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A place for discussion about Irish history. Make sure to familiarize yourself with our rules and guidelines BEFORE participating. We invite you…

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Scipt from The Lion, the witch and the wardrobe

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Ellis Island  island of hope or island of tears

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MoMA is a place that fuels creativity, ignites minds, and provides inspiration. Its extraordinary exhibitions and collection of modern and contemporary art are dedicated to helping you understand and enjoy the art of our time. Caption: The Museum of Modern Art Renovation and Expansion Designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro in collaboration with Gensler. Photography by Iwan Baan, Courtesy of MoMA

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Over 5,000 years of art from around the world.

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Closed Thanksgiving Day, December 25, January 1, and the first Monday in May.

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The Met presents over 5,000 years of art from around the world for everyone to experience and enjoy.

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There are no other cities in North America that have as many iconic, must-try-at-least-once-in-your-life dishes. But that's New York City for you. But how did these famous foods from New York begin?

New York is a city of immigrants. And the dishes that have become associated with it are largely related to immigration patterns. It's no surprise that bagels, pastrami, and hot dogs were early versions of iconic Big Apple fare. Since the wave of people who immigrated here 120 or so years ago were from Central and Eastern Europe. It's also no coincidence that food that later became highly connected to Gotham City, like, say, General Tso's Chicken, reflects the wave of people who later immigrated here from Asia.

In 50 years, there will be a new wave of iconic dishes in New York that reflect early-21st-century immigration patterns too.

And so here is a list of the most famous foods from New York and where to eat the. Most of them are decidedly old school. But there are a few newer foods that became instant classics and are impossible to ignore.

Bagel with cream cheese and lox

The bagel is widely associated with New York. Specifically, New York Jewish eating culture. It is said that Polish Jews brought bagels with them when they immigrated to New York starting at the end of the 19th century. It didn't take long for New Yorkers to embrace the bagel. By 1900, people were indulging in what was called the "Bagel brunch," a combo that includes cream cheese, lox, capers, tomato, and red onions all stacked up on a bagel. Today the bagel is an integral part of the culinary fabric of New York City.

Where to eat it: Discussing which place in New York makes the best bagel is a way to start a fight on the streets of the city. But some of the best-known and best-liked bagel places include Tompkins Square Bagels in the East Village, Murray's Bagels in Greenwich Village, Sadelle's in Soho, and Russ & Daughters on the Lower East Side.

Cheesecake

Cake with cheese in it has been around for as long as anyone can remember. But the New York-style cheesecake, the kind that has become the de rigueur version, was reportedly first created in 1872 in the town of Chester, NY. Others claim that German immigrant Arnold Reuben invented it in 1929 and put it on the menu of his Midtown restaurant. And yes, this is the same Reuben who also created the eponymous sauerkraut-and-pastrami sandwich, now called The Reuben.
Whatever the case, cheesecake, which is gobs of egg yolk-spiked cream cheese on a cookie crust, is firmly planted in the New York City food domain.

Where to eat it: Junior's, a Downtown Brooklyn eatery since 1950, is nearly synonymous with New York-style cheesecake.

Chopped Cheese Sandwich

Made on a grill, the chopped cheese is ground beef, onion, tomato, and melted cheese and then put in a hero roll. The sandwich possibly originated at a bodega in East Harlem called Hajji's Deli, but there is no consensus. It is also on sandwich boards in upper Manhattan, the Bronx, and Queens. Around the middle of the last decade, some hipster food bloggers "discovered" the chopped cheese and suddenly the city's foederati were gravitating to northern Manhattan to try it. It wasn't long after, that the chopped cheese could be found on menus in newly opened hipster restaurants in Brooklyn. It was even recently seen at a sandwich shop in Belgrade, Serbia.

Where to eat it: Blue Sky Deli, the bodega also known as Hajji's Deli, on E. 110th Street and First Avenue, would be the first place to start.

Insider's tip: In the Bronx? Make sure to check out our top picks for restaurants in the Bronx!

In the Spring of 2013, at his eponymous SoHo bakery, French pastry wizard Dominique Ansel revolutionized the pastry world. That's when he got the idea to marry the croissant and the doughnut. With that, the cronut, the Frankenstein of pastries, was born. And what an oh-so-delicious union it has been since. The curious and the hungry lined up every morning, as the queue would perpetually snake around the block until a bakery employee would make the disappointing announcement that they were sold out for the day. The lines are much shorter today but there are still queues for the cronut. Bakers around the world tried to copy it, but the best is the original. So wake up early, point yourself to SoHo and join the line.

Where to eat it: Dominique Ansel Bakery on Spring Street near Thompson Street opens at 8 am Monday to Saturday and 9 am on Sundays.

Dirty Water Dog

The utilitarian hot dog first appeared on the streets of New York City in the 1860s, sold by German immigrants, under the name "dachshund sausages." Soon enough, carts selling this tubular meat in a bun popped up all around the city and became a street food staple of the Big Apple. Today, hot dogs compete with kabab carts and food trucks selling pretty much everything. But you can still find karts selling 'dirty water dogs," as they're nicknamed because the frankfurters linger in a tray of hot water until ordered.

Where to eat it: look for the blue-and-yellow umbrellas on busy street corners or go to Papaya Dog on Sixth Avenue and West 4th Street in the West Village.

Egg and Cheese on a Roll

Like the chopped cheese, the egg and cheese on a roll is a bodega or deli sandwich. Unlike the chopped cheese, though, this one is nearly ubiquitous. Add bacon to this morsel of morning deliciousness and the name becomes a BEC (bacon, egg, and cheese). You can choose how you want your egg cooked but the default is scrambled. A proper BEC should have meat, cheese, and egg in every bite.

Where eat it: Pretty much any and every bodega and deli in the five boroughs of New York City.

General Tso's Chicken

This fried, sticky sweet chicken dish first appeared in the Chinese region of Hunan before the chef fled to Taiwan and established himself there. In the late 1960s or early '70s, a chef from Shun Lee Palace in New York City traveled to Taiwan to find some new recipes, and there he apparently discovered General Tso's chicken. He sweetened the recipe a bit to conform to American tastes and put it on the menu at Shun Lee. Slowly, news spread of this sweet and sticky chicken dish named after a 19th-century Hunanese general. General Tso's chicken is now on nearly every menu of every Chinese restaurant in America and Shun Lee Palace in New York played a major part in popularizing it.

Where to eat it: Shun Lee Palace is still open and still serving General Tso's chicken, the dish it popularized all over the United States and beyond. Alternatively, Jiang's Kitchen in the East Village serves up a very good version of it too.

Mutton Chop

In 1885 one Albert Keen opened up a steakhouse in Manhattan's Garment District and named it after himself. The restaurant became famous as a pipe depository. Regular patrons could exercise their masculinity by smoking away at their pipes while feasting on red meat. And the restaurant would keep their pipes until their next visit. Regulars included Babe Ruth, Albert Einstein, and Theodore Roosevelt. Today over 50,000 pipes hang from the ceiling.

But that's not really the reason why Keen's is perpetually packed. Even though it's technically called "Keens Steakhouse," the mutton chop here has become a signature dish and one of the most iconic food items in the city. First-timers or twenty-first-timers should order it-just don't ask for your pipe.

Where to eat it: Keens Steakhouse, of course, located on West 36th Street near Sixth Avenue.

Pastrami on Rye

According to Big Apple lore, pastrami first appeared in New York City in the late 19th century when a Lithuanian man named Sussman Volk served it at a restaurant. He was originally offered the recipe by a Romanian friend as a way of paying him back for a favor. What no one knew at the time was that this Romanian technique of curing meat would become a New York City staple. This tender, seasoned, brined, and smoked brisket is now New York City to the core.

Where to eat it: the obvious place is the famed Lower East Side spot, Katz's Deli. Alternatively, Pastrami Queen on the Upper East Side is excellent too.

Insider's tip: Sanwich lovers, rejoice! We've compiled a list of the very best sandwiches in NYC.

Pizza slice

New York-style pizza evolved from Neapolitan pizza, which was brought here by southern Italian immigrants starting in the latter half of the 19th century. One of those pizza-making immigrants was Gennaro Lombardi who opened an eponymous pizzeria in Little Italy in 1905, possibly the oldest pizzeria in the United States. Another one, was his employee, Totonno Per0 who opened his own (also eponymous) pizzeria in Coney Island in 1924.

Unlike Naples, which cooks its pizza in a wood-fired brick oven, Lombardi and Totonno defined New York pizza by cooking it in a gas-lit oven, thus giving the dough-base of the pizza a crispier texture. And the fact that they started slicing the pies, which was unusual in Naples, also set it apart from other types of pizza in Italy. Whatever the case, New York-style pizza was born.

