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Her Official Trailer #1 (2013) - Joaquin Phoenix, Scarlett Johansson Movie HD

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Guillaume Thierry on the true nature of AI

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Guillaume Thierry on the true nature of AI

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We need to stop pretending AI is intelligent – here’s how

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AI may appear human, but it is an illusion we must tackle.

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5.9 Ice cream and shark attacks | Gaming out the case-studies document (25-26) 

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Correlation does not imply causation - video (longer version)

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Correlation does not imply causation - video (longer version)

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Why Ice Cream Is Linked to Shark Attacks – Correlation/Causation – The Dr. Data Show

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Correlation does not imply causation -  video (shorter version)

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Correlation does not imply causation -  video (shorter version)

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Why eating ice cream is linked to shark attacks

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Why are soda and ice cream each linked to violence? This article delivers the final word on what people mean by “correlation does not imply causation.”

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I can explain the term “correlation does not imply causation”, and discuss the consequences of not grasping its importance

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5.9 Ice cream and shark attacks | Class presentation (25-26)

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Outlining authentic critical thinking (ACT)

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Outlining authentic critical thinking (ACT)

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This 3-minute video outlines what we mean by 'authentic critical thinking', and why we put it at the heart of everything we do.

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What is authentic critical thinking (ACT)?

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This one-hour webinar discusses why TOK needs to keep pace with the fast-changing world, and how our rebooted BQ framework offers the best-ever experience for TOK learners and teachers.

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I can discuss why we tend to anthropomorphize AI, and how this affects our relationship with it

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3.14 A convincing illusion? | Class presentation (25-26)

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The FT on 'deprioritizing western knowledge systems' in art

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The FT on 'deprioritizing western knowledge systems' in art

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As I'm writing this column I'm preparing to go to Sharjah, to view the art at the Sharjah Biennial. One of the things I love about art is how it can challenge our perspectives and invite us to reflect on our allegiances, belief systems and actions. We inhabit a world that has historically valued western knowledge systems over non-western, traditional or indigenous ways of understanding. But we have much to learn from engaging with art that deprioritises western belief and knowledge systems.

Many west African cosmologies share some variation of the idea that the Earth and the natural world are sacred and should be afforded a particular reverence by humans. The Prophecy is a photo series by the Beninese-Belgian photographer Fabrice Monteiro, which he began in Senegal in 2013. "Untitled # 1" is one of several images of mythological-looking characters made from pieces of garbage and transformed into living, walking allegories of ecological and environmental crises in Senegal, among them water pollution and plastic waste.

In this work, a giant female figure rises up from a mound of refuse like a towering deity about to cast a judgment on humanity. She stands above an ominous landscape, dense bushes interspersed with carpets of rubbish and smouldering with smoke. Influenced by the Greek myth of Gaia, Monteiro created a narrative that a tired Mother Earth has sent her spirit children to prophesy to humanity about the consequences of how they are treating the natural world. Inherent in these warnings is the idea that human behaviour towards the rest of creation is partly the result of a broken relationship between the two, and our human inability to recognise any life force other than our own.

Monteiro was also inspired by west African masquerades. Looking at his work, I was taken back to a memory from my childhood when my family lived in Nigeria. It was a season for masquerades. At some point in the day, larger-than-life totem-like figures with masks and streams of raffia would begin to parade through the streets, hollering, beating instruments and dancing in elaborate, colourful costumes - extraordinary even on the vast landscape of my childhood imagination. I was terrified by these figures because I didn't think they were human.

Monteiro created a narrative that a tired Mother Earth has sent her spirit children to prophesy to humanity about the consequences of how they are treating the natural world

In my own Igbo tradition, many masquerades are representative of a relationship between the spirit and the human world, implying ancestors and those in the spiritual world are invested in what we humans get up to. Though I didn't fully understand it or have the language to articulate it, I knew this spectacle was symbolic of the fluidity of borders between the earthly and the transcendent. I have never had trouble believing in a thin line between earthly and spiritual realities.

