Matrices (CRMs) and translated for use in many countries around the world! See an excerpt from Rigor by Design, Not Chance (2023) - THE ACTIONABLE ASSESSMENT CYCLE ​ Did you miss my September 2021 webinar, sponsored by Mentoring Minds?

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Tareas prácticas. Muchas ideas.

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Differentiated instruction - BAM Radio net

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Differentiated instruction - BAM Radio net

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Pautas de Mager para el diseño de objetivos de aprendizaje

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Pautas de Mager para el diseño de objetivos de aprendizaje

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En EDUTEKA creemos que el protagonista del proceso educativo es el estudiante, por ese motivo preferimos referirnos a las acciones más en términos que reflejen el aprendizaje del estudiante (aprender, investigar, realizar) y no en términos que reflejen las tareas que lleva a cabo el educador, para que el aprendizaje se dé (enseñar, educar, instruir).
El siguiente texto se extrajo y adaptó de: Mager, Robert Frank (1984). Preparing Instructional Objectives. (2da edición), Belmont, CA. David S. Lake. En ningún momento tiene la intención de reemplazar el texto original.

Un objetivo de aprendizaje [1] es la descripción del desempeño que Usted desea que los estudiantes puedan exhibir antes de considerarlos competentes en un área.
El objetivo de aprendizaje describe el esperado con la instrucción, más que el proceso de instrucción
mismo [2].

Los objetivos de aprendizaje útiles incluyen: una Audiencia, un Comportamiento o Conducta (desempeño), una Condición (requisito, exigencia), y un Grado o Rango (criterio).

Lo que esto significa es: ¿Usted quiere que el alumno sea capaz de sumar? ¿Y sumar parece ser una conducta oculta? Entonces agregue un indicador de conducta para mostrar esa única cosa observable que los estudiantes pueden hacer con el fin de demostrar que dominan el objetivo. Por ejemplo:

Para comparar sus respuestas con las del Señor Mager vaya a la referencia [5]

OTRA CARA DE LO ENCUBIERTO : EXPONGA SIEMPRE EL PROPÓSITO PRINCIPA

Dada una cantidad X de formularios diligenciados, encierre con un círculo las respuestas erradas.
Responda estas preguntas sobre la expresión anterior:

1. ¿Cuál es la conducta solicitada?

2. ¿Cuál es el propósito principal del objetivo?

Sí, la conducta solicitada es encerrar en un círculo. La intención o propósito principal del objetivo, es que los alumnos puedan distinguir o identificar errores. Pero ésta no se expresa abiertamente. En este caso la intención principal se encuentra implícita, pero no se expresa.

Otro ejemplo:
Dados los nombres de las marcas de varios productos actualmente disponibles para los cosmetólogos, estar en capacidad de subrayar los que se consideren aptos para ser utilizados como champú.

1. ¿Cuál es la conducta solicitada?

2. ¿Cuál es el propósito principal del objetivo?

De acuerdo, la conducta solicitada es subrayar y así lo dice. Pero esa no es la intención principal, ¿o sí? Después de todo, no tiene mucho valor enseñar a los cosmetólogos a ir por ahí subrayando nombres. Lo que es importante es que los estudiantes puedan seleccionar los productos que sean seguros para ser usados como un champú. Subrayar es solo un indicador de conducta mediante el cuál se pueda saber si la selección se hizo de manera satisfactoria.

RESUMEN DE LA CONDUCTA O DESEMPEÑO:

1. Un objetivo de aprendizaje describe el resultado esperado del proceso de aprendizaje, en lugar del procedimiento utilizado para instruir.

2. Un objetivo siempre formula una conducta o desempeño, describiendo lo que el estudiante estará HACIENDO en el momento de demostrar su dominio del objetivo.

3. Para preparar un objetivo que describa los logros esperados:
a) Redacte una expresión que describa claramente el propósito o conducta principal que se espera del alumno.
b) En caso que la conducta fuera encubierta, oculta, agregue al objetivo un indicador de conducta que le permita evaluar su cumplimiento. Escoja un indicador de conducta que sea lo más sencillo y directo posible.

Para enunciar claramente un objetivo, algunas veces usted deberá exponer las condiciones que impondrá a los estudiantes cuando estén demostrando su dominio del objetivo. Estos son algunos ejemplos:

Dado un problema del siguiente tipo?