Where to eat it: Lombardi's and Totonno's are still open and going strong (they only do whole pies, by the way). Joe's Pizza, located in Greenwich Village, makes a superior slice. (There are a few locations around the city but the original, Greenwich Village location is the best.)

In 2004, a young unknown but accomplished chef named David Chang opened up his first restaurant in New York's East Village. Momofuku Noodle Bar was a Korean-Japanese mashup serving excellent ramen and sauteed rice cakes. But there was one dish that drove palates into a frenzy: the pork buns. Two thick fatty slices of slow-roasted pork belly, a few squirts of hoisin sauce, a couple of slices of cured cucumber, and then all assembled onto a soft steamed bun. The result is heaven for the taste buds.

Chang, of course, didn't invent the pork bun but he pretty much perfected it. You can now find pork buns on menus all over the city but if you want the best, you have to go to Momofuku Noodle Bar. The pork buns are so popular, that they don't even list them on the menu anymore. You just have to ask for it.

Where to eat it: Momofuku Noodle Bar is located in the East Village at First Avenue near East 10th Street. There is also a newer location on the third floor of the Shops at Columbus Circle on the southwest corner of Central Park.

Porterhouse Steak

New York City is a steakhouse town. And the porterhouse cut of meat is the quintessential steakhouse steak. It's first dry-aged for 28 days. Upon ordering, the hunk of meat is placed in a broiler until the desired temperature is achieved (hopefully, medium rare). It's rested and then cut before the theater begins as the plate of sizzling steak is presented to the table. It's a very New York experience.

Where to eat it: Steakhouses are sprinkled around the city but the most New York-y New York steakhouse is Peter Luger.

Soup Dumplings

Soup dumplings, or xiao long bao in Mandarin, are a culinary miracle. Upon hearing "soup dumplings" you might envision a bowl of soup with dumplings bobbing in the broth. Nope. It's the other way around. The dumplings, usually filled with crab and pork, actually encase the broth as well. Hailing from Changzhou, located in southern China (but very much associated with Shanghai), xiao long bao became popular in New York around the turn of the millennium by the Chinatown restaurant Joe's Shanghai. They've since become a staple at Chinatown restaurants and everyone should eat them at least once.

Where to it: Joe's Shanghai might be the obvious starting point. But Pinch Chinese in SoHo, Red Farm in the West Village and Upper West Side, and Nan Xiang Xiao Long Bao and Kung Fu Xiao Long Bao, both in the Chinatown in Flushing, Queens are making superior soup dumplings these days.
Explore the rich cultural heritage and turbulent history of New York through iconic family-run eateries and their foods on our Lower East Side Historical Food Tour. We'll taste a range of different local staples, from those with roots in the 19th century to modern and international treats popular today.

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The Most Famous Foods From New York (and Where to Try Them)

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What are the must-try dishes of New Tork City? We put together the ultimate list of famous foods from New York.

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The Second World War brought many changes to the lives of children in Britain. For some, the war was a time of fear and confusion that meant separation from families, the destruction of a home or even the loss of a parent. However, for others, these years were the most exciting and happiest time of their lives.

Evacuation was the biggest cause of disruption to children's lives. The government's voluntary evacuation scheme saw millions of children in Britain sent to places of safety for fear of German bombing. Many families made their own arrangements to evacuate their children to friends and family in the country or overseas. The short-lived Children's Overseas Reception Board also organised the evacuation of children to Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

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How Children's Lives Changed During The Second World War

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The Second World War brought many changes to the lives of children in Britain. For some, the war was a time of fear and confusion that meant separation from families, the destruction of a home or even the loss of a parent. However, for others, these years were the most exciting and happiest time of their lives.

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Theme From New York, New York (2008 Remastered)

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The Second World War was a time of major upheaval for children in Britain. Over a million were evacuated from towns and cities and had to adjust to separation from family and friends. Here are 11 ways children were affected by the Second World War.

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Check out this video from this search, we shall not surrender winston churchill https://g.co/kgs/CSD1U8c

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File:The Great Dictator (1940) poster.jpg - Wikipedia

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Thomas Lea

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Art of the second world war - Google Arts & Culture

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Google Arts & Culture features content from over 2000 leading museums and archives who have partnered with the Google Cultural Institute to bring the world’s treasures online.

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Franklin Roosevelt - Fireside Chat #1, On the Banking Crisis (1933)-(480p)

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Dorothea Lange's most famous photography:

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Dorothea Lange's most famous photography:

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Of Mice and Men: Historical Context Essay: The Great Depression | SparkNotes

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Explanation of how real-world social and political events influenced John Steinbeck and shaped the ideas and characters in Of Mice and Men.

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Since 2020 Americans have lived through extraordinary sociopolitical events: Black Lives Matter protests erupted across the country in response to the murder of George Floyd; far-right activists stormed the Capitol, incited by Donald Trump's false claim that the presidential election had been stolen from him; labor organizers Chris Smalls and Derrick Palmer achieved the seemingly impossible task of establishing a union for warehouse workers at the corporate juggernaut Amazon; and Joe Biden's administration passed the largest federal climate legislation in the country's history-all while COVID-19 upended millions of lives across the United States.

Though these circumstances might feel unprecedented, in many ways they mirror the conditions that characterized the 1930s. The decade was defined by the Great Depression, which resulted from the stock market crash of 1929-the worst crisis the nation had experienced since the Civil War. While American visual culture has always been suffused with ideology, cultural production in the 1930s represents an exceptional range of political messaging. Widely circulated prints, posters, and magazine illustrations advocated for labor unions and communist and socialist causes; propaganda for President Franklin D. Roosevelt's controversial New Deal solicited support for its relief programs, which were designed to revive the economy; and several world's fairs communicated values of technological innovation, American imperialism, and capitalism through the work of architects and designers.

The Works Progress Administration (WPA)-a New Deal agency established in 1935 to bring jobs to the unemployed, including artists-aimed to make and distribute "art for the millions" in order to engineer a more cultured, educated, and refined citizenry. While the exact number of people who encountered the art of the WPA is impossible to measure, it is unquestionable that millions of Americans consumed an array of complex and conflicting political messages between the output of the agency and the broader visual world around them.

Leftist Politics and Labor

At the height of the Depression in 1933, nearly 13 million people-roughly 25 percent of the total workforce-were unemployed. This dire situation ignited a militant labor movement led by organizers with left-leaning politics who drew attention to low pay and harsh working conditions. Artists across the country centered the plight of the proletariat in their work and joined activist groups associated with the American Communist Party (CPUSA) that advocated for better protections for workers.

Some artists-particularly a loose group known as the Precisionists, working primarily before the stock market crash-treated industrial machinery and the plants that housed them as objects of fascination and wonder. After the onset of the economic downturn, however, wage workers were placed front and center. Images that pitted industrial machines against people invoked Karl Marx's theory of exploitation under capitalism, as in communist artist Hugo Gellert's illustrations for a condensed 1934 edition of Das Kapital. In one, a woman and a young boy are bound at the wrists to oversize cogs in a scene that conjures the Crucifixion, with the vulnerable sacrificed in the name of capitalism. In another, a muscular fist breaks through a mass of mechanical parts, conquering the machine-enemy.

Tens of thousands of artists found work through the Federal Art Project (FAP) and related initiatives that operated under the aegis of the WPA. Communal WPA workshops cropped up across the country, where workshop instructors introduced legions of artists to printmaking. The public encountered these prints at WPA-organized exhibitions, and, as official government property, they were donated to or placed on long-term loan at various museums, libraries, and other public institutions across the United States after the close of the WPA in the early 1940s.

Printmaking became the medium of choice among activist artists due in large part to its capacity for producing multiple impressions of the same image, enabling them to disseminate their political messages to a broader audience. Many WPA prints featured idealized images of people at work and engaged the accessible style and sociopolitical subject matter of social realism. One powerful example is Elizabeth Olds's screenprint (1942), which depicts a lone figure in a helmet and overalls from the chest up, his head tilted slightly against a bare background. Olds's focused treatment imbues her subject with an air of dignity and valor.