Monteiro's work draws also on elements of animism, primarily the belief that humans are not the only ones with a life force energy or a spiritual essence. Whatever we might think of that idea, the way we treat creation might be significantly affected if we were open to the possibility that rivers, lakes, oceans, plants, trees, mountains and other animals have the potential to possess some aspect of a soul, and that a spirit world existed that ached at the broken relationship between humanity and the rest of creation.

The 53-year-old Nigerian artist Victor Ehikhamenor has been working for years on pieces that speak to the collision of African and western cultures. Ehikhamenor was born in Edo state, whose capital is Benin City, and was raised with both the traditional religious beliefs of his grandfather and the Catholic faith of his schooling. "Still Standing" (2022) is a 12ft mixed-media image of Oba Ovonramwen, ruler of the Benin Kingdom who went into exile after the 1897 razing and looting of Benin City by British forces. The Oba's traditional gown, headdress and accessories were made in Ehikhamenor's Lagos studio from thousands of orange, red and white rosary beads. Hanging on the gown are miniature Benin bronze ornament masks, a nod to the theft by the British of these precious cultural and religious artefacts; the artist cast them in Benin with traditional bronze-casters. The background is made of thousands of white rosaries that glow in the dark.

Works such as "Still Standing" aim to open a dialogue about how African cultural and religious knowledge was affected by the colonial project. Commissioned as part of a series that asked artists to respond to monuments in St Paul's Cathedral, London, the work was displayed next to the memorial brass of Harry Rawson, the British admiral who led the 1897 Benin expedition. It has now been acquired by the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, which last year agreed in principle to return its own collection of Benin bronzes to Nigeria.

In "The world is not what exists but what happens", 34-year-old Mozambican artist Cassi Namoda paints an almost folkloric image of a small trail of people moving along a formless waterscape, united by the labour of carrying a large, thick cloth. The figures seem to float across the canvas in front of a curvaceous, tangerine-coloured mountain range. The clouds are swaths of coral, caramel, soft pink and sky blue. A tiny blood-red moon hangs at the top right-hand corner of the frame. In the lower half, on the right hand side, is a faint outline of a ladder in the water; perhaps a portal to another realm, an underworld open to the traversing of beings between different realities.

Some of Namoda's work is inspired by Kenyan philosopher, theologian and writer John Mbiti, an ordained Anglican priest. In his seminal 1969 book African Religions and Philosophy, he suggested traditional African religious ideas should be afforded the same level of respect as other global faiths (although he was criticised by some for applying a Christian worldview to African cosmologies).

Mbiti also posited a uniquely African understanding of time, marked by two distinct time periods, the Sasa and the Zamani. Sasa time includes the present and recent past; Zamani time includes the far past and an immeasurable past. According to his book, when a person dies, they remain in Sasa time until the last person who can remember the deceased also dies. Then the person is considered to be in Zamani time.

When I look at Namoda's painting with this concept in mind, I see a lineage of people, connected by a literal fabric of time. Those at the back carry the events of the past, recognising how they affect how the people at the front exist in present time. The two people at the front are covered and immersed in the wide breath of the present, as they move towards a future no one can see.

I think there are gifts in being open to the belief that the way we live our lives in the present can be deeply marked by patterns and behaviours from our ancestral past, suggesting we inherit more from those who came before us than just physical characteristics. It can be empowering to consider that some of our behaviour or ways of living in the world are inherited from our ancestors, offering an opportunity for unlearning and relearning as we make our way through the world.
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As I'm writing this column I'm preparing to go to Sharjah, to view the art at the Sharjah Biennial. One of the things I love about art is how it can challenge our perspectives and invite us to reflect on our allegiances, belief systems and actions.

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Why Are Scientists So Afraid to Call Their Work “Feminist”?

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The idea that researchers can be objective is outdated.

