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Latin America - Latin American Dependency Theory

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Latin America - Latin American Dependency Theory

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Raul Prebisch, who worked for the United Nations Commission for Latin America, explained Latin America's economic problems in global terms and made the "dependency" theory of economic development. His theory pointed out that developed industrial nations, like those in North America and Europe, dominated the international economy and profited at the expense of less developed and industrialized nations burdened with the export-oriented, unbalanced economies that were a legacy of colonialism.

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Nicaraguan women established the Association of Women Concerned about National Crisis in 1977 and fought as part of the Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN). The FSLN was named in honor of the martyred Augusto Cesar Sandino who was murdered for his opposition to U.S. intrusion in Nicaragua by the Nicaraguan leader and U.S. ally Anastacio Somoza Garcia. Nicaraguan women dedicated themselves to ridding their nation of Somoza rule and in 1979, they renamed the organization the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (AMNLAE).

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In 1946, Juan Peron, a former colonel in the army, was elected president. His regime garnered immense popularity among large segments of the Argentine population, partly because he appealed to the more downtrodden Argentines. He called for industrialization, support for the working class, and protection of the economy from foreign control. Evita was a illegitimate child who migrated to Buenos Aires at the age of fifteen and became a political leader who was pushing for her husband's political reforms.

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Argentina's economy relied on cattle raising, agriculture, booming urban life, the beginnings of a trial base, and a growing middle class in a population composed mostly of migrants from Europe. Argentina became relatively independent of U.S. control and became a leader in the Latin American struggle against U.S. and European economic and political intervention in the region.

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Mexico - Economic and Political Reforms post-revolution

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Mexico - Economic and Political Reforms post-revolution

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President Lazaro Cardenas applied the reforms guaranteed to Mexicans by the Constitution of 1917. He allowed the state to redistribute land after confiscation and compensation, as well as its claim to government ownership of the subsoil and its products. His nationalization of Mexico led to the creation of Petroleos Mexicanos and the revenue this generated contributed to what has been called the "El Milgaro Mexicano", or the Mexican economic miracle.

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Africa - Organization of African Unity (OAU)

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Africa - Organization of African Unity (OAU)

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The Organization of African Unity was created in 1993 by thirty-two member states and it recognized the problems that decolonization caused, like civil wars and border disputes. The organization attempted to prevent conflicts that could lead to intervention by former colonial powers. The OAU also promoted pan-African unity as another way for African states to resist interferences and domination by foreign powers.

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Two years after the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait and started the Gulf War. The war resulted in a decisive military defeat for Iraq, at the hands of an international coalition led by the United States, and caused further hardships for the Iraqi people.

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The Iran/Iraq War killed as many as one million soldiers. Signs of recovery and relaxation of Islamist strictness appeared in Iran in the late 1990s, but the destruction from war still remained visible. Conservative president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad took office in 2005 and touted Iran's nuclear program and his antipathy to the state of Israel.

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A revolution that took place in 1979 that demonstrated the power of Islam as a means of staving off secular foreign influences. The shah fled the country in early 1979 as the revolution gained force, and power was captured by the Islamist movement under the direction of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

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In the 1970s, Muslims in many countries began to seek, sometimes violently, the revival of Islamic values in the political and social sphere, also known as Islamism. Islamists believed that the solution to the problems faced by Muslims lay in the revival of Islamic identity, values, and power.

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India - Indira Gandhi - Sikh/Hindu modern disputes

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India - Indira Gandhi - Sikh/Hindu modern disputes

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In 1966 Indira Gandhi became leader of the Congress Party. She served as prime minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and from 1980 to 1984, and under her leadership India embarked on the "green revolution" that increased agricultural yields for India's eight hundred million people. Her abrogation of democratic principles and her harsh birth control policies made Indians vote against her, and uprisings from Sikhs who represented probably 2 percent of India's population revolted against her.

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Tiananmen Square - Massacre at Tiananmen Square

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Tiananmen Square - Massacre at Tiananmen Square

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Deng Xiaoping sent tens of thousands of Chinese students to foreign universities to rebuild the professional, intellectual, and managerial elite needed for modern development. The students were exposed to the democratic societies of western Europe and the United States and they staged pro-democracy demonstrations in Beijing's Tiananmen Square. Deng Xiaoping, wary of zealous revolutions after the Cultural Revolution, approved a bloody crackdown.

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Even though he was a colleague of Mao Zedong, Ding Xiaoping still had to recant criticisms of Mao, identify himself as a petit-bourgeois intellectual, and work in a tractor-repair factory. Deng Xiaoping came to power in 1981, and the 1980s are often referred to as the years of "Deng's Revolution." Deng Xiaoping moderated Mao' Zedong's commitment to Chinese self-sufficiency and isolation and engineered China's entry into the international financial and trading system.

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China - Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution - Cultural Rev.

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China - Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution - Cultural Rev.

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The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was designed to root out the revisionism Mao perceived in Chinese life, especially among Communist Party leaders and others in positions of authority. The Cultural Revolution subjected millions of people to humiliation, persecution, and death. The Cultural Revolution did not go down until after Mao's death in 1976.

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Continuing China's push for development were the Great Leap Forward and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Mao Zedong imagined his Great Leap Forward as a way to overtake the industrial production of more developed nations, and to that end he worked to collectively all land and to manage all business and industrial enterprises collectively. His Great Leap Forward failed and had a disastrous impat on agricultural production in China.

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Mao Zedong reunified China for the first time since the collapse of the Qing dynasty, transforming European communist ideology into a distinctly Chinese communism. After 1949, he also embarked on programs designed to accelerate development in China. China also introduced their own Five Year Plan in 1955.