While women and people of color often faced barriers in hiring, visibility, and equal treatment in the art world, the WPA provided many with unprecedented access to art-making and exhibition opportunities. Though aspects of the hiring practices and management of the FAP were also undoubtedly discriminatory, its top administrators made efforts to establish egalitarian environments that could be held up as evidence of its alignment with the Roosevelt administration's democratic values. Jacob Lawrence spoke fondly of the progress made for artists in the 1930s decades later, at a roundtable discussion titled " The Black Artist in America" convened at The Met in response to the backlash against its controversial 1968 exhibition Harlem on My Mind. He described it as a time when "we'll find that some of the greatest progress, economic, professional, and so on, was made . . . by the greatest number of artists-not only Negro artists but white ones as well. The greatest exposure for the greatest number of people came during this period of government involvement in the arts."

Despite the increased presence of women in the arts, images focusing on women's paid labor were scarce. Riva Helfond was a seasoned printmaker when she joined the WPA, first as an instructor at the Harlem Community Art Center and later as an artist in the Graphic Arts Division of the New York City FAP. Her print Curtain Factory (ca. 1936-39), which depicts fatigued workers, is a rare example. She had worked in textile factories and experienced firsthand the physical strain of the work, conveyed here through the downward curves of the workers' bodies. Although scenes of women performing in cabarets and clubs were common, few artists approached them from the perspective of feminized labor. One exception is Olds, whose (1936) presents the bodies of female performers on stage in a serialized formation that conjures an assembly line while male viewers gaze longingly from below.

While laborers of color were frequently depicted alongside white ones in prints by white artists, prints centering workers of color are rare. One reason for this scarcity likely relates to the persistence of racial discrimination in the workforce and the labor unions that emerged as a major presence in the thirties. Workers of color came up against numerous barriers, from discriminatory hiring processes to being denied adequate training or educational opportunities; they were also often denied union membership. Dox Thrash, one of the era's most prominent and innovative Black printmakers, was characterized as staunchly anti-union by his fellow workshop artist Claude Clark. But Thrash also experienced the effects of labor discrimination throughout his career, having been shut out of so-called skilled positions until he was employed by the FAP-experiences that might have reinforced his opposition to the labor movement.

Whatever his political leanings, Thrash depicted scenes of leftist activity, as in Untitled (Strike) (ca. 1940), a watercolor rendering of a Black organizer surrounded by a crowd of figures carrying protest signs. A placard to the organizer's left references the landmark Scottsboro Boys trial, in which nine Black youths were falsely accused of raping two white women in Alabama in 1931. To his right, a man and a woman peer out of the window of a nearby building; the woman laughs as she looks toward the man, who covers his face with his hand-a gesture that may have reflected Thrash's own feelings toward the labor strike.

Communist newspapers, magazines, and journals offered artists opportunities to advance their messaging through vivid illustrations. The communist periodical incorporated the visual arts in its pages more than any other leftist publication of the period; in addition to political cartoons and drawings, the magazine reproduced social realist prints and paintings whose themes were aligned with its messaging. One particularly memorable cover by Jacob Burck presents a caricature of a capitalist-an embodiment of the worker's opposition-who drools onto his rounded stomach as he prepares to consume a large steak and a martini, signaling the radicals' association of capitalism with gluttony and greed. From 1929 to 1931 the masthead credited the artists alongside the writers as "contributing editors," with prominent figures such as Stuart Davis, Adolf Dehn, Gellert, Louis Lozowick, and John Sloan helping to shape the magazine's content.

New York, where New Masses and other prominent communist publications were based, was home to a thriving community of Yiddish-speaking Jews with leftist political leanings. The monthly magazine Der Hammer ("The Hammer") often featured political cartoons by William Gropper, a Jewish artist born to Romanian and Ukrainian immigrants. Gropper was instrumental in forging a graphic, easily legible style that celebrated the proletariat and condemned capitalism-often equating it with fascism-in illustrations targeted at a Yiddish-speaking audience. For radical artists such as Gropper, the press served as a vital means for the dissemination of their work, enabling it to reach a larger public beyond the confines of museum and gallery walls.

Cultural Nationalism(s)

For many facing unprecedented hardship, their American identity offered solace and provided a sense of belonging and pride in democracy. In the cultural sector, this wave of nationalism took the form of a question: What exactly is "American" about American art? Artists and other cultural practitioners sought to define the contours of an art tradition that was specific to the United States and distinguished from that of anywhere else-particularly Europe. Paintings, sculptures, photographs, prints, dances, films, garments, and decorative art objects evoked the American landscape, depicted themes from the country's history, and reflected the traditions of the innumerable ethnicities represented in the population.

Modernist artists sought inspiration in craft traditions of the United States in order to create a distinctly American mode of art. Charles Sheeler was an avid collector of antique American furniture, which he began incorporating into his paintings beginning in the late 1920s. In (1931), one in a series of seven paintings depicting the interior of his home in South Salem, New York, Sheeler harnessed and accentuated the pared-down, minimalist designs of his furniture to create a modernist composition marrying flat, unmodulated planes of color with striking abstract patterns.

Georgia O'Keeffe similarly looked to craft traditions of the United States while living in northern New Mexico. Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue (1931), one of the first of numerous paintings based on animal bones the artist encountered and collected in the region, contains several references to the Indigenous peoples of the Southwest. The cow skull resembles the animal masks worn by the Pueblo people in ceremonial dances; its protruding horns also recall the crosses that decorate the Hispano Catholic churches of northern New Mexico. The abstracted, undulating composition conjures Navajo blankets found throughout the region, and the color palette evokes the American flag-explicitly connecting the practices and products of the Indigenous cultures of the Southwest to an American art tradition.

While O'Keeffe's paintings were firmly grounded in the cultures of northern New Mexico, the lack of figures and concrete references to the region's inhabitants, coupled with the artist's "priestess of the desert" persona, perpetuated the idea that the Southwest was an untouched, secluded region. Scholar Patricia Marroquin Norby attributes this perception to the omission of the experiences of O'Keeffe's Native American and Hispano neighbors in her work, despite career success predicated on their contributions and support. Read within this context, the merging of Indigenous Southwest and nationalist American identities performed in Cow's Skull points to the ways in which the search for an "authentic" national arts tradition often occluded the perspectives of marginalized groups.

What exactly is "American" about American art?Several Indigenous artists from New Mexico did attain acclaim and monetary success during the 1930s. Arguably the best known was Tonita Peña (Quah Ah in her native Tewa), who was born in San Ildefonso Pueblo and moved to Cochiti Pueblo to live with her aunt and uncle, both pottery artists. An enterprising artist, she created hundreds of genre paintings for the art market, focusing on Pueblo dances that were open to the public. The precision and detail enabled by watercolor and gouache-techniques that gained popularity among contemporary Pueblo artists during the late 1920s and early 1930s-endowed Peña's paintings with a documentary style that reinforced their appearance as records of observed events. The untouched background of Pueblo Parrot Dance (ca. 1935) is a common compositional strategy in the artist's paintings that draws focus to the figures. As scholars have recently suggested, it might also be a representational tactic related to a specific understanding of the world. When a dance is performed, the sacred site of the dance and the landscape that surrounds it is activated; by leaving the backgrounds blank, Peña essentially neutralized the space that the figures occupy, reflecting her adherence to Pueblo values.

Another successful Pueblo artist of the period was Velino Shije Herrera (Ma Pe Wi), from Zia Pueblo, who was hired by the School of American Research in Santa Fe to create paintings of Pueblo ceremonies. Along with Peña, he became a major figure in the development of the watercolor movement, creating works that feature Pueblo subjects in which the figures-for instance, men on horseback hunting deer-are rendered in meticulous detail against a neutral background. Peña and Herrera exemplify the negotiations many Native American artists made between adhering to longstanding modes of art production and adapting aspects of their practices to appeal to the tastes of European American collectors during the 1930s.

The interest in the Southwest among artists and collectors was part of a larger trend of locating an "authentic" American art tradition in the landscapes and cultures of locales outside major metropolises. The Regionalists -of whom Thomas Hart Benton, John Steuart Curry, and Grant Wood are the best known-claimed the rural, agrarian terrain as well as the inhabitants of the Midwest as subjects evocative of American values of hard work, self-reliance, and simplicity. Their stance that the Main Streets of small-town America constituted the "real" America presaged the rhetorical refrains of present-day politics on both the left and right.

Stylistically, the Regionalists tended to work in an easily legible manner marked by fluid compositions and dynamically posed figures. Many were commissioned to create prints for organizations that strove to make fine-art collecting accessible to the middle class and expand the market for American art, such as the Associated American Artists (AAA), which sold prints at accessible price points primarily through mail-order campaigns, at department stores, and at its galleries. The AAA and regional print clubs contributed to an interest in modernism and the dissemination of Regionalist ideology, with its association of American values with images of the heartland, to a large swath of the public. Benton's Approaching Storm (1940) was commissioned by the Print Club of Cleveland, which distributed impressions of the lithograph to its members in 1940. Here, in an image typical of the artist's mature work, a farmer glances up toward the dark roiling clouds in the sky as he makes his way home, barely visible in the distance.

