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Bridges for conveying water, called aqueducts or water bridges, are constructed to convey watercourses across gaps such as valleys or ravines.

The term aqueduct may also be used to refer to the entire watercourse, as well as the bridge. Large navigable aqueducts are used as transport links for boats or ships. Aqueducts must span a crossing at the same level as the watercourses on each end.

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1. Kristyn Lee
2. Yew Jey Chern
3. Daniel Quyyum
4. Yeoh Theng Hong
5. Lam O wen
6. Alvin Chee
7. Lee Jia Yi
8. Fahmy
9. Abirami
10. Ang Jia Qin

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Archi- JC
Religion - Kristyn
Invention - Abi, Fahmy
Culture - Jia Qin, Lam Owen
Social Strata - Daniel Quyyum, Jia Yi

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Hispano-Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius, who is betrayed when Commodus, the ambitious son of Emperor Marcus Aurellus, murders his father and seizes the throne. Reduced to slavery, Maximus rises through the ranks of the gladiatorial arena to avenge the murders of his family and his emperor

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- Attainment of hours
- Citizen of different grades
- Ancestry
- Census Rank ( Based on wealth & political privilege)

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1. Imperial Domus
- consist of rich royalties & emperors
2. Senatorial
-All the men who served in the senate and wielded political power
3. Equestrian
- An economic importance and any man that can prove the posses a certain amount of wealth could be enrolled into the equestrian order
4. Plebians
-Attain material wealth.
- These people do not participate in the government. But over time this social class rebels and eventually participates within the government.
- All sort of ordinary profession including farming and labouring
5. Freeman
- Freed slaves, whose free-born children were full citizens.
6. Slaves
- No legal rights and were entirely dependent on their masters
- The only way to get freedom from is to either be freed by owner or pay the owner the same amount of the money they bought you for.

Extra Info
Women
- Limited form of citizenship
( Depending on their social class)
- No rights to :
Public office , Vote , Own a piece of land , To obtain divorce and Do business.

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Gladiators are usually m
-Most people become gladiators mostly for fame and wealth. The gladiators were perceived by the Roman society in a very ambiguous way.
-Gladiator was a social disgrace and meant not having certain public rights. On the other hand, the fame given by a successful gladiator career was something that attracted even senatorial families to join the game
- Gladiators had a great success with women, who saw them more like some sexual objects, but sexual contacts between citizen women and gladiators was socially unacceptable.
- The gladiators were a good subject for art.
-Roman morality required that all gladiators be of the lowest social classes, and emperors who failed to respect this distinction earned the scorn of posterity.

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a vertical sliding gate that is raised or lowered by chains. it is usually made of wood or metal as a fortification of a building during the time.

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under the floor of the arena, a team of workmen turned a capstan winch, which raised a cage containing a wild animal to be released into the arena.
this lift system was used primarily in gladiator arenas and venationes

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a giant, accurate crossbow that launched spherical stones or lead darts over 450 metres. it was originally a greek invention but it was fully utilized and improved by the roman gladiators.

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Main architectural buildings made of stone, brick, or concrete

Colosseum
A roman amphitheater (open-air venue used for entertainment)
The Colosseum was introduced during  A.D. 70-72 by Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty to the roman people as a gift.

Amphitheater
An entertainment structure built to serve as arenas for various events such as gladiator fights, venationes (beast slaying) and executions.

Form: Circular, open air theater.
Consist of 3 main components:  the cavea, the arena, and the vomitorium

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In AD 180，Emperor Marcus Aurelius intend to make General Maximus Decimus Meridius his succession of the Rome Empire as the Emperors’ son Commodus is deemed unworthy. The effort of the Emperor is later proven to be fruitless as his son soon finds out the Emperor’s intention. At which Commodus plotted the assassination of his father.

As the will of The Emperor couldn’t be announced. Commodus claims the throne of Rome to himself. The new Emperor asks Maximus for his loyalty, but the general refuses. The Emperor commended the general to be arrested and killing his family for his act.

Before collapsing he buried his family. Later he is sold to a gladiator trainer named Proximo.

Maximus fights in local tournaments and makes friends with two other gladiators: Juba, and Hagen.

Proximo told Maximus that in order to gained his freedom he must gain the crowds liking.

Maximus was sent to fight at The Colosseum. Disguised by a masked helmet he show his debut as Carthaginian. As Maximum outstanding performance in the arena the Emperor himself congratulates and making him the leader of the gladiator. He reveals his face and announce vengeance upon the Emperor.

