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Formation of the Eastern Bloc (Eastern Europe)

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Formation of the Eastern Bloc (Eastern Europe)

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Differences between two political ideologies -- democracy and communism -- as well as desire for power preservation, made both countries more concerned with self-protection and promotion, than with mutual cooperation. The United States used its power to try to protect existing democratic governments around the world. The Soviet Union, using the influence it had gained through the war, established and enforced communist rule and created an alliance of countries on its eastern borders that stood as a buffer between the Western world and itself -- a formation that became known as the "EasternBloc." Eventually, when Mikhail Gorbachev (1931– ) assumed power in 1985, his policies of openness and economic restructuring allowed the countries of the Eastern Bloc to adopt reforms and eventually to establish non-Communist governments. In 1989, the Eastern Bloc was considered to have finally and completely dissolved as the last Communist regime fell in

Romania; Gorbachev pulled troops out of Afghanistan; and the Berlin wall was torn down.

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Postwar Occupation & Division of Germany (May 8, 1945)

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Postwar Occupation & Division of Germany (May 8, 1945)

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The cause of the division of Germany was that the entire German territory was occupied by foreign armies, cities and infrastructure were largely reduced to rubble, the country was flooded with millions of refugees from the east, and large portions of the population were suffering from hunger and the loss of their homes. Then Allies issued a unilateral declaration on June 5, 1945, that proclaimed their supreme authority over German territory, short of annexation. After, at the conference in Casablanca, held in January 1943, British prime minister Winston Churchill's proposal to invade the Balkans and East- Central Europe via Greece was rejected. This decision opened the road for Soviet occupation of eastern Germany. To facilitate German economic self-sufficiency, United States and British occupation policies soon merged, and by the beginning of 1947 their zones had been joined into one economic area--the Bizone.

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Blockade of the US, UK and French zones of Berlin by the Soviet Union, intended to force negotiations over the division

and future of Germany. It failed because the blockaded powers were able to airlift in huge amounts of supplies. In 1948, a Six Power Conference was held between Britain, France, Belgium, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, and the US to establish a West German state. The West Germans were instructed to draft a constitution and introduced a new currency, the Deutschmark, while East Germany introduced the Ostmark. The USSR, led by Stalin, refused to accept these developments, fearing they could force a renegotiation or a neutral unified Germany. The US and UK rejected General Clay's suggestion of an armored convoy through Soviet Germany, favoring Bevin's suggestion of an airlift. The Allies began a massive airlift of food, coal, and other supplies between the Western German zones and Berlin, initially bringing in 2000 tons a day. The Allies were prepared to compromise on the currency issue but not over the West German State. The Soviets did not budge, and the UN tried mediating. The Berlin Airlift was a hugely successful operation, moving an average daily tonnage of 5620 and 8000 tons by April.The Berlin Blockade, imposed by the Allies, halted German exports to the Soviet Union, putting economic pressure on the USSR. Stalin agreed to lift the blockade if a Council of Foreign Ministers was held. The blockade marked the first time the US and USSR were in open conflict, and it also heightened the threat of US nuclear power to Europe. The Blockade demonstrates the West's industrial strength and political determination during the Cold War.

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The Communist Revolution began in 1946 when the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang (KMT) resumed open war after the end of World War II. The KMT, led by Chiang Kai-Shek, was backed by the Soviet Union and faced an unequal struggle with the Japanese. The Communists did little to expel the Japanese from China and were content to save their strength for a later civil war. They suffered defeats and setbacks in 1946 and 1947 but learned from them and defeated the KMT in 1948. The Chinese Revolution ended with the capture of Hainan Island in 1950, ossifying lines and ending the conflict. The West blocked any change in the UN Security Council that would allow the Communist People's Republic of China to replace the Nationalist Republic of China as the veto-wielding permanent member. The Chinese Revolution was one of the first hot conflicts of the Cold War, with significant long-term effects, including creating a Communist state with the size and power to rival the Soviet Union.