Whose American Story?

In their efforts to forge a national arts tradition during a time of upheaval, artists also turned to heroes and events from U.S. history to which they ascribed ideals of democracy and freedom. One example is the nineteenth-century white abolitionist John Brown, whose image permeated the art world of the 1930s. Curry honored him in a monumental painting, which served as a preparatory work for a mural in the rotunda of the Kansas State Capitol, as well as a print commissioned by the AAA, further cementing the image's iconic status.

Charles White sought to lay the groundwork for a more inclusive narrative of the nation's history by centering the contributions of Black Americans. In 1942 he received a fellowship to make The Contribution of the Negro to Democracy in America for the Hampton Institute (now Hampton University) in Virginia. The mural was one of four on aspects of African American history that the painter worked on between 1939 and 1943. In conceiving the mural's composition, White conducted thorough research on significant historical Black leaders of abolition, resistance, and cultural uplift, including Sojourner Truth and Booker T. Washington. The mural's political resonance and arrangement of layered and overlapping figures were most directly inspired by the work of Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, commonly known as los tres grandes-"the big three"-of the Mexican muralism movement that began in the early 1920s.

Marsden Hartley was keen to commemorate people who made an impact on the country's cultural heritage, particularly as he reflected on his own artistic influences toward the end of his career. His 1938 portrait of Albert Pinkham Ryder speaks to the preoccupation of American artists of the 1930s with those of earlier generations; Ryder had garnered a reputation for being a mystic-like hermit during his lifetime and was revered by younger artists such as Hartley, who credited him with developing a distinctly American approach to landscape painting, characterized by a dark, moody palette, abstracted forms, and thick impasto surfaces. Hartley's tender portrait, which is based on an encounter with Ryder in New York several decades early, evokes the imagery of religious icons, with the figure of Ryder seeming to glow against a dark background.

Documenting the United States

Some of the most celebrated images of the 1930s were not the sentimentalizing, romantic visions of the past and present that permeated the visual culture of the period but rather ones that captured everyday life. Photojournalism was reinvigorated with the introduction of the photo essay, which was meant to present impartial reportage of newsworthy events. At the same time, documentary-style photography representing a more subjective viewpoint experienced a resurgence thanks in large part to Roy Emerson Stryker, who headed the photography program of the Farm Security Administration (FSA), a New Deal agency that combated poverty in rural areas. Stryker hired Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, Arthur Rothstein, and others to photograph the communities served by the FSA with the aim of promoting the agency's raison d'être and persuading the masses of its importance.

The impact of the photo essay is the subject of an editors' note in the first issue of Life magazine in 1936. Referring to Margaret Bourke-White's photograph of the newly constructed Fort Peck Dam in Montana that graced the cover and others by her that captured construction along the Columbia River, they wrote, "What the Editors expected-for use in some later issue-were construction pictures as only Bourke-White can take them. What the Editors got was a human document of American frontier life which, to them at least, was a revelation." Bourke-White was, notably, the highest-paid photographer of the era.

While Bourke-White celebrated American technological ingenuity in her photographs, documentary photographers often used their camera as a tool to instigate social change. Many of Evans's most celebrated images were for Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), a book he made in collaboration with James Agee, who had been assigned to write an article on cotton tenant farming by Fortune magazine. The two friends traveled around the South in 1936, with Evans creating arresting photographs of the farmers and their families, such as the Burroughs, whom he encountered in Hale County, Alabama. The editors at Fortune stipulated that Evans photograph white farmers only, despite the fact that the vast majority of tenant farmers in the South were Black.

In contrast to Fortune, the FSA sent Rothstein to photograph the African American sharecropping community of Gee's Bend, Alabama, in 1937, which resulted in a series of striking portraits. In one, which was later reproduced in Richard Wright's 12 Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States (1941), the members of a large family representing a range of ages stand on the site of the former plantation. Perhaps because more Black artists were accepted into New Deal printmaking workshops than into its photography programs, the prints of the period offer more scenes showing the widespread poverty of Black communities in the South during the Jim Crow era than its photographs. One extraordinary example is Hale Woodruff's linocut View of Atlanta (1935), made while the artist worked for the WPA. It depicts a woman climbing a rickety set of stairs before a row of dilapidated houses. Despite the precarity of the architecture around her, she exudes a sense of sturdiness and determination as she ascends the stairs in a pair of high-heeled shoes.

The Promise of Progress

Even, or especially, as the Depression engendered a period of unprecedented financial strife, the promise of progress infiltrated American culture. This fixation with the United States' technological and industrial prowess is most evident in the period's prevailing design trends. In the fields of graphic, industrial, and architectural design, stylistic approaches, techniques, and materials were imbued with values of innovation and modernization. Everyday people experienced these new visual modes through the posters they encountered on the streets, the magazines they read, the domestic and decorative art objects that adorned their homes, and the buildings in which they lived, worked, and shopped. The dissemination of a new, futurist aesthetic among the masses was not accidental but rather part of a larger ideological program intended to "elevate" the tastes of middle-class people, in much the same way that the government sought to give rise to a more cultivated citizenry through exposure to art produced under the WPA.

Arguably the most influential trend to emerge in the United States in the thirties was streamline, a style developed by the country's first generation of industrial designers. Streamlined design has commonalities with Art Deco, which originated in Europe, but differs in its emphasis on speed. The industrial materials of glass and chrome in an electric clock that Gilbert Rohde designed for Herman Miller are quintessentially streamlined, as is the evocation of dynamic movement in the dramatic diagonal thrust of its support. While Art Deco marked architecture, housewares, and jewelry, streamlining was applied primarily to the mass-produced industrial products that emerged in the late twenties.

Newly invented home radio receivers offered industrial designers an opportunity to package unattractive masses of electronic components into compositions that were appealing and accessible to the consumer public. In 1937 the Zenith Radio Corporation issued "Radio Nurse," a baby monitor that transmitted sounds from the nursery to a separate receiver called "Guardian Ear," both designed by Isamu Noguchi. Made of Bakelite dyed a deep brown evocative of wood, the monitor is a domestic product endowed with the look of modernist sculpture. Norman Bel Geddes, one of the founders of the streamlined aesthetic, designed his iconic "Patriot" radio for Emerson Radio Corporation, a leading manufacturer of portable and tabletop radios, around 1940. With its star-engraved knobs, row of horizontal stripes, and red, white, and blue color scheme, "Patriot" encapsulates the convergence of nationalism, technological advancement, and consumerism that marked the era.

Doris Lee's Catastrophe (1936) provides an explicit yet whimsical indictment of the ambitious race to construct towering buildings and soaring aircrafts. A dirigible has burst into flames above the Manhattan skyline, hovering in the air as figures with parachutes descend onto the banks of the Hudson River. Lee, a painter and successful commercial artist known for her humor and feminist politics, completed this prescient vision just a few months before the Hindenburg disaster. Indeed, a Time magazine article from June 1937 reported that when the artist was painting "the Manhattan skyline last August, she saw the Hindenburg fly over and imagined how it would look if it exploded." Viewed through the lens of Lee's feminism, Catastrophe can also be read as a critique of the power-hungry impulses that drove technological advances associated with masculinity. The work also seems to prophesy the tragic extreme to which these impulses would be taken almost a decade later with the introduction of the atomic bomb.

Outside the country's urban centers, many Americans in agrarian areas were experiencing electricity for the first time. Until 1932 only about ten percent of the rural United States had electricity, and bringing it to the rest of the country became one of FDR's key infrastructure plans. Rather than build power systems, his administration established the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) to lend funds to electric cooperatives run by local farming communities. The REA hired advisers to travel around the country demonstrating the uses of electricity in what they called "electric circuses," and artists like Lester Beall to design screenprinted posters to advertise the agency. Following in FDR's footsteps decades later, President Barack Obama tasked the Rural Utilities Services (which had absorbed the REA) with extending Internet access into rural areas as part of his economic recovery plan following the 2008 recession. Obama invoked aspirational New Deal rhetoric in his statement that the initiative wasn't "just about a faster Internet or being able to find a friend on Facebook," but "about connecting every corner of America to the digital age."