Dada una lista de?.

Dada cualquier referencia de elección del estudiante?.

Dada una matriz de correlaciones?.

Cuándo que se le proporciona un conjunto de herramientas estándar?

Dado un .... que funciona correctamente?.

Sin ayuda de referencias...

Sin ayuda de calculadora...

Sin ayuda de herramientas?.

¿Qué tan detallada debe ser su descripción? Lo suficientemente detallada para asegurarse que el desempeño que busca, será reconocido por otra persona competente, y lo suficientemente detallada para que otros comprendan su objetivo de la misma manera en que USTED lo entiende.
Estas son algunas de las preguntas que usted puede plantearse sobre sus objetivos y que le servirán de pauta para poder identificar aspectos importantes del Objetivo General (meta) o Propósito Final que Usted busca desarrollar:

1. ¿Qué ayudas podrá usar al estudiante?

2. ¿Qué ayudas no podrá usar el estudiante?

3. ¿Bajo qué condiciones espera Usted que ocurra el desempeño deseado?

4. ¿Hay alguna habilidad en particular que Usted NO está tratando de desarrollar? ¿Excluye el objetivo dichas habilidades?

GRADO / RANGO

Si usted puede especificar el nivel de desempeño aceptable para cada objetivo, fijará un estándar contra el cuál pueda evaluar su enseñanza. Por lo tanto, tendrá los medios para establecer si la instrucción impartida tuvo éxito en alcanzar o cumplir sus metas educativas.
Usted y sus estudiantes conocerán de manera explícita cuál es la calidad del desempeño establecida que deben alcanzar o superar.
Lo que usted deberá tratar de hacer entonces, es indicar dentro de sus objetivos cuál sería el nivel de desempeño aceptable, agregando palabras que describan los criterios de evaluación.
Si el pensamiento que viene a su mente en éste momento es algo así como: " Muchas de las cosas que enseño son intangibles y no se pueden evaluar", tenga en cuenta lo siguiente. Tal vez sea cierto, pero si usted esta enseñando algo que no se puede evaluar, está en la incomoda posición de ser incapaz de demostrar que - usted está enseñando algo -. Aquí el punto no es si todas las cosas importantes se pueden medir o evaluar. El punto sencillamente es, si puede usted mejorar la utilidad de un objetivo de aprendizaje, aclarando que tan bueno debe ser el desempeño del estudiante para que éste se considere aceptable. Algunas veces un criterio de ese tipo es fundamental, otras veces tiene poca o ninguna importancia. Pero agregar una gradación a un objetivo de aprendizaje, es una forma de comunicar un aspecto importante de lo que usted desea que sus estudiantes puedan hacer.
Ejemplos de grados(gradación): limites de tiempo, exactitud, calidad.

RESUMEN SOBRE CONDICIÓN Y GRADO

1. Un objetivo de aprendizaje exitoso especificará las condiciones o restricciones importantes con las que usted desea que se desempeñen los estudiantes.

2. Un objetivo de aprendizaje exitoso incluirá un elemento que indique que tan bien debe desempeñarse ese estudiante para satisfacer al instructor.

INCONVENIENTES COMUNES EN LA FORMULACION DE OBJETIVOS DE APRENDIZAJE [6]

1. FALSO DESEMPEÑO

Ejemplos:

Tener una comprensión exhaustiva sobre la física de las partículas

Demostrar comprensión sobre la forma de escribir un cuento

Poder relacionarse con otros como una demostración de empatía

Poder comprender las diferencias individuales de los pacientes

Las proposiciones anteriores tienen la apariencia de objetivos de aprendizaje, pero no contienen tipos de conducta o desempeño. No son objetivos de aprendizaje.

2. FALSAS CONDICIONES

Dados tres días de instrucción?

Dado que el estudiante ha terminado seis experimentos de laboratorio en...

Dado que el estudiante es excepcionalmente capaz , talentoso ?.

Dada una práctica adecuada en?

Estas son palabras o frases que siguen a la palabra "dado" en un objetivo de aprendizaje, pero que describen algo diferente de las condiciones específicas que el estudiante debe tener o que se le deben negar, cuando demuestre el logro de un objetivo. Típicamente, las palabras describen algo sobre la instrucción misma. No describa el proceso instructivo en sus objetivos de aprendizaje.