With the help of his ex-orderly he plotted to escape Rome and join his soldiers to overthrow Commodus by force and hand the power back to the Roman Senates. The effort was later unsuccessful as they are fall into traps set up by the emperor. Maximus was captured

Emperor challenged him for a dual, however the Emperor cheated to gain upper hand. Maximus died fighting The Emperor.

Before he dies, he asks for political reforms, for his gladiator allies to be freed, and for Senator Gracchus to be reinstated.

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Images of gladiator can be found throughout the Republic and Empire among all classes. Walls in the 2nd century BC "Italian Agora" at Delos were decorated with paintings of gladiators. Mosaics dating from the 2nd through 4th centuries have been invaluable in the reconstruction of combat and its rules, gladiator types and the development of the munus. Ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall painting and statuary offers evidence of clothing, props, equipment, names, events , prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat throughout the Roman world.

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Gladiator

A Gladiator (Latin: gladiator, "swordsman", from gladius, "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered audiences an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the

Roman world.

The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate (see next section). There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BCE, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly spectacles or "gladiatorial games". The games reached their peak between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE, and they persisted not only throughout the social and economic crises of the declining Roman state but even after Christianity became the official religion in the 4th century CE. Christian emperors continued to sponsor such entertainments until at least the late 5th century CE, when the last known gladiator games took place

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The Theatre

People went to one of the big theatres in Rome to watch plays.

Because the audience would not stay quiet the actors had to wear costumes. The actors wore masks – brown for men, white for women, smiling or sad depending on the type of play. The costumes showed the audience who the person was – a purple gown for a rich man, a striped toga for a boy, a short cloak for a soldier, a red toga for a poor man, a short tunic for a slave etc.

Women were not allowed act, so their parts were normally played by a man or young boys wearing a white mask.

The actors spoke the lines, but a second actor mimed the gestures to fit the lines, such as feeling a pulse to show a sick person, making the shape of a lyre with fingers to show music. The plays were often violent and could result in the death of an actor by mistake.

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Chariot racing is a very popular entertainment. The charioteers wore leather helmets, knee pads and shin pads. Their coloured tunics with sleeves were called “vests quadrigaria”. These men were usually slaves whose masters owned the chariots. When a race started usual trumpets started a tune as toot to to, men lost their life as being distracted by the tune.

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THE AMPHITHEATRE

The Roman amphitheatre was the centre of public entertainment in Rome, and all over the Roman Empire. People would go to the Amphitheatre to see men fighting wild beasts or each other. The Colosseum amphitheatres cousin is 1 of the 7 wonders of the world.

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THE HIPPODROME

The Hippodrome served as an ancient racetrack where ancient chariot races, athletic competitions were held. The hippodrome was a very popular an ancient building. Hippodrome was known to attract people to roman time. Romans sometimes adored the building.

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BATH

The Roman Baths were like leisure centres for relaxment. They used to allow you to have abath for 2 hours. Before you went to the bath you would have a massage with oil. People chat with friends before exiting the bubble bath. Baths were not just 1 they were several.

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HUNTING

Usual animals hunted is deer, hare, deer, elephant, panther, etc. Romans hunted birds while using traps, snares, bird calls and many more. Mars is god of war and hunting. Aucupium means bird catching. Venation means large scale hunt.

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BOARD GAMES

Board games were the first entertainment that would come to mind. Board games needed counters but romans used pebbles. Roman board games include Knucklebones, Tic Tac Toe, Roman Chess and etc.

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THE COLOSSEUM

The structure has fallen into ruin, but even today it is an imposing and beautiful sight. Most people used to go see people fight but today may ne cruel. The Colosseum is 1 of the 7 wonders of the world. Sometimes gladiators fought animals such as kangaroos. Some women were forbidden to watch as they have a very pure heart.

The events staged at the Colosseum were many. Nearly all of them involved death and destruction. There were the well known gladiator fights and the feeding of Christians to lions. There were also a number of lesser known events such as mock sea battles involving ships, animal circus acts, animals fighting animals and animal hunts.

All sorts of animals were kept in cages below the Colosseum. Wild cats, buffaloes, bears and elephants would all be kept and then made to fight one another. In some parts of the Roman Empire, certain animals died out because their type was in such demand by those who ran entertainment in Rome itself. It is thought that on the day the Colosseum opened, over 5,000 animals were killed.