The world's fairs of the 1930s celebrated American exceptionalism through spectacle. At the Chicago fair of 1933-34 and New York fair of 1939-40 alone, roughly eighty million visitors experienced patriotic propaganda in exhibitions, at performances, and through fair ephemera. As historian Robert W. Rydell has elucidated, governments have historically mounted world's fairs and expositions during moments of upheaval, and the fairs of the thirties were no exception. The vast funds and resources that the government and corporate sponsors poured into these events were a vote of faith in their ability to boost public morale.

Augusta Savage's Lift Every Voice and Sing (The Harp), a large sculptural ode to the " Black National Anthem " by her friend James Weldon Johnson and his brother John Rosamond Johnson, was ultimately one of the most popular attractions at the New York World's Fair. The sixteen-foot sculpture, which resided in the court of the Contemporary Arts Building, was unfortunately destroyed when the fair closed in 1940 and survives today in the form of small-scale replicas resembling the maquette Savage presented to Grover Whalen, the president of the New York World's Fair Corporation. The fairs distilled a complex, often contradictory set of values that political and corporate figures in power strove to project to the public and that permeated American visual culture over the course of the decade: that consumerism and moderation, tradition and innovation, and imperialism and cultural tolerance merged to form the core of American identity.

Marquee: Harry Gottlieb (American, born Romania, 1895-1992). Rock Drillers, 1939. Screenprint, 171/2 × 151/4 in. (44.5 × 38.7 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of New York City W.P.A., 1943 (43.33.946)

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The Art of the Great Depression - The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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How did a decade of unprecedented financial strife, radical social upheaval, and technological innovation shape art and cultural identity in the United States?

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On this Page:

1. Selected Works

2. Activity: Respond and Relate

3. Activity: Political Expressions and Social Justice

4. Activity: The Art of Everyday

5. Activity: WPA-Era Art in Your Community

6. Additional Resources

"Art in America has always belonged to the people and has never been the property of an academy or a class. . . . The Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration is a practical relief project which also emphasizes the best tradition of the democratic spirit. The WPA artist, in rendering his own impression of things, speaks also for the spirit of his fellow countrymen everywhere. I think the WPA artist exemplifies with great force the essential place which the arts have in a democratic society such as ours."

-Franklin Delano Roosevelt, " Radio Dedication of the Museum of Modern Art, New York City," May 10, 1939.
Does art "work" or have a purpose? How? Is making art a form of work? Make your argument for why or why not. Franklin Delano Roosevelt stated that art in America has never been the sole province of a select group or class of people. Do you agree or disagree? Define what you think Roosevelt meant by "the democratic spirit." How do you think art can represent democratic values?
The Great Depression spanned the years 1929 to about 1939, a period of economic crisis in the United States and around the world. High stock prices out of sync with production and consumer demand for goods caused a market bubble that burst on October 24, 1929, the famous "Black Thursday" stock market crash. The severity of the market contraction affected Americans across the country. The most visible effects included widespread unemployment, homelessness, and a marked decrease in Americans' standard of living. In addition, a severe drought produced the Dust Bowl-a series of damaging dust storms. This environmental disaster ruined many farmers during a period when the economy was largely agricultural.

In office at the time of the crash, President Herbert Hoover (term 1929-1933) was unable to stop the free fall of the American economy. His successor, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, was elected president in a landslide in 1933 with campaign promises to fix the economy. Roosevelt acted quickly to create jobs and stimulate the economy through the creation of what he called "a New Deal for the forgotten man"-a program for people without resources to support themselves or their families. The New Deal was formalized as the federal Works Progress Administration (WPA), an umbrella agency for the many programs created to help Americans during the Depression, including infrastructure projects, jobs programs, and social services.

Through the WPA, artists also participated in government employment programs in every state and county in the nation. In 1935, Roosevelt created the Federal Art Project (FAP) as the agency that would administer artist employment projects, federal art commissions, and community art centers. Roosevelt saw the arts and access to them as fundamental to American life and democracy. He believed the arts fostered resilience and pride in American culture and history. The art created under the WPA offers a unique snapshot of the country, its people, and art practices of the period. There were no government-mandated requirements about the subject of the art or its style. The expectation was that the art would relate to the times, reflect the place in which it was created, and be accessible to a broad public.

Artists working in the FAP and for other WPA agencies created prints, easel paintings, drawings, and photographs. Public murals were painted for display in post offices, schools, airports, housing developments, and other government buildings. Community art centers hosted exhibitions of work made by artists employed in government programs and offered hands-on workshops, led by artists, for everyone. Illustrators made detailed drawings that cataloged the physical culture and artifacts of American daily life-clothing, tools, household items. The WPA intentionally seeded arts programs and supported artists outside of urban centers. In so doing, it introduced the arts to a much more diverse swath of Americans, many of whom had previously never seen an original painting or work of art, had not met a professional artist, nor experimented with art making.

The art produced through government programs pictured both the hardship of the period and a vision of a better America. Breadlines, homelessness, and farms reduced to sand were common subjects. The successes of WPA programs were depicted and documented, too: triumphs such as the construction of vast dams to provide flood control for farmlands and generate hydroelectric power, the expansion of the electrical power grid across the country, and conservation and agriculture programs to restore productivity to areas of the country swept by dust and wind storms. Artists created idealized visions for the future and experimented with abstraction in response to the changing world around them. Under Roosevelt's government programs, artists found meaningful work in making art for ordinary Americans and publicizing the WPA's accomplishments. The WPA-era art programs reflected a trend toward the democratization of the arts in the United States and a striving to develop a uniquely American and broadly inclusive cultural life.

The WPA's Federal Art Project ended in 1943. The United States had entered World War II, and war-related production boosted the economy at home and spurred job creation. The FAP also came under question politically, as some groups cast it as a producer of propaganda that curtailed artists' freedom of expression.

The National Gallery of Art collection contains many examples of works of art from this period of history. The art offers a window through which to explore the social conditions of the Depression, the mainstreaming of art and birth of "public art," and the opening of government employment to women and African Americans.

1. View the images in the set one by one. Ask students to look and list what they observe, including people, objects, settings, and the style of the art. Using that information as a guide, ask them to interpret the meaning or message of selected images and the mood or feeling the images convey.

2. Next, try to categorize and group the types of images in the set. Ask students to develop their own categories based upon what they see. Then, relate the categories they identify with real-life circumstances and facts of the Depression, such as the following:

unemployment or homelessness figures;

facts about the drought/Dust Bowl and its ecology;

human migrations and displacements;

information about different job sectors;

WPA-era public facilities built in your community (e.g., bridges, schools, post offices, roads); and

cultural phenomena not supported by the WPA that proceeded in spite of the Depression (e.g., the Harlem Renaissance).

3. Are there images that students cannot relate to their present-day lives or do not understand? Why? Explore the historical context of those images to arrive at an understanding of what is pictured and why the artist may have chosen to create that image.

"For the first time in the history of monumental painting, Mexican muralism ended the focus on gods, kings and heads of state and made the masses the hero of monumental art."--Diego Rivera

In this quote, Rivera is referring to large-scale murals he and other artists were commissioned to paint by the Mexican government focused on the lives of ordinary people, rather than the elite. Rivera and a group of Mexican muralists greatly influenced the creation of US government art programs during the Depression, as well as the work of many WPA-era artists who became well-known in later years, such as Jackson Pollock.

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) overthrew a dictatorship favoring the elite class, ushering in an era in which workers and farmers gained political empowerment. The new government, seeking to recognize the shifts in society and stoke pride in Mexican heritage, hired artists to represent the history and people of Mexico. Key among those artists were Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. They looked to the country's pre-Columbian history for sources of inspiration, as well as to the heroes of the Mexican Revolution such as Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Zapata is pictured in this work created by Rivera (based upon a painting at the Museum of Modern Art).

The art of Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros offered a new model: art that recognized and gave dignity to the lives and concerns of ordinary people. The artists became internationally renowned for their innovative and distinctive work. They spent time in the United States completing commissions and interpreting US industry and history, including Rivera's Detroit Industry Murals at the Detroit Institute of Arts and Orozco's The Epic of American Civilization at the Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College.

Compare Diego Rivera, Viva Zapata, 1932, with José Clemente Orozco, Flag (Bandera), 1928.

List all the details you notice in each image. What has the artist chosen to depict? How has he depicted it?

Is Zapata, the hero of the Mexican people, the central figure in Viva Zapata? How does Rivera communicate this?

Zapata holds a scythe used for cutting sugarcane. Another figure lies at his feet, while others look on from the background. What has just happened? Do you think the scene is real or symbolic? What about the figures behind Zapata? What are they gazing at? Who are the people depicted? Describe how they are depicted using as many details as you can.

Compare the two images and the subjects they depict. How are they related? How are they different?