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South Africa - End of Apartheid - F.W. de Klerk

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South Africa - End of Apartheid - F.W. de Klerk

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F.W. de Klerk became president of South Africa in 1989, and he and the National Party began to dismantle the apartheid system. He released Mandela from jail in 1990, legalized the ANC, and worked with Mandela and the ANC to negotiate the end of white minority rule.

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South Africa - Nelson Mandela - African National Congress

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South Africa - Nelson Mandela - African National Congress

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Dispossessed peoples saw the apartheid as an impetus for resistance to white rule and in 1912, the African National Congress formed, and gained new young leaders such as Nelson Mandela. Nelson Mandela inspired direction action campaigns to protest apartheid.

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In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party, which was dedicated to quashing any move toward black independence, came to power. Under the National Party, the government instituted a harsh new set of laws designed to control the restive black population; these new laws became known as apartheid, or "separateness".

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Kenya helped prove that the battle for independence wasn't always as nonviolent as in Ghana. The situation in Kenya first turned violent in a clash between powerful white settlers and nationalists, especially the Kikuyu, one of Kenya's largest ethnic groups. By December 1963, Kenya would negotiate its independence.

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Ghana - Kwame Nkrumah - African Nationalism

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Ghana - Kwame Nkrumah - African Nationalism

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Kwame Nkrumah was a leader and a major factor in Ghana's success in achieving its freedom from British rule in 1957.. After Ghana became independent, it inspired other African nationalist movements. More than 30 other African countries followed Ghana's example and declared their own independence.

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African intellectuals, especially in French-controlled west Africa established a movement to promote Negritude (Blackness). These celebrations of African culture were accompanied by grassroots protests against European imperialism .In the years after World War II, African poets following the Negritude movement continued to express their attachment to Africanness and encourage Africans to turn away from European culture and colonial rule.

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Algeria - Liberation War Against the French/Nationalism

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Algeria - Liberation War Against the French/Nationalism

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The Algeria War was a war of liberation that began in 1954 under the command of the Front de Liberation Nationale. The French did not realize the severity of the challenge they faced until 1955, when the Front de Liberation Nationale moved into more urbanized areas.

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Nasser sealed his reputation during the Suez Crisis and left him in a dominant position in the Arab world. This crisis erupted in 1956 when Nasser decided to nationalize the Suez Canal and use the money collected from the canal to finance construction of a massive dam of the Nile River at Aswan. The Suez Crisis further tangled cold war power politics because it divided the United States and its allies in western Europe.

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Egypt - Arab Nationalism - Opposition to Israel

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Egypt - Arab Nationalism - Opposition to Israel

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Egyptian military leaders under the direction of Gamal Abdel Nasser committed themselves to opposing Israel. In July 1952, Nasser staged a bloodless coup that ended the monarchy of Egypt's King Farouk and named himself prime minister in 1954. To strengthen Egypt, he adopted an internationalist position similar to Nehru's nonalignment policy in India. He dedicated himself to ridding Egypt and the Arab world of imperial interference, which included destroying the state of Israel.

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In 1945, Jews embarked on a course of violent resistance to the British to get others to recognize Jewish demands for self-rule and open immigration. The British gave up in 1947, and intended to withdraw from Palestine and turn over the region to the newly created United Nations. In May 1948, the Jews in Palestine proclaimed the creation of the independent state of Israel. Israel's proclamation of statehood caused a series of military conflicts between Israeli and various Arab forces that lasted for five decades.

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In 1917, the British government committed itself to the support of a homeland for Jews in Palestine, a commitment that was steadily growing popular due to the Zionist movement. The British were compelled to allow Jewish migration to Palestine under their mandate because the Zionist dream was to combat the anti-Semitism in central and eastern Europe.

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Vietnam - End of the Vietnam War/Unification/Vietnamizati-on

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Vietnam - End of the Vietnam War/Unification/Vietnamizati-on

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Presidential candidate Richard Nixon pledged in 1968 to end the war, and after his election he implemented the strategy of turning the war over to the South Vietnamese--termed Vietnamization--by escalating the conflict. He continued bombing North Vietnam and opened diplomatic channels to the Soviet Union and China, hoping that they would pressure North Vietnam into a negotiated end to the war. It was only until 1973 that the "American War," as the Vietnamese called it, ended with the negotiated Paris Peace Accords.

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Nationalist communist attacks against the South Vietnamese government were met with continued success as there was a lack of popular support for Diem and U.S.-style democratic reforms. In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson ordered a bombing campaign against North Vietnam and sent U.S. ground troops to augment the South Vietnamese army.

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Vietnam - Geneva Conference/Division of Vietnam

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Vietnam - Geneva Conference/Division of Vietnam

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The Geneva Conference determined that Vietnam be temporarily divided at the seventeenth parallel. North Vietnam would be controlled by Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam would remain in control by the hands of noncommunists.

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Vietnam - Ho Chi Minh and French Decolonization

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Vietnam - Ho Chi Minh and French Decolonization

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Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnamese nationalist communist leader who exploited wartime conditions. Ho Chi Minh and General Vo Nguyen Glap went to the countryside to take over the French and defeated them at Dienbienphu.

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Divided India into separate Hindu and Muslim states. Hundreds of thousands of Muslim and Hindu refugees migrated either to Muslim Pakistan or to Hindu India.

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Held occasional meetings to discuss matters of common interest, particularly their relations with the United States and the Soviet Union. The movement's primary goal was to keep formal neutrality.

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Expressed the Muslim concerns and desires for a separate Muslim state. This went against what Gandhi was promoting, communalism, where Indians act and feel as one nation.