3. PROCEDIMIENTOS DE ENSEÑANZA

Sea capaz de elegir una gráfica o una foto que ilustre el tema que escogió y explique de que forma ilustra ese tema.

De manera parecida a como lo hace una condición falsa, este enunciado describe un procedimiento de enseñanza, un ejercicio de práctica, o algún otro aspecto de la actividad desarrollada en la clase. No describa una actividad de clase poniéndole el título de objetivo de aprendizaje.
La función principal de un objetivo de aprendizaje es ayudar a los planificadores del curso a decidir sobre el contenido de la instrucción y el procedimiento a seguir. Si lo que describe el objetivo es un procedimiento de enseñanza, no cumplirá con su propósito principal, porque estará describiendo una practica instructiva y no los resultados importantes de la instrucción.
Otros ejemplos:
Poder discutir en clase los casos que repartió el instructor.

4. FRASES SIN SENTIDO, CONFUSAS

Manifestar una comprensión integral creciente ....
Demostrar comprensión exhaustiva ....
Relacionarse con y promover enfoques múltiples ....
Poseer un profundo conocimiento y una comprensión humanitaria profunda ....
El estudiante debe ser capaz de demostrar capacidad de desarrollar confianza en sí mismo y respeto propio ?.

Dejen a un lado la jerga educativa tradicional. Obstruye la comunicación y no sirve para nada.

5. DESEMPEÑO DEL INSTRUCTOR

El maestro facilitará la creación de un ambiente en el que se promueva el desarrollo de la auto estima, la confianza y la seguridad en los estudiantes.
Mostrar a los estudiantes los procedimientos adecuados para diligenciar el FORMATO X .

Un objetivo de aprendizaje describe el desempeño del estudiante. Por ese motivo evita mencionar la conducta o desempeño del instructor.

6. FALSOS CRITERIOS

A satisfacción del instructor
Debe ser capaz alcanzar o lograr un 80% en un examen de selección múltiple
Debe aprobar un examen final

Los estudiantes saben a quién deben demostrarle su desempeño. Respecto del segundo punto, Usted solamente está enunciando la mitad de la respuesta. ¿El ochenta por ciento de cuántas preguntas? ¿Qué contienen las preguntas? ¿Exactamente cuál es el desempeño esperado aquí? ¿La capacidad de lograr el 80%?

=================================

REFERENCIAS:

[1] GLOSARIO
La terminología utilizada por distintos autores y por el Ministerio de Educación nacional de Colombia (MEN) es diversa y en ocasiones confusa. El uso que se le da a conceptos como objetivo, meta, logro, indicador o estándar, tiene diferentes interpretaciones. Por esta razón y con el fin de hacer un aporte a la claridad y consistencia de los significados, EDUTEKA propone un Glosario.

[2] ¿QUÉ SON LOS OBJETIVOS DE APRENDIZAJE?

Los objetivos de aprendizaje son conductas estudiantiles especificas, observables, de corto plazo, evaluables.

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Considere los objetivos como herramientas que usted utiliza para asegurarse de lograr sus metas. Son las flechas que usted dispara hacia su blanco (meta).

El propósito de los objetivos no es restringir la espontaneidad ni limitar la visión de la educación en determinada disciplina; sino garantizar que el aprendizaje se enfoque con suficiente claridad para que tanto el estudiante como el maestro sepan qué está sucediendo, de esta manera el aprendizaje se pueda medir en forma objetiva. Diferentes arqueros poseen diferentes estilos, lo mismo sucede con los maestros. Así que, usted puede disparar sus flechas (objetivos) de muchas maneras. Lo importante es que lleguen a la meta y den en el blanco.