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When Chanda Prescod-Weinstein was a 10-year-old growing up in East Los Angeles, she came across the Errol Morris documentary A Brief History of Time, which chronicled the life of the physicist Stephen Hawking. Watching it, Prescod-Weinstein says, she realized Hawking "was being paid to use math all day to solve problems Einstein hadn't worked out."

For a queer Black Jewish kid from a working-class neighborhood who liked doing math, that seemed like a pretty good deal. "That was really where I got my first taste of the idea that math is kind of like the language of the universe," Prescod-Weinstein told me.

She's now an assistant professor of physics and astronomy at the University of New Hampshire, where she studies dark matter and particle physics. She's also on the core faculty of the university's Women's Studies department - a seemingly unusual combination that hints at the multifaceted approach she brings to her work.

In 2021, Prescod-Weinstein published The Disordered Cosmos: A Journey into Dark Matter, Spacetime, & Dreams Deferred, a wide-ranging book that is both a scientific explainer and an argument that unjust power structures shape the world of physics. She tells stories of subatomic particles like baryons, which are the building blocks of atoms; she critiques a trend she's seen, in which writers compare the mystery and invisibility of dark matter to the lived experiences of Black people. In a chapter called "Rape Is Part of This Scientific Story" - a chapter that grew unexpectedly out of her writing on the dark universe, and that she debated including in the book - she writes about how her own experience of sexual assault shaped her understanding of injustices in her field.

I recently asked Prescod-Weinstein about being one of the few Black women in her field, how concepts from physics apply to our lives, and why dark matter is a complicated metaphor. She spoke to me from her home office in New Hampshire, at a desk covered with books, notepads, and at least two figurines of Star Trek 's Lieutenant Commander Uhura. Our conversation has been edited for length and clarity.
Early in your book, you write that particle physics continues to teach you that "the universe is always more bizarre and more wonderfully queer than we think." How do you see queerness in the universe?
Yeah, I think the universe is weird, man! There are so many things about it that are counterintuitive. What we do in science is exist at the boundary of what humanity understands about the universe, and you try and push that boundary forward. And that means living in the place where things are not known, and that means being confused and asking a lot of questions. So science is really a practice of question asking.

Queerness is just like that. Queerness is living at that boundary of what is known and unknown. There are certain understandings of queerness that in 2021 seem antiquated. And similarly, there were scientific ideas back in 2000 that we know better than now. We know what the mass of the Higgs [boson] is now. We did not know that in 2000. So I think there's a real way in which queerness and science track with each other.
You describe yourself in the book as a "griot of the universe, a storyteller." Could you explain what that means?
Griot is a West African word that I think comes up in a few different languages across the region. As I understand it, it's traditionally a community storyteller and oral historian, and I think that's what I do. I'm a storyteller about the universe. I'm using a very particular language - mathematics - with a set of rules associated with it. But all forms of storytelling have rules that we impose on them.
You write a lot about invisibility - literally, in the case of dark matter, and metaphorically when it comes to the contributions of women, nonbinary folks, and people of color in the field of physics. At one point, you write about physicists who draw a comparison between dark matter and the lived experiences of Black people. Can you talk a bit about that?
I literally have this chapter called "Black People Are Luminous Matter." I have a very clear agenda there that I wanted to hit home. We're not magical Negros. We feel pain. We feel pain just as much as white people do, despite a widespread belief from medical students and doctors.

I wanted to look at our physicality, not as a uniform thing but in its breadth. There are a lot of different ways to be Black. But all of them come from baryons, and none of them come from dark matter.
How are baryons and dark matter different?
When I say baryons, I mean the stuff that everything we can see is generally made of. When I talk about dark matter, I'm talking about this invisible, transparent thing that seems to dominate galaxy structure. But it's literally invisible. It doesn't have a color.
Is there a better metaphor to be found in physics?
Yeah, if you really want a cosmic analogy for race and racism, weak gravitational lensing is much more useful.

Essentially, one of the big lessons of general relativity is that spacetime tells matter how to move, and matter tells spacetime how to curve. So when you have matter in spacetime - say, the sun - the spacetime is being distorted by the presence of that matter. Your spacetime is actually bending. If you get a lot of dark matter together, it can bend light as though it has gone through a funhouse mirror. The light looks like it's coming from one place when it's actually coming from another.