Why might Rivera's and Orozco's images have been of interest to North American artists during the Great Depression? What parallels do you see between the Mexican mural program and the Federal Art Project?

"A nation's resources in visual arts are not confined to painting and sculpture and printmaking. They include all the arts of design which express the daily life of a people and which bring order, design, and harmony into an environment which their society creates." -Holger Cahill, Director, Federal Art Project, 1935-1943

Another WPA program that employed artists was the Index of American Design (IAD). The IAD was a project to document the history of American arts and crafts from colonial times until about 1890. The project helped foster pride in American vernacular (everyday) culture and craftsmanship. It celebrated regional strengths, such as Shaker materials in the Northeast and Kentucky, Native American arts of the Southwest, and German Pennsylvania folk art. The documentation took the form of highly detailed drawings: everything from farming implements, carriages, cooking tools, and furniture to clothing, toys, and musical instruments. Over 400 artists working in 36 states were employed in the IAD. The National Gallery of Art holds about 18,000 of the original drawings made for this project.

1. Ask students to draw an everyday object that they use at home or in school in the realistic style of the IAD.

2. Display the resulting drawings in an exhibition in the classroom. (The IAD drawings may have once been displayed in a community art center.) When displaying the drawings:

Group them by category of use (e.g., personal [clothing, jewelry, electronic devices], household, recreation).

Discuss students' relationships to their objects. How do they use them? Has the form of the object changed over time?

Discuss the physical qualities of the object: how it might have been made, where, and by whom. Is it pleasing to use?
How many items are made in the United States?

3. Review some examples from the IAD and try to locate objects and categories of objects that no longer exist today.

Ask students to research what they were used for, where, or how. What objects might they include in such an Index today?

Are there objects pictured in the IAD that relate to a particular tradition, craft, or style that is local to your community?

The Federal Art Project operated in 48 states. Some 200,000 works of visual art were created, which included murals, prints, posters, photographs, paintings, and drawings. Each state administered its own federally funded art programs.

Use a search engine to locate WPA-era murals in your community. Approximately 2,500 murals were created in all 48 states in existence at the time. (If you live in Alaska or Hawaii, choose a place you are interested in or where family or friends live.)

1. If the artwork is publicly accessible and on display (such as a mural in a post office, library, university, or other public building), ask a group of students to research it and then offer a public talk to the class and friends. Be sure to obtain permission from the venue.

2. If you locate images of WPA-era murals online, download a high-quality image, or ask a librarian to assist you in finding resources.

3. As students study the murals, ask them to respond to the following questions:

How does the work of art reflect aspects of your community or its history?

Are there scenes or elements depicted that are no longer true or valid today?

Who was the artist? Research his or her background and life story.

Describe the style of the art. Is it realistic or stylized in some way? How do you think its style contributes to its meaning?

Final Report on the WPA Program, 1935-43 (Washington, DC, [1947])
The Living New Deal: New Deal Inclusion
George Biddle, " An Art Renascence Under Federal Patronage," Scribner's, March 1934, 428-431.

Catlin's Indian Cartoons, The Univeristy of California

Franklin Delano Roosevelt, "Address at the Dedication of the National Gallery of Art," March 17, 1941

John Dewey, Art as Experience (New York, c. 1934)

Francis O'Connor, Art for the Millions: Essays from the 1930s by Artists and Administrators of the WPA Federal Art Project (New York, 1975)

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Great Depression | National Gallery of Art

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Selected Works Activity: Respond and Relate Activity: Political Expressions and Social Justice Activity: The Art of Everyday Activity: WPA-Era Art in Your Community Additional Resources "Art in America has always belonged to the people and has never been the property of an academy or a class. . . .

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This playlist was put together to highlight some music from the world war II era.

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New York, I Love You https://g.co/kgs/Gyw5UoS

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Political Cartoon Visual Codes +++ students

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Types of documents, authors's aim, criticism

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Brexit is the commonly used term for the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020, which resulted from a referendum on 23 June 2016. This article details the mostly critical response to this decision in the visual art, novels, theatre, and film.

The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; a majority voted to leave the European Union. On 29 March 2017, Theresa May's administration invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK was set to leave on 29 March 2019, unless the Brexit Withdrawal agreement was adopted by the House of Commons, in which case the UK would have left in May 2019. With the failure to ratify the withdrawal agreement by the British Parliament, Prime Minister Theresa May negotiated a further extension until 31 October 2019. Later that year the withdrawal was delayed a further 3 months and struggling to pass his renegotiated deal in the way he wished Prime Minister Boris Johnson called the 2019 United Kingdom General Election on 12 December 2019, that gave the conservatives a majority of 80 seats, the UK subsequently left the European Union at 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020.

Artists' sentiments toward Brexit

The response of artists and writers to Brexit has tended to be negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's creative industries voting against leaving the European Union. The claim by one, the visual artist Bob and Roberta Smith, writing in The Guardian newspaper during 2017 typifies this response:

Post-Brexit, we face a dissolution of our museums and galleries comparable in its devastation to that visited on England in the 1530s, as philistine politicians slash budgets. Art schools and the arts in schools will be further diminished in a wave of manufactured disdain for so-called elitists.

Responses by visual artists to Brexit include a mural, painted in May 2017, by the secretive graffiti artist Banksy near the ferry port at Dover in southern England. It shows a workman using a chisel to chip off one of the stars on the European Union Flag. In August 2019 the mural was found to have been painted over with white paint and covered in scaffolding.

In his 2017 art exhibition at the Serpentine Gallery in London, the artist Grayson Perry showed a series of ceramic, tapestry and other works of art dealing with the divisions in Britain during the Brexit campaign and in its aftermath. This included two large ceramic pots, Perry called his Brexit Vases, standing on plinths ten feet apart, on the first of which were scenes involving pro-European British citizens, and on the second scenes involving anti-European British citizens. These were derived from what Perry called his 'Brexit tour of Britain.'

Artist Clemens Wilhelm was commissioned by Scottish arts organisation Deveron Projects to mark the departure of the UK from the EU. His weeping willow Brexit Tree ' encapsulated both the sorrow of the UK's departure and hope for healing. It was planted on 31 January 2020 in a ceremony that included participation of Richard Demarco and A L Kennedy . A film work of the project will be released in January 2021.

The day after the referendum, gay niche erotica author Chuck Tingle self-published the 4,000-word book Pounded by the Pound: Turned Gay by the Socioeconomic Implications of Britain Leaving the European Union, in which a large coin from the future comes to see the main character Alex to explain him the danger of Brexit, and together they go back to the past to sway voters against voting to leave the European Union, proving that all you need is love.

Peter Preston's 1998 novel, The 51st State, predicted a UK Prime Minister, following his father's dying wishes, withdrawing the UK from the EU, then joining the United States.

Ali Smith's 2016 novel has been described by the Financial Times as the first serious Brexit novel.

One of the first novels to engage with a post-Brexit Britain was Rabbitman by Michael Paraskos (published 9 March 2017). Rabbitman is a dark comic fantasy in which the events that lead to the election of a right-wing populist American president, and Britain's vote to leave the European Union, were the result of a series of Faustian pacts with the Devil. As a result, Rabbitman is set partly in a post-Brexit Britain in which society has collapsed and people are dependent on European Union food aid.

Mark Billingham's Love Like Blood (published 1 June 2017) is a crime thriller in which Brexit sees a rise in xenophobic hate crime. In the novel The Remains of the Way (published 6 June 2017), David Boyle imagines Brexit was a conspiracy led by a forgotten government quango, still working away in Whitehall, originally set up by Thomas Cromwell in the 16th century during the reign of King Henry VIII, and now dedicated to a Protestant Brexit.

Post-Brexit Britain is also the setting for Amanda Craig's The Lie of the Land (published 13 June 2017), a satirical novel set ten years after the vote to leave the European Union, in which an impoverished middle class couple from Islington in north London are forced to move from the heart of the pro-European Union capital to the heart of the pro-Brexit countryside in Devon.

Brexit is also the baseline for Douglas Board's comic political thriller Time of Lies (published 23 June 2017). In this novel, the first post-Brexit general election in 2020 is won by a violent right-wing former football hooligan called Bob Grant. Board charts the response to this of the hitherto pro-European Union metropolitan political elite.

Stanley Johnson's Kompromat (published 23 July 2017) is a political thriller that suggests the vote to leave the European Union was a result of Russian influence on the referendum, although Johnson has insisted his book is not intended to point the finger at Russia's secret services, but is "just meant to be fun."