(Extractado y traducido de "Writing Educational Goals and Objetives")

[3] EJEMPLOS DE OBJETIVOS BIEN ESCRITOS.
Audiencia- Verde
Conducta- Rojo
Condición- Azul
Grado- Rosado
Psicomotor - "Dada una cuerda floja, de las que se utilizan comúnmente en los circos colocada una altura estándar, el estudiante (vestido como un equilibrista y usando un balancín), estará en capacidad de atravesar el largo completo de la cuerda (de un extremo al otro) sin hacer pausas, sin caerse, y dentro de un lapso de tiempo
establecido, seis segundos".
Cognitivo- (nivel de comprensión) - "Dados algunos ejemplos y otros que no lo son de actividades constructivistas en una aula Universitaria, el estudiante estará en capacidad de, identificar con exactitud los ejemplos constructivistas, y explicar porqué cada ejemplo es o no es, una actividad constructivista, en 20 palabras o menos".
Cognitivo- (nivel de aplicación) - "Dada una oración escrita en pasado o en presente, el estudiante la podrá redactar nuevamente en tiempo futuro sin errores o contradicciones de tiempo (ej: Yo la veré ayer)".
Cognitivo (solución de problemas /nivel de síntesis) - "Dados dos personajes de tiras cómicas escogidos por el estudiante, éste estará en capacidad, de listar los cinco rasgos principales de la personalidad de cada uno de ellos, y combinarlos (bien sea fusionándolos, multiplicando las características complementarias, o anulando las opuestas) para crear un personaje que tenga atributos de los dos anteriores. Con este material, realizar una tira cómica corta (máximo 20 cuadros) y construir una historia en la que se ilustren entre tres y cinco de los principales rasgos de personalidad, del personaje compuesto".
Afectivo - "Dada la oportunidad de trabajar en equipo con varias personas de distintas razas, el estudiante podrá demostrar incremento en su actitud hacia la no-discriminación racial, que se medirá con una lista de verificación diligenciada, por personas que no pertenezcan al equipo".

Si usted ha puesto atención, aquí notará dos cosas:

A medida que usted sube por la "escalera cognitiva", cada vez es más difícil, especificar con precisión el grado o el nivel.

Para la mayoría de las personas los objetivos afectivos son los más difíciles de redactar y evaluar ya que ellas manejan de manera casi exclusiva sentimientos y condiciones internas, que solo pueden observarse artificialmente desde el exterior.

Los verbos que se usan para describir la actividad explícita o abierta valorable, pueden ser difíciles de redactar. Afortunadamente, la página de la taxonomía de Bloom (Bloom's Taxonomy) contiene una lista de verbos que pueden ayudarle.

(Extractado y traducido de "Writing Educational Goals and Objetives")
[4] TIPOS COMUNES DE OBJETIVOS

Psicomotores: destrezas especiales (ej: "El estudiante podrá montar en una bicicleta de dos ruedas sin ayuda y sin hacer pausas, tal como se demostró en la clase de educación física".

Cognitiva: comprensión, entendimiento, introspección (eje: "Dada la descripción de un planeta, el estudiante podrá identificar ese planeta, como lo demostró en forma oral o por escrito". O, "El estudiante estará en capacidad de evaluar las diferentes teorías del origen del sistema solar, tal como lo demostró con su capacidad de comparar y discutir oralmente o por escrito, las fortalezas y debilidades de cada teoría").
Esto incluye conocer o recordar información, comprender o entender conceptos, habilidad de aplicar conocimiento, capacidad de analizar una situación, capacidad de sintetizar información de una situación dada, y la habilidad de evaluar una situación dada. Remítase también a la Taxonomía de Bloom (Bloom's Taxonomy).

Afectiva: actitudes, percepciones, relaciones (ej: "Dada la oportunidad de trabajar en equipo con varias
personas de distintas razas, el estudiante demostrará una mejoría en su actitud hacia la no-discriminación
racial, que se medirá con una lista de verificación diligenciada por personas que no pertenezcan al equipo.")
(Extractado y traducido de "Writing Educational Goals and Objetives")

[5] SOLUCIONES EXPLÍCITAS O ENCUBIERTAS http://www.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/overtcovert.html :
Ejemplo de Objetivo

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Elisxeneth Tovar Mutis and Boris Sanchez Molana

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Pautas de Mager para el diseño de objetivos de aprendizaje

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Documento que compendia algunas pautas para el diseño efectivo de Objetivos de Aprendizaje. Incluye definición, características más importantes y obstáculos frecuentes en su formulación.

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The Benefits of Backward Design in the English as a Foreign Language Context

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The Benefits of Backward Design in the English as a Foreign Language Context