This is called gravitational lensing, and the most fantastical version of it, when you really have a lot of dark matter, is that you can actually see multiple images of a galaxy. There's only one galaxy, but your telescope sees multiple images because the photons are riding on very funny paths. Sometimes it's really dramatic and you see multiple images, and sometimes you just see distortion. The question always is, "Is that gravitational lensing, or is that galaxy just weird?" The way that you figure that out is you do statistics. You look at everything and say, "Are all of these distorted in a way that is consistent?"

I've been a Black Jew around white Jews. It's very easy to be, like, "Are you sure that when that white Jewish professor was asking you if you're really Jewish, it was because you're Black?" But get a bunch of Black Jews together and talk to them about their experiences, and you're like, "Ah, we all seem to experience that same distortion, and how people think it's okay to talk to us." That's systemic. It becomes a lot harder to deny when there's a systemic picture there.

You write about the difficulties of joining the field as one of the few Black woman physicists in the country, and the shame you still feel about your B-minus college average. This really spoke to me - I didn't know cosmology professors have imposter syndrome! How do you keep working through that?
I should say that I don't actually think I have imposter syndrome. We often tell people that they have imposter syndrome when people are correctly identifying: "Oh, I don't belong here." The system is not built for them. And that's correct. There is some fundamental sense in which you do not belong.

Should you feel like you belong? Should the space be a place where you do belong? Yes. But are you wrong for assessing that you don't? No. That means your capacity for analysis is working. I actually think that we need to be telling people that their ability to identify that is actually a sign of competency.
I like that reframing. Throughout the book, you point to scientists assuming their work is free from the messiness of society and politics and history. You show us that culture and society are deeply embedded in physics, but few people are willing to have that conversation. Is that starting to change?
I guess there are two different answers to this question. I feel like things are dramatically different than they were 15 years ago, and I also feel like there's been very little change. I have a chapter on sexual misconduct and specifically the impact it had on my daily life. We're still at the point where whisper networks are essential, and that relies unreasonably on women and other minoritized-gender people to do the labor of sharing information that could cause us professional problems if people find out that they are the ones sharing the information.
This brings to mind the name of another chapter, called "Wages for Scientific Housework."
Absolutely. The victims or survivors, however they see themselves, who come forward do an enormous service to the community. It's an incredible piece of emotional housework and labor to push astronomy to be a better place and safer place. And people who have survived serious incidents of sexual misconduct, myself included, live with an enormous amount of guilt about not naming names in public. But it's really like, do you feel like climbing on a cross or not? Or do you want to have a life and be doing this work? You know, I like math. I still actually really like math. I want to be able to do that in peace, and it seems like this is the more peaceful option than the alternative.
Your book ends with a letter to your mother and a section from the Torah. How do your family and your faith fit into your work?
Until I was 10, I thought being Jewish meant you were a labor organizer, because that was the kind of Jewish family I came from. I know it's super dorky, but it's also 100 percent what I thought, coming from an organizing family. I think their influences imprinted all over the book. I don't think I would be a scientist who thinks so deeply about these social questions if I hadn't been raised to ask all of these questions, and to think expansively about what it means to understand the world. That's not just a mathematical question. It's not just a physical question. It is also a social and a political question.

Correction, January 18, 3:40 pm: A previous version of this article misstated the location of Chanda Prescod-Weinstein's home office. It is in New Hampshire.

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A physicist's lessons about race, power, and the universe

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In her book The Disordered Cosmos, Black queer scientist Chanda Prescod-Weinstein argues that physics can be more universal.

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On 14 July 1960, 26-year-old Jane Goodall arrived by boat to the shores of Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania. Here, in what is now Gombe Stream National Park, her ground-breaking scientific research into chimpanzee behaviour began.