Jonathan Coe's Middle England (published 8 November 2018) is a state-of-the-nation novel which re-introduces some of the author's earlier characters from The Rotters' Club (2001) and The Closed Circle (2004), and moves from the election of the coalition government in 2010, through the riots of 2011, the 2012 Olympics, the 2016 referendum and its aftermath, ending in 2018.

Night of the Party by Tracey Mathias is set in the UK after Brexit. With a far-right party in power, only British-born people are permitted to remain in the country, and the book examines the consequences of populist and isolationist policies on the protagonist and his friends.

Rachel Churcher's Battle Ground series is Young Adult dystopia, set in a totalitarian near-future UK after Brexit and Scottish independence.

Sam Byers' Perfidious Albion is set in East Anglia, and examines power, influence, and nationalism in the UK after Brexit.

PV Wojnicki's The Game Changer is set in a slightly altered reality where Vote Leave lost the referendum by a narrow margin and are the ones calling for a second referendum. With a General Election imminent the COVID-19 pandemic strikes, causing a rise in right wing nationalism and sees the protagonist getting inadvertently drawn into politics.

In theatre, in June 2017 the National Theatre in London presented a play by Carol Ann Duffy, entitled, My Country; a work in progress. An allegorical work, the play uses the device of a convention called by the goddess Britannia who is concerned about the future of the British people. The play differs from some artistic responses in that Duffy and the National Theatre-based the attitudes of the characters on stage in part on the responses to interviews, conducted by the regional offices of the UK Arts Councils, with ordinary people, but excluding responses from London and the south-east of England, where most people voted not to leave the European Union. As a result, according to Dominic Cavendish, writing in the Daily Telegraph newspaper, "the bias is towards the Leave camp." However, in fact, the play, that only featured British voices, was an example of how the British theatre artists largely ignored the perspective of migrants, contributing to "the paradox of simultaneous hyper- and in-visibility of immigrants in the UK" in the Brexit debate. Much more interesting were contributions from the UK-based migrant artists "in which migrant artists claim[ed] agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity." Rosaura (an adaptation of Life is a Dream by Pedro Calderón de la Barca) created by actors Paula Rodríguez and Sandra Arpa was performed in London just after the Brexit referendum. It reimagines Calderón's story through contemporary politics with Rosaura following Astolfo to the Court of Europe. There he battles Segismundo in a reality show-style election. An Evening with an Immigrant is an autobiographical piece by a British-based Nigerian poet and performer Inua Ellams. It premiered in July 2016 at the Soho Theatre in London. Ellams recalls his life between Nigeria, the UK, and Ireland and comments on the British colonial past and its role in the current migrant crisis. Bubble Revolution by Polish playwright Julia Holewińska, directed by John Currivan and co-created and performed by Kasia Lech at the 2016 Edinburgh Fringe Festival focused on growing-up in communist and post-communist Poland and experiences of speaking English as a foreign language. The three productions used "memories rooted in their native and non-native cultures as a platform for the audience to engage with transnational conditions in today's Europe and the UK, and explore these and spectators' own experiences through a translocal gaze".

In 2016, the television director Martin Durkin wrote and directed an 81-minute long documentary film titled Brexit: The Movie, which advocated with the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union. The film was produced by the production company Wag TV with a budget of £300,000. The production costs were sourced primarily through crowdfunding via Kickstarter alongside a £50,000 contribution from the hedge fund Spitfire Capital. In May 2016 the film premiered in Leicester Square, with notable figures such as Nigel Farage and David Davis (who later became Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union) in attendance.

A documentary film was released in 2018, called Postcards from the 48%, which is described on the film's website as: "A documentary film made by and featuring those who voted Remain, the 48%, to show the other 27 EU Member States that it was far from a landslide victory and just why we are fighting to stay part of the EU." A review on Shadows on the Wall wrote: "This is a comprehensive, factual exploration of the issue, grappling with the referendum, its ramifications and the way the split vote has fractured British society."

A two-hour television drama film written by James Graham and directed by Toby Haynes, named Brexit: The Uncivil War (simply Brexit in the US), was released in January 2019. It depicts the lead-up to the 2016 referendum through the activities of the strategists behind the Vote Leave campaign, that prompted the United Kingdom to exit the European Union. It aired on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 7 January, and aired on HBO in the United States on 19 January. Benedict Cumberbatch stars as Dominic Cummings, the Campaign Director of the official designated Brexit-supporting group, Vote Leave.

In the football management simulation Football Manager 2017 and its successor Football Manager 2018 Brexit is an event within the game. There are multiple possible outcomes decided by chance reflecting both a soft Brexit and a hard Brexit. Consequences of a hard Brexit are, among others, EU football players needing working visa to play in English teams.

Not Tonight is a role-playing game set in an alternate timeline shortly after Brexit. The player takes the role of a European-born immigrant who must survive under a far-right British government to avoid deportation.

Watch Dogs: Legion is an action adventure game set in a post-Brexit dystopian London, with Britain having become a surveillance state under Albion.

Pokémon Sword & Shield is set in a region inspired by England and Scotland. When it was announced that half of the Pokémon introduced in previous games would be unobtainable in this entry, fans began protesting the decision and referred to it as "Dexit".

Arguably, nowhere exhibited a greater display of opinion surrounding Brexit than online social media platforms. Social media had a significant short-term influence on the referendum result and supports the argument that Brexit was not inevitable but was in fact a response to a multitude of influences and events in the build-up. For example, there are numerous sources that claim that 400 fake Twitter accounts were created in Russia which is argued to have added 1.76% in the pro-leave voting share.

In 2018, an anonymous Twitter account called @BorderIrish gained notability tweeting as the Irish border in the first person, and the implications that Brexit would have for it.

The 2016 track " Hey Kids (Bumaye)" by American rap duo Run the Jewels features the line "Run the Jewels'll make last breaths Brexit".

In November 2018, The Good, the Bad & the Queen released Merrie Land, which reflects on the United Kingdom's relationship with the European Union and being British during the prelude to Brexit. The lyrics are complemented by the loping basslines, sparse guitar, and intricate drumming, which contribute to the overall dark sonic ambience of the album.

The Breunion Boys are a Dutch boy band created by artist Julia Veldman in response to Brexit. The group's debut song, "Britain Come Back" was released in December 2018.

In October 2019, along with a group of musicians calling themselves Article 54, the journalist and musician Rhodri Marsden released The Hustle, an eight track concept disco symphony album with tracks inspired by the UK's Brexit negotiations. Tracks from the album were debuted on the 10 October edition of the BBC One political programme Brexitcast. It then appeared on the iTunes UK Album Chart, where it quickly began to outsell . The album appeared on the Official UK Charts on 18 October, debuting at number 56 on the download chart.

In March 2020, Riz Ahmed -the popular actor and one half of the rap duo Swet Shop Boys-released his first solo album, The Long Goodbye. It has been described as a "concept album that reframes the UK's relationship with British Asians as a "toxic and abusive" love affair that has reached its breaking point in the wake of Brexit and the rise of the far-right." It is the quintessential break-up album-except that the breakup baggage is "the weight of colonial trauma" and that the ex-girlfriend Britney stands in for "Britannia."

Brexitovka, also known as the Brexit Vodka, is a premium craft British vodka from Norfolk in England which commemorates Brexit. It is the first brand of spirit to explicitly commemorate Brexit. Brexitovka was launched by an Anglo-Polish eurosceptic Przemek de Skuba Skwirczynski at the February 2017 UKIP conference with the slogan "Celebrate Brexit in style or drown your sorrows with Brexitovka".

In 2018, Boris Johnson sparked governmental outrage by backing calls to introduce a commemorative Brexit stamp. The Postal Services Minister Margot James branded the proposed commemorative stamps as 'divisive.'

Boris Johnson told : "Leaving the European Union will be a monumental moment in British history, so let's deliver a commemorative stamp that shows the world we've got Brexit licked."

Austria's post service printed 140,000 commemorative stamps to mark the event of Britain's departure from the European Union. However, the commemorative stamps had to be reprinted due to changes to the official date for exit.

The noun Brexit was added to the Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) in 2016, which identified its originating among economists in 2012. A senior editor said it had become widely used with "impressive" speed, having proved itself more popular than "Brixit", or the more accurate "UKexit". The editor added: "Brexit's inclusion in the OED December update within five years of being coined is highly unusual... by late 2016 it was a global word." Other variations began to appear such as Brexiteer, and brexit as a verb.