However, animals were the secondary part of the ‘show’. Those who came to the Colosseum came to see people fight. Famous gladiators had a huge following but many gladiators were the Roman equivalent of ‘canon fodder’ – there to entertain and be killed. Many of these gladiators were slaves or prisoners-of-war. The casualty rate per ‘show’ was massive – near enough 50% died each show. Those gladiators who had fought well but had not won their fight could be spared by the emperor if he was present at an event – a thumbs up meant life, and a thumbs down meant death. The Roman writer Seneca wrote that for a gladiator “the only exit is death.”

These shows were usually free to the public. The emperors believed it was a good way to keep the people of Ancient Rome happy and content with the way the city was being governed. The government provided free bread and free entertainment – a combination they believed would keep happy the many unemployed people in Rome.

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THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS

The circus used animals. They sometimes used hare blood to paint walls. Most romans got bores but had to go for children. The owner of the circus fired people every 12 hours. There were circuses in every city.

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THE CAMPUS

Campus Martius mean field of war. Campus is the identity place for mars god of war. Campus is a building used primarily as a military exercise ground, it was drained. It was also a temple of Apollo. The Campus became Rome’s track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Board games played in Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon. There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,

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The Romans ate food that they could grow such as vegetables.

They used cereals they grew to make bread.

They also ate meat from animals and birds.

The Romans brought food over from other countries in their empire (imported food). Many of these food were new to Britain and had therefore never been tasted before by people living in Britain. These 'new' foods included many vegetables such as carrots, cucumbers, cabbages, radishes, broad beans and celery.

The Romans were also very fond of fish sauce called liquamen (also known as Garum).

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Typically, the Romans ate three meals a day.

Breakfast - ientaculum

The Romans ate a breakfast of bread or a wheat pancake eaten with dates and honey.

Lunch - prandium

At midday they ate a light meal of fish, cold meat, bread and vegetables. Often the meal consisted of the leftovers of the previous day's cena.

Dinner - cena - The main meal

What was eaten for dinner varied among classes. The poor might only eat a simple meal of vegetables and porridge, whereas the rich could enjoy such luxuries as several course meals and exotic food and wine.

Wheat was boiled to make the tasteless porridge. To add flavour to the porridge they often added flavourings and relishes as well as vegetables, herbs and a little meat.

Rich Romans

Rich Romans held elaborate dinner parties in the triclinium (dining room). These parties often lasted up to eight hours. The Romans did not sit on chairs around the table like we do today. Instead the adults lay on sloping couches situated around a square table. Only small children or slaves were permitted to eat sitting.

The Romans ate mainly with their fingers and so the food was cut into bite size pieces. Slaves would continually wash the guests' hands throughout the dinner.

Spoons were used for soup.

Rich Romans could afford to eat lots of meat.

"Meat dishes included boar (wild pig), venison (deer), wild goat, mutton, lamb, kid, sucking pig, hare and dormice. Poultry dishes were of almost every known bird: chicken, geese, ostriches, cranes, pheasants, pigeons, doves, thrushes, fig-peckers, and- for the rich- peacocks" (Cowell, 1961: 78).

Drinks

Wine and water was served in jugs.

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Eclectic Culture

The past and present harmoniously existing within steps of each other best defines Rome culture. For example, structures by 17th-century architect Bernini mingle with modern day architecture. Art created by the masters during the Renaissance and Baroque periods coexists with modern-day pieces in art museums and galleries throughout the city. Modern work buildings are steps away from historic monuments, like the Colosseum and the Roman Forum. In short, Rome is an eclectic culture of a busy cosmopolitan city that reveres its past. Much of the Roman culture reflects the diverse people who passed through the city at different points in history. Gladiators, pagan deities, master artists and learned men left an influential footprint on the Eternal City. Tourists flock to the Vatican, the Colosseum, the Palatine and Forum Museum, the Galleria Borghese, the Palazzo Altemps, the Piazza di Spagna and the Domus Aurea to gain an appreciation of the stepping stones of today’s Roman culture.

Food and Festivals

Food is an integral part of the culture in Rome, with dishes that are full of flavor and reflective of old Roman traditions. Fresh vegetables, inexpensive cuts of meats, pasta and cheese are typical ingredients in Roman dishes. Food establishments flourish in Rome, with pizzerias, family-run trattorias and trendy restaurants in full supply. Food is further celebrated with food festivals. They are an important part of the culture scene in Rome and typically usher in a season, celebrate the Roman heritage, or simply carry on an age-old tradition. The Sagra del Csarciofo, for instance, celebrates the artichoke, a staple in Roman cooking. The springtime festival showcases the many ways the artichoke can be cooked.