Previously a secretarial student without an undergraduate degree in science, Goodall says she observed her wild subjects with an open mind and without preconceptions. Controversially at the time, she defied convention by giving these chimps names instead of numbers.

One image taken of Goodall during this time captured her fresh approach, challenged the scientific norm and has become one of the world's most recognisable photos.

Her late husband, Dutch photographer Hugo van Lawick, went to Gombe in 1962 where he took thousands of photographs of Goodall. But it was in 1964 that he took what became an iconic photograph of Goodall with an infant chimp known as Flint.

In the photo, Goodall is shown crouching down and reaching out with her right arm to Flint, the first chimp to be born at Gombe after Goodall's arrival, as he extends his left arm up towards her.

As Goodall tells BBC Future, this was long before the era of digital photography, so she had to wait a while before she could see the printed images. "It was couple of months or more before there was a safe way to send exposed rolls to the [National] Geographic for processing, and then another wait while they sent the prints back to Kigoma," she recalls. "When I saw it, though I did not realise it would become iconic, it did make me think of Michelangelo's painting of God reaching out to Man."

The photo of Jane Goodall with infant chimp Flint challenged scientific norms and changed our view of the animal kingdom (Credit: Hugo van Lawick)

The photo, taken in 1964, was first published in National Geographic magazine in December 1965. Another photo of Goodall studying the Gombe chimpanzees was on the front cover and published as part of van Lawick's photo series titled "New Discoveries Among Africa's Chimpanzees". That same year, National Geographic released Miss Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees, the first of many documentaries showcasing Goodall's research.

The photo, along with van Lawick's documentary film People of the Forest: The Chimps of Gombe, "forced science to abandon the idea that humans were the only sentient beings with personalities, minds and emotions" says Goodall, adding that she was taught this as a student at Cambridge University in 1962. "Thus [this image] opened up a whole new way of understanding who animals are and showed that we humans are a part of and not separated from the rest of the animal kingdom."

Goodall was the first person to notice that chimpanzees were stripping down stiff blades of grass, then sticking them into holes in termite mounds to catch and eat these insects. Until then, tool use like this was believed to distinguish humans from all other animals.
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Mark Wright, director of science at conservation charity WWF, says Goodall was "a real trailblazer" in many ways. But this photograph helped people recognise the importance of a female perspective within the scientific research community, he says. "She was a young woman saying that women are equally well-placed to do really first class research in the field.

"Up until then, it had been a pretty male-dominated environment. There then was a succession of high profile women doing this sort of work."

Gilbert M Grosvenor, former chair of the National Geographic Society, has likewise argued that "Goodall's trailblazing path for other women primatologists is arguably her greatest legacy".

"During the last third of the 20th Century, Dian Fossey, Birute Galdikas, Cheryl Knott, Penny Patterson, and many more women have followed her," he wrote in the Jane Goodall Institute's biography of the primatologist."Indeed, women now dominate long-term primate behavioural studies worldwide." (Read more: The woman who redefined mankind).

When the photo was taken in 1964, Goodall was immersed in life at Gombe, beginning to understand the chimps she was studying and slowly building up her observations of their behaviour. This first-hand experience has always been her priority, says Wright. "This photo reminded us that for much of this work, there's no alternative to being in the field. A lot of studies were in zoos or safari parks - you need to get in the field to really understand the natural behaviour. And you have to do that for the long-term, you can't just nip in for a couple of weeks. She reinforced that."

Goodall went to East Africa without any formal qualifications and lived in Gombe for more than two decades, dedicating her life to studying chimps for generations. Wright says this photo relays a powerful message to people who haven't studied science but still want to get involved in research because sometimes, an open mind is the best starting point: "This wasn't someone in a lab coat, she made it relatable. And because she wasn't encumbered by lots of formal training, she could go in as a free thinker and then interpret [what she saw]."

Jane Goodall's research into chimps in Tanzania paved the way for other female primatologists (Credit: Penelope Breese / Getty Images)

Keen to open the world of scientific research up to everyone, Goodall has inspired many people to study primatology in the field. Since 1960, more than 482 scientific research papers and graduate theses about chimpanzee health and behaviour have been published by Gombe Stream Research Center, with hundreds of scientists studying there.