In October 2019, Académie Goncourt chairman Bernard Pivot tweeted (in translation): "I propose to insert the word 'brexit' (without capital letter) into the French language. It will indicate a cacophonous and insoluble debate, a bloody shambolic reunion or assembly. Example: the meeting of the joint owners ended in brexit." (The inclusion of the British expletive is supported two-fold by the Collins-Robert French Dictionary.)

1. Mia Jankowicz, 'Britain's thriving art scene strangled by Brexit chaos' in ^ Politics.co.uk, 20 March 2017: Online Link

2. ^ Preston, Alex (14 October 2016). "Autumn by Ali Smith review - 'the first serious Brexit novel'". Financial Times. London.

3. Lech K. (2020) Claiming Their Voice: Foreign Memories on the Post-Brexit Stage. In: Meerzon Y., Dean D., McNeil D. (eds) Migration and Stereotypes in Performance and Culture. Contemporary Performance InterActions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39915-3_12 Online Link

4. ^ "Brexit: The Uncivil War on Channel 4: Everything you need to know about the new drama starring Benedict Cumberbatch". Radio Times. 4 January 2019.

5. ^ Tweedale, Alistair (18 October 2016). "Brexit is simulated in Football Manager 2017, and it's going to make the game harder than ever". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235.

6. ^ "Twitter Bots Helped Trump and Brexit Win, Economic Study Says". 21 May 2018.

7. ^ Rory Carroll (24 November 2018). "Brexit: anonymous Twitter account gives droll voice to Irish border row". The Guardian.| access-date=26 December 2019}}

8. ^ Meabh Ritchie (7 December 2018). "The Irish border and Brexit explained by @BorderIrish". . The man behind the account, who wants to remain anonymous, has lived on both sides of the Irish border.

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Brexit is the commonly used term for the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020, which resulted from a referendum on 23 June 2016. This article details the mostly critical response to this decision in the visual art, novels, theatre, and film.

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On 23 June 2016, UK adults made a historic decision. They voted for the UK to leave a group of countries called the European Union (EU).

This is called Brexit, made up of the words 'Britain' and 'exit'.

The vote was over three years ago, but it is still a massive issue in UK politics at the moment.

The UK was first due to leave the EU at 11pm on Friday 29 March 2019, but this didn't happen. The UK is still a member of the group and Brexit is now scheduled for the 31 October 2019, although a letter requesting an extension to this date has been requested.

That's because UK and EU politicians are still trying to make the final arrangements for Brexit to happen. Members of Parliament (MPs) have recently shown some support for Boris Johnson's current deal for the arrangements by which the UK will leave the EU, but weren't happy with the amount of time the government was giving them to discuss it.

No country has ever left the EU before, so Brexit is a significant moment in European history.

Read on to find out more about what has happened since the vote in June 2016 and where we're up to now.

How did the Brexit vote happen?

For many years, UK politicians have argued about whether it is better for the UK to be in or out of the EU.

There are many different arguments both for and against being a part of the group, and lots of people have different opinions about it.

Back in 2013, Conservative MP David Cameron promised that if his party won the next general election, he would let UK voters have their say on whether or not the UK should stay in or leave. In 2015, the Conservative Party won that election.

When the Conservative Party won the general election, David Cameron became prime minister and dedicated a lot of his time to renegotiating the UK's relationship with the EU.

Then in February 2016, he set a date for the vote to take place on Thursday 23 June, 2016.

The issue divided many people, as politicians and voters across the UK all chose which side they would choose - remain or leave.

David Cameron said: "The choice is in your hands, but my recommendation is clear. I believe that Britain will be safer, stronger and better off by remaining in a reformed European Union."

Why was the Brexit vote important?

The UK has been a member of the EU for more than 40 years, so it's a big deal to leave it.

Not only that, but no country has ever left the EU before, so it was - and still is - completely new territory for everyone involved.

What was the Brexit referendum result?

More than 33 million UK adults voted in the referendum. Around 52% of them - just over half - chose to leave the group of 28 countries, while 48% wanted to stay in it.

It was close, but the result was declared - the UK wanted to leave the EU.
Here you can watch the moment that the final result of the referendum was announced.
What happened after the Brexit vote?

Once the result of the vote was announced, David Cameron - who didn't get the result he'd campaigned for - said he was going to resign, and so the UK needed a new prime minister before anything else could happen.

Theresa May took over the job the following month in July 2016.

She spent her time as leader of the UK government trying to sort out what the UK's relationship with the EU would be like when it left.

Why did the UK not leave the EU when Theresa May was prime minister?

Theresa May was prime minister from 13 July 2016 to 24 July 2019, when Boris Johnson took over.

During this time, there was a lot of backwards and forwards between the UK government and the EU about how Brexit would work.

On 29 March 2017, Mrs May officially started the two-year process for the UK to leave the EU by triggering Article 50 - the name given to an agreement between EU members about how a country can leave the group.

Nobody had ever put Article 50 into practice before - until then - so this was a significant moment in the Brexit story.

From when Article 50 was triggered, the UK was left out of making big EU decisions, but still remained a member of the group and had to follow EU rules and agreements.

Mrs May set to work to organise a Brexit deal, which was agreed by EU leaders in November 2018 - four months ahead of the deadline for the UK to leave.

But MPs would not approve her deal and, in the end, it was rejected three times by Parliament.

The March 2019 Brexit deadline was then delayed, as Mrs May struggled to get everyone to agree.

Eventually, unable to get her deal over the finish line, she stepped down as leader of the Conservative Party to make way for somebody else to become prime minister to try to sort out how Brexit would work.

On 24 May 2019, Theresa May officially announced her resignation as Conservative leader, saying: "It will always remain a matter of deep regret for me that I have not been able to deliver Brexit. It is now clear to me that it is in the best interest of the UK for a new (prime minister) to lead that effort," she said.

After a Conservative Party leadership contest, on 24th July 2019 Boris Johnson was chosen to lead the party and also the country as prime minister.

He then set about trying to get a new Brexit deal with European leaders.

But as with Mrs May's deal, one of the most difficult issues to resolve has been the situation with Northern Ireland - the only part of the UK which would have a land border with the EU - as the Republic of Ireland is, and will continue to be, part of the EU.

Why has Brexit taken so long?

UK and EU leaders have had lots of discussions over the last three years about how Brexit will work.

Some of the issues which the Brexit deal will need to cover include:

Immigration and people - With around three million people from other EU countries living, working or studying in the UK, and around two million British people living in other EU countries, politicians have needed to decide what will happen with those in countries where they aren't citizens. They have also needed to decide how immigration will work in the future between the EU and the UK once it is no longer a member, as people would not automatically be able to move across borders as freely as they could before.

Buying and selling - One of the main reasons the EU was set up was to make it easier for EU countries to buy and sell products and services to each other. The UK has needed to work out how it will do trade with EU countries if it is no longer part of something called the single market, which is designed to make doing this easier between EU member countries.

- Countries in the EU share some laws between them. At the moment, British laws and European laws are closely connected. The UK has needed to decide which bits of EU law it wants to keep, and which bits it doesn't. Given how connected EU and British laws are, it's a big job to separate them. The UK might have to keep some rules if it wants to have certain relationships with the EU after leaving.

'Brexit bill' - The UK will need to pay the EU a sum of money when it leaves, although this has been a big point of discussion. This money will cover anything which the UK has already agreed to give funding for, as well as any ongoing payments for certain benefits once it's left. Politicians have needed to agree what this sum of money would be.

Irish border As part of the UK, Northern Ireland is also due to leave the EU, but the Republic of Ireland will remain a member of the EU. Currently, many people move freely across the invisible border between Ireland and Northern Ireland. But once Northern Ireland has left the EU along with the rest of the UK, the border will need to be carefully managed , so politicians have needed to work out how they will do this.

What's the Brexit latest?

What the deal between the EU and the UK should look like is a very complicated issue, and although most MPs want a deal, some think the UK would be better off leaving without any arrangements at all - what's known as a "no-deal" Brexit.

When he became prime minister, Mr Johnson said that the UK would leave the EU on 31 October 2019, "no ifs, no buts" - whether or not a deal has been agreed.

However, because his deal hasn't been passed into law so far, and to avoid a no-deal situation, Mr Johnson has been forced by MPs to ask the EU for another extension of the Halloween Brexit deadline.

EU leaders haven't yet responded to that request.

Boris Johnson has said he'll push for a general election if the European Union (EU) supports a Brexit delay until January.

AFP/Getty Images

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On 23 June 2016, UK adults made a historic decision. They voted for the UK to leave a group of countries called the European Union (EU). This is called Brexit, made up of the words 'Britain' and 'exit'. The vote was over three years ago, but it is still a massive issue in UK politics at the moment.

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