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The C Rule - The letter c is irregular. It makes the /k/ sound (hard sound) or the /s/ sound (soft sound), having no phoneme of its own. Generally, the rule follows, hard c is followed by a, o, or u and soft c is followed by e, i, or y
The G Rule - The letter g is irregular. It has a hard sound and a soft sound. Follows similar rules to c - hard g is usually followed by a, o, or u, where soft g is followed by e, i , or y.
The CVC Generalization - When a vowels is between two consonants, it usually has a short vowel sound. ex. cut, sat, pen, and win.
Vowel Digraphs - "When two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking." When to vowels appear together the first has a long vowel sound and the second one is silent.
The VCE Final E Generalization - When the first and last vowel are separated by a consonant, and the second vowel is an e - the e is silent and the first vowel has a long vowel sound. ex. kite.
The CV Generalization - If a consonant is followed by a vowel the vowel produces a long sound. ex. be.
R - Controlled Vowels - When a vowel appears before the letter R, they tend to be overpowered by the R. ex. player and person.

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Consonant Digraphs - th, sh, ch, wh, ph, ck, ng, ge; these are unique speech sounds where two consonants combine to make a distinct speech sound.

Consonant Trigraphs - tch and dge; another set of unique and distinct speech sounds.

Silent Letter Combinations - -bt, gn-, kn-, -lk, -lm, -mb, -ps, -mn, rh-, and wr-. Two letters work together to represent one sound.

Consonant Blends "clusters" -Consonant blends that come together and all letter sounds are heard.
Group 1 - st, pr, tr, gr, br
Group 2 - pl, sp, cr, cl, dr, fr
Group 3 - sc, bl, fl, sk, sl
Group 4 - sm, gl, sn, tw

Double consonants - when two of the same consonants come together to make a single sound.

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There are 96 variations of vowels sounds in the English Language.
Vowel Digraphs or "teams" (an image is provided below to represent some, but not all of the vowel teams).
Schwa - a vowel that produces the "uh" sound.
Diphthongs - two vowels working together to produce a single sound. ex. towel, oil, boy, and out.
Y Rules - When y appears at the end of the a long word it says /e/ but who it comes at the end of a short word it says /i/.

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In order to decode an individual must understand word segmenting and blending.
Segmenting - decoding separate sounds that make up words this is the idea of "sound it out".
Blending - The merging of individual phonemes to generate a word. This is taking segmenting and smoothing it out into one full word.
These things work together to help students understand - syllabication, onset and rime, and body and coda strategies.
Syllabication - The ability to segment words into syllables building on phonemic awareness.
Rules of Syllabication -
1. dividing words
2. pronouncing words
Onset and Rime - this helps students to learn and understand patterns in the English language.
Onset: the part of the syllable that comes before the vowel
Rime: the rest of the syllable.
1. Children are better able to identify the spellings of rimes than of individual vowel sounds.
2. Children can transfer by analogy what they know about one word pronunciation to another when the rimes are the same.
3. The complexity of the vowel irregularity seem to be mitigated through the use of rimes.
4. Evidence suggests that learning rimes helps in early decoding instruction.

Body and Coda (Chunks)
Body: word chunks include the onset plus the vowel sound in a syllable.
Coda: word chunks include all sounds following the vowel sound in a syllable.
ex. body /ca/ coda /t/

Structural Analysis
Morphemes: the study of word elements to identify their individual meaning elements.
Free morphemes, word parts that sometimes stand alone an example work is the free morpheme in the word working.
Bound morpheme, does not carry meaning without the root word. AKA prefixes and suffixes.

High-Frequency or "Sight" Words
words that occur most often in prints. Once individuals begin to recognize these words rapidly it frees up their working memory to increase reading comprehension.

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Types of assessments used in decoding
The Early Names Test
The Starpoint Phonics Assessment (STAR)
The Consortium on Reading Excellence (CORE)
Running Record
Assessing Sight Word Recognition:
Thorndike-Lorge and/or Zeno
San Diego Quick Reading Assessment

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Adapting Decoding and Word Recognition Instruction
Sequential Segmenting Strategy
Hierarchical Segmenting
Sequential Blending Strategy for Single-Syllable Words
Hierarchical Blending
Spelling in Parts (SIP)
Sound Swirl
Word Boxes (Elkonin Boxes)