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During World War II, Europe suffered significant damage, with millions killed or wounded, industrial and residential centers in ruins, and much on the brink of famine due to disrupted agricultural production and transportation infrastructure. The United States provided direct financial aid to Europe from 1945 to 1947, while the newly formed United Nations provided humanitarian assistance. In 1947, President Harry Truman appointed George Marshall as Secretary of State, and the Marshall Plan concept was crafted to rebuild Western Europe's economies and spirits. Sixteen nations, including Germany, joined the program, receiving nearly $13 billion in aid, which initially resulted in shipments of food, staples, fuel, and machinery from the United States and investment in industrial capacity. The Marshall Plan ended in 1951, but it greatly aided European economies from 1948 to 1952, leading to the formation of the North Atlantic alliance and the European Union.

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In 1959, Fidel Castro's revolution in Cuba brought the Cold War to the US, affecting the country economically as Americans owned 50% of Cuba's public railway system, 90% of the telephone and power industries, and 25% of all Cuban bank deposits. Castro sought to overthrow Fulgencio Batista's corrupt regime, and the US provided $10 million in military assistance to the Cuban government. Arms shipments were suspended in 1958, benefiting Castro's rebels. American policy alienated both sides, weakening Batista's forces and inciting Castro's anger. Cuba's nationalization of US petroleum properties and economic sanctions led Castro to turn to the Soviet Union for assistance. The USSR acquiesced due to the opportunity to obtain a foothold and alter the strategic balance of power between the two superpowers. By July 1960, equipment from the Soviet Union totaled $50 million, including MIG jet fighters, helicopters, tanks, rocket launchers, and various assault and heavy machine guns. In 1961, Castro declared himself a Marxist-Leninist, leading the Soviet Union to view him as a revolutionary democrat. The US, however, experienced disenchantment with Castro and eventually scheming against him. The US severed diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961, and many Cubans reacted negatively. From 1959 to 1962, officials and technicians left the island, leading to a rebellion against Castro. The Central Intelligence Agency disguised as Cuban Air Force defectors and used American bombers to carry out a surprise air strike. The invasion failed to incite a response, leading to anti-American demonstrations and the stoning of US Embassies. The Soviets also succeeded in the first manned orbital spaceflight around the earth.

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The Korean War, fought from June 1950 to July 1953, saw Communist North Korea invade its southern neighbor, South Korea. The conflict was backed by the United Nations and many US troops, with South Korea resisted. The United States followed its policy of containment to block aggression and halt the spread of Communism. The war may be seen as one of the many proxy wars fought during the Cold War. Liberated from Japan in 1945, Korea was divided by the Allies, with the US occupying the territory south of the 38th Parallel and the Soviet Union the land to the north. In 1948, elections were held in North and South Korea, with both governments aiming to reunite the peninsula under their respective ideologies. United Nations Resolution 83 called for military assistance for South Korea, and President Harry Truman ordered American forces to the peninsula. North Korea's invasion led to UN forces retreating south, but MacArthur eventually repelled a Chinese offensive. The war became a stalemate, with armistice negotiations opening in July 1951. In 1953, negotiations at Panmunjom led to an armistice, but no formal peace treaty was reached. Instead, a demilitarized zone was created, resulting in heavy militarization along the front. South Korea developed a strong economy, while North Korea remained isolated.

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The Vietnam War was a prolonged conflict between nationalist forces fighting for Vietnam's unification under a communist government and the United States preventing its spread. Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese revolutionary leader, sought US support for his cause, but the US remained committed to its Cold War foreign policy of containment. In 1954, the French pulled out of Vietnam, leading to the Geneva Accords and the establishment of the National Liberation Front (NLF) in 1960. The war has become a benchmark for future U.S. foreign conflicts.

The U.S. sent additional advisers to South Vietnam during the Vietnam War, with President Lyndon Johnson ordering the first U.S. ground troops in March 1965. Johnson's goal was to bolster South Vietnam's defenses until South Vietnam could take over. From 1965 to 1969, the U.S. was involved in a limited war, focusing on South Vietnam. The Tet Offensive in 1968 showed the enemy's strength and organization. Nixon's plan for "Peace With Honor" was Vietnamization, removing U.S. troops and handing back fighting to South Vietnam.

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In September 1962, U-2 spy planes discovered that the Soviet Union was building surface-to-air missile (SAM) launch sites in Cuba, which the US government feared were carrying new weapons. President John F. Kennedy warned the Soviet Union not to accept offensive weapons in Cuba, as Cubans now had SAM installations. Kennedy's ratings had fallen to their lowest point since he became president, and public opinion polls showed that he would have even less support in Congress after the elections. Kennedy feared that any trouble over Cuba would lose the Democratic Party even more votes, as it would remind voters of the Bay of Pigs disaster. Kennedy decided to restrict the flights of U-2 planes over Cuba and to consider various strategies for dealing with the crisis. The Executive Committee of the National Security Council, consisting of military leaders, experts on Latin America, representatives of the CIA, cabinet ministers, and personal friends, eventually decided to impose a naval blockade of Cuba. Kennedy's decision was met with skepticism from the Soviet Union and Cuba, but the majority supported his actions.