Holiday Traditions

During the Easter and Christmas holiday seasons, Rome traditions exhibit the strong Christian culture of the Eternal City. One such Rome tradition is to go to St. Peter’s Square on Easter and Christmas to receive a blessing from the Pope. During the Lenten season, Good Friday marks the annual Procession of the Cross from the Roman Colosseum to the Palatine and Forum. On Easter Sunday morning, an outdoor mass takes place in St. Peter’s Square. During the Christmas season, churches in Rome display elaborate nativity scenes, and live music is enjoyed in the piazzas. The traditional midnight mass at the Vatican attracts thousands of locals and international visitors.

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Gladius- sword

The sword was very important. It was light and short (no more than 50 cm) so soldiers can use it for stabbing quickly.

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The religion of ancient Rome dated back many centuries and over time it grew increasingly diverse. As different cultures settled in what would later become Italy, each brought their own gods and forms of worship. This made the religion of ancient Rome polytheistic, in that they worshipped many gods. They also worshipped spirits.

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Rivers, trees, fields and buildings each had their own spirit, or numen. Worshipping more than one numen, or numina, was a part of early Roman culture.

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Every Roman household also had its own protective spirits.

Eg:
1. Vesta -goddess of the fireplace.

2. Penates- God that watches one’s house /storeroom( Food cupboards)

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Families had a protective spirit, called a lar. Each family had a larium, or shrine, to this spirit, often kept in the atrium or courtyard. The head of the family – the paterfamilias – was responsible for making regular sacrifices to honor the family’s spirit and make sure that it continued to watch over them.

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Families asked for blessings of the spirits before any special family event. A portion of every meal was thrown into the fire as an offering. Household slaves were also expected to worship the same spirits as their owners

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Romans believed that spirits gathered around crossroads. It was therefore common to find a small shrine, or compita, set up wherever paths or roads met. These would have four altars to honor the spirits in each direction.

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This practice was honored in the Festival of the Crossroads, called the Compitalia. On this feast day, families would hang woolen dolls and balls at the nearest compita. Each doll represented a member of the family, while each ball represented a slave.

It isn’t clear why they did this. Perhaps they hoped that the spirits would spare each person represented by the woolen offerings, or maybe they believed that the power of the spirits would strengthen each person represented there.

In any case, spirit worship was just one part of Roman religion. The Roman state had its own gods and, like the spirits, these were the product of diverse cultures and ancient beliefs.

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The noble dead of Latium and Rome suggest elaborate and costly funeral offering and banquets in the company of the deceased.

Funeral and commemorative rites varied according to wealth, status and religious context

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Roman Name/Greek Name

1.     Apollo- The god of the sun/rides the sun

2.     Bacchus/Dionysus- The god of wine, parties/festivals, madness, and merriment

3.     Caelus- The god of the sky

4.     Ceres/Demeter- Saturn's daughter, goddess of farming and agriculture

5.     Cupid- The god of love.

6.     Diana/Artemis -The goddess of the moon

7.     Fortuna - The goddess of luck

8.     Janus - The god of gates and doors

9.     Juno/Hera - Jupiter's wife, and Goddess of marriage

10.  Jupiter/Zeus- The king of the gods and goddesses, and god of lightning and the sky

11.  Mars/Ares - God of war

12.  Mercury/Hermes - Messenger of the gods; also the god of thieves, commerce and travelers.

13.  Minerva/Athena- The virgin goddess of wisdom, handicrafts, strategic warfare, and trade

14.  Neptune - The god of the sea

15.  Nox - Roman name for Nyx, goddess of the night

16.  Pluto - The god of death, and the riches under the Earth

17.  Proserpina- Pluto's wife, goddess of spring, queen of the underworld

18.  Saturn- The titan of time and king of the titans

19.  Spes- The Goddess of hope

20.  Terra- The goddess of the Earth

21.  Venus/Aphrodite- The goddess of love and beauty

22.  Veritas- The goddess of truth

23.  Vesta/Hesta- The virgin goddess of home and hearth

24.  Vulcan- The god of fire and blacksmith

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1.http://www.legendsandchronicles.com/ancient-civilizations/ancient-rome/ancient-roman-class-structure/
2.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome
3.http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/socialclass.html

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https://www.slideshare.net/saifmd4u/roman-entertainment
http://www.primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/romans/food.html
http://traveltips.usatoday.com/culture-traditions-rome-italy-11465.html