Alongside her vast body of documentary films, books and National Geographic articles, Goodall's photographs with Flint flagged the importance of conserving individual animals. "Previously it was all about saving species - individuals were not important. The scientific thinking changed," says Goodall.

A 2021 review by US anthropologist Michael Lawrence Wilson summarises the many findings of research undertaken at Gombe and reflects on the impact of the chimpanzee research efforts pioneered here by Goodall. "Gombe exemplifies what has become a standard approach for primate field studies: collaborative research, collecting systematic information on identified individuals, followed throughout their entire lives," it concludes.

Today this photo makes Goodall feel nostalgic. "It reminds me of a magical time when I knew each individual chimpanzee as well as members of my family. I watched Flint's development from a tiny infant to a spoilt brat, always supported by his older sister or one of his older brothers if another youngster accidentally (or sometimes deliberately!) hurt him. The image makes me think of those best days of my life," she says.

The closeness between Goodall and Flint in the photograph also reflects the culture at the time, says Wright, noting that scientists now keep further from the animal subjects they are observing. "But she was doing something that hadn't really been done before...I take my hat off to her. Her work was absolutely ground-breaking."

Above all, the picture shows Goodall's genuine love for her subject, Wright says. "There is a warmth and an affection for the species she's studying. There's also a love for Gombe, too - she found her place."

For Goodall, it's her simple connection to Flint that makes this image so captivating. "I suspect it was the appeal of that little infant reaching out so trustingly - a real bond between human and chimpanzee. At least, that is why it is so powerful for me!"
*The Jane Goodall Institute notes that physical contact with wild animals is no longer deemed appropriate and says that it -- Join one million Future fans by liking us on Facebook, or follow us on Twitter or Instagram. "does not endorse handling, interacting or close proximity to chimpanzees or other wildlife".
If you liked this story, sign up for the weekly bbc.com features newsletter, called "The Essential List" - a handpicked selection of stories from BBC Future, Culture, Worklife, Travel and Reel delivered to your inbox every Friday.

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The human-chimp bond captured in an iconic photo

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In 1964, Jane Goodall's husband Hugo van Lawick took a photo of her and an infant chimp reaching out to each other. Decades later, it continues to impact how we view chimpanzees.

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Female scientists are less likely to receive authorship credit or to be named on patents related to the work they do compared with their male counterparts - including in fields such as healthcare, where women dominate - data suggests.

This gender gap may help to explain well-documented disparities in the apparent contributions of male and female scientists - such as that of Rosalind Franklin, whose pivotal contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA initially went unrecognised because she was not cited on the core Nature article byJames Watson and Francis Crick.

"We have known for a long time that women publish and patent at a lower rate than men. But, because previous data never showed who participated in research, no one knew why," said Prof Julia Lane at New York University in the US, who led the new research.

Lane and her colleagues analysed administrative data on research projects conducted at 52 US colleges and universities between 2013 and 2016. They matched information about 128,859 scientists to 39,426 journal articles and 7,675 patents, looking at which people who worked on individual projects received credit and which did not.

The study, also published in Nature, suggests Rosalind Franklin was far from unique in not receiving due credit for her work. It found that, on average, across all job titles and fields, men were around twice as likely to be named on a scientific article or patent by their research team as women.

This gap was seen in female-dominated fields such as health, as well as in male-dominated fields, such as engineering, and was particularly evident during the earliest stages of women's careers. For example, only 15 out of 100 female postgraduates were ever named as an author on a publication, compared with 21 out of 100 of their male peers.

"There is a clear gap between the rate at which women and men are named as co-authors on publications," said Lane. "The gap is strong, persistent, and independent of the research field. I fear that it will deter young women from pursuing science as a career."