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In 1961, thousands of East German workers constructed a "Berlin Wall" to divide Berlin into a western, capitalist part connected to democratic West Germany and an eastern, impoverished Communist part. The wall survived for 28 years, 2 months, and 26 days. However, the wall was not an instant phenomenon. The Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin had a reserve of trusted German Communist agents, but his plans were thwarted by Western allies and democratic German politicians. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force the western sectors of Berlin into submission by closing off land access. The West mounted a massive airlift to fly supplies into their beleaguered sectors, and the Berlin Blockade ended after a year. By mid-1961, the exodus threatened the Communist state's existence, leading to the creation of the Berlin Wall. East Germany, meanwhile, seemed to stabilize, but faced problems during the "oil shock" of the mid-1970s. In 1989, the Communist Party tried to relax travel restrictions, but the wall fell, and the city and the world celebrated.

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On April 17, 1961, 1400 Cuban exiles launched a botched invasion at the Bay of Pigs, aiming to overthrow Fidel Castro and establish a non-communist government friendly to the United States. The plan was approved by President Eisenhower and trained in Guatemala. President Kennedy authorized the invasion plan, disguised as a surprise attack on Cuban air bases. The invasion was crushed, with Cuban planes straying and destroying half of the exile's air support. The United States negotiated a deal with Castro, who settled on $53 million worth of baby food and medicine in exchange for the prisoners. The disaster had a lasting impact on the Kennedy administration, leading to Operation Mongoose, a plan to sabotage and destabilize the Cuban government and economy. Relations between Castro's Cuba and the United States remain strained and tenuous almost 50 years later.

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The Cold War, lasting from 1945 to 1991, was a period of constant fear and tension between Russia and America. Both countries had spies in each other's countries, secretly obtaining trade secrets and developing new technology. The Soviet War in Afghanistan, also known as the "Soviet-Afghan War," was a nine-year conflict between the Soviet Union and the Islamist Mujahedeen Resistance. The Soviet invasion began in 1979, with the Soviet Union occupying major governmental, military, and media buildings in Kabul. The Mujahedeen continued to wage guerrilla warfare, with heavy fighting in neighboring Pakistan. The conflict was influenced by international involvement, with the US and Saudi Arabia providing financial support. The withdrawal was generally executed peacefully, with the Soviets negotiating ceasefires with local mujahedeen commanders to ensure a safe passage.

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The Tiananmen Square Massacre, also known as the June Fourth Incident, occurred in 1989 in China after several waves of protests escalated. The government decided to suppress the protests militarily, killing hundreds to thousands of students. The protests were motivated by the death of General Party Secretary Hu Yaobang, who was a reformer and popular with students. The government's response led to protests and violence, with the People's Liberation Army (PLA) sent to clear the square. The clearing of Tiananmen Square was criticized globally, leading to economic sanctions and large-scale protests in other cities. The incident remains a controversial topic in China, with media, literature, and art subject to censorship.

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In December 1991, the Soviet Union disintegrated into fifteen separate countries, marking a significant victory for freedom, democracy, and capitalism over totalitarianism. The collapse was hailed by the West as a victory for freedom and democracy over totalitarianism, and the United States rejoiced as its formidable enemy was brought to its knees. The breakup of the Soviet Union transformed the entire world political situation, leading to a complete reformulation of political, economic, and military alliances worldwide. The Soviet Union's composition and history led to a philosophy of socialism with a gradual transition to Communism. However, the Soviets underestimated the resistance of non-Russian ethnic groups, failed to meet the needs of the state, and the ideology of Communism lost its influence. Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union, introduced a two-tiered policy of reform, glasnost and perestroika, but his policies were met with criticism and failure. The disintegration began on the outside edges, with mass dissent in the Baltic region, nationalist movements in Georgia, Ukraine, Moldova, Byelorussia, and Central Asian republics, and the collapse of the Soviet Union.