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The team also surveyed more than 2,400 published scientists, asking whether they had ever been excluded from a paper to which they had contributed, and why they thought this happened. Of women, 43% reported having been excluded from a publication, compared with 38% of men. The most common explanation was that others had underestimated their contribution, however, women were twice as likely to cite discrimination or bias as an explanation, while men were more likely to say their contributions did not warrant authorship.

Dr Tina Joshi, a lecturer in molecular microbiology at the University of Plymouth, said: "This is a welcome study that highlights the gender disparity many women continue to face in academia. We can continue to address this inequality as an academic community by encouraging dialogue regarding equality, diversity and inclusion, and working together to give all researchers credit for their contributions."

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Female scientists less likely to be given authorship credits, analysis finds

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Disparities extend to lower chance of being named on patents and to areas such as healthcare where women dominate

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I can discuss how the suppression of certain perspectives impacts on how effectively we understand the world

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4.9 Marginalized perspectives | Class presentation (25-26)

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Find out more about the BQ framework here, become a member here, and watch our video about planning your course for the 24-25 academic year below.

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A New Humanist article exploring the role of history in checking modern power

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A New Humanist article exploring the role of history in checking modern power

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Crystal Palace goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey did not know what a Nazi salute was when he was charged with making the offensive gesture, says a Football Association panel.

The regulatory commission has published its written reasons for the decision.

It said Hennessey showed a "lamentable degree of ignorance" about Adolf Hitler, fascism and the Nazi regime.

Hennessey was pictured with his right arm in the air and left hand above his mouth in a photo posted on Instagram by German team-mate Max Meyer after Palace's FA Cup win over Grimsby on 5 January.

Hennessey denied the charge and said any resemblance to the Nazi gesture was "absolutely coincidental".

The charge was found not proven after two members of the three-man panel believed the photograph had been "misinterpreted" and the other said the "only plausible explanation" was that Hennessey made the salute.

Hennessey said he "waved and shouted at the person taking the picture to get on with it" and "put my hand over my mouth to make the sound carry".

He submitted photographs to the panel of him making similar gestures during matches to attract the attention of team-mates.

The panel said Hennessey was "able to corroborate" his explanation with a series of photographs, including one that showed his right arm raised and left hand across his mouth in a "similar way" to the photo posted on Instagram.

Hennessey said "from the outset" of the hearing that he did not know what a Nazi salute was.

"Improbable as that may seem to those of us of an older generation, we do not reject that assertion as untrue," said the panel.

"In fact, when cross-examined about this Mr Hennessey displayed a very considerable - one might even say lamentable - degree of ignorance about anything to do with Hitler, Fascism and the Nazi regime.

"Regrettable though it may be that anyone should be unaware of so important a part of our own and world history, we do not feel we should therefore find he was not telling the truth about this.

"All we would say (at the risk of sounding patronising) is that Mr Hennessey would be well advised to familiarise himself with events which continue to have great significance to those who live in a free country."

The panel said other photographs from the evening showed Hennessey's arm "raised in slightly different but comparable postures" that "at its lowest" demonstrates he was trying to attract the attention of the photographer, Jordan Bussolini.

It said the FA was "entirely justified" in bringing the case but that "rather than giving a Nazi salute, we think it more likely that Mr Hennessey was, as he says, trying to shout at and to catch the attention of the waiter."

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Crystal Palace goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey did not know what a Nazi salute was when he was charged with making the offensive gesture, says a Football Association panel. The regulatory commission has published its written reasons for the decision. It said Hennessey showed a "lamentable degree of ignorance" about Adolf Hitler, fascism and the Nazi regime.

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I can critically discuss the validity of the claim that “those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”

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2.7 Condemned to repeat the past? | Class presentation (25-26)

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Lesson objective I can understand the different aspects of the TOK exhibition, and how it will be assessed

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EX1 Introducing the TOK exhibition | Class presentation (24-25)

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Lesson objective I can explain the different elements of the TOK course, and how I’ll be assessed at the end of it

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1.2 Taking ownership of TOK | Class presentation (25-26)