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Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

After graduating from Shaw University, Ella Baker moved to New York City and began her career as a grassroots organizer. Joining the NAACP in 1940, the Virginia native assisted in developing some of the brightest minds in the Civil Rights Movement.

Baker charged people like Rosa Parks to stand up and speak out. Through her organizing efforts, she assisted Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. with the creation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which was helping to build the Civil Rights Movement. After a string of sit-ins in the 1960s, she joined a group of students who would go on to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Baker ignited the fight in a generation of young Americans who would go on to risk their own freedom for the advancement and equality of all black people.

Hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr.- with additional commentary from Farrah Griffin of Columbia University, Diane Nash, and Rep. John Lewis - we sing the highest praises to the Mother of the Civil Rights Movement. This freedom fighter's tireless commitment to liberty paved the way for the freedoms we have today.

Black History in Two Minutes (or so) is a 4x Webby Award winning series.

If you haven't already, please review us on Apple Podcasts! It's a helpful way to for new listeners to discover what we are doing here: Podcast.Apple.com/Black-History-in-Two-Minutes/

* Archival Materials Courtesy of:
* Alamy Images
* Associated Press
* Getty Images
* The NAACP

Additional Footage Courtesy of:
* Inkwell Films, Kunhardt & WNET

Additional Archival by:
* The Times and Democrat

Executive Producers:
* Robert F. Smith
* Henry Louis Gates Jr.
* Dyllan McGee
* Deon Taylor

Produced by:
* William Ventura
* Romilla Karnick

Music By:
* Oovra Music

Follow Black History in Two Minutes on Facebook

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'Black History in Two Minutes' is also available on Apple and Google podcasts.

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Ella Baker - 'The Mother of the Civil Rights Movement'

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After graduating from Shaw University, Ella Baker moved to New York City and began her career as a grassroots organizer. Joining the NAACP in 1940, the Virginia native assisted in developing some of the brightest minds in the Civil Rights Movement.

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The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute

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At 6:05 P.M. on Thursday, 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was shot dead while standing on a balcony outside his second-floor room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. News of King's assassination prompted major outbreaks of racial violence, resulting in more than 40 deaths nationwide and extensive property damage in over 100 American cities. James Earl Ray, a 40-year-old escaped fugitive, later confessed to the crime and was sentenced to a 99-year prison term. During King's funeral a tape recording was played in which King spoke of how he wanted to be remembered after his death: "I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King, Jr., tried to give his life serving others " (King, " Drum Major Instinct, " 85).

King had arrived in Tennessee on Wednesday, 3 April, to prepare for a march the following Monday on behalf of striking Memphis sanitation workers. As he prepared to leave the Lorraine Motel for a dinner at the home of Memphis minister Samuel "Billy" Kyles, King stepped out onto the balcony of room 306 to speak with Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) colleagues standing in the parking area below. An assassin fired a single shot that caused severe wounds to the lower right side of his face. SCLC aides rushed to him, and Ralph Abernathy cradled King's head. Others on the balcony pointed across the street toward the rear of a boarding house on South Main Street where the shot seemed to have originated. An ambulance rushed King to St. Joseph's Hospital, where doctors pronounced him dead at 7:05 P.M.

President Lyndon B. Johnson called for a national day of mourning to be observed on 7 April. In the following days, public libraries, museums, schools, and businesses were closed, and the Academy Awards ceremony and numerous sporting events were postponed. On 8 April King's widow, Coretta Scott King, and other family members joined thousands of participants in a march in Memphis honoring King and supporting the sanitation workers. King's funeral service was held the following day in Atlanta at Ebenezer Baptist Church. It was attended by many of the nation's political and civil rights leaders, including Jacqueline Kennedy, Vice President Hubert Humphrey, and Ralph Bunche. Morehouse College President Benjamin Mays delivered the eulogy, predicting that King " would probably say that, if death had to come, I am sure there was no greater cause to die for than fighting to get a just wage for garbage collectors " (Mays, 9 April 1968). Over 100,000 mourners followed two mules pulling King's coffin through the streets of Atlanta. After another ceremony on the Morehouse campus, King's body was initially interred at South-View Cemetery. Eventually, it was moved to a crypt next to the Ebenezer Church at the King Center, an institution founded by King's widow.

Shortly after the assassination, a policeman discovered a bundle containing a 30.06 Remington rifle next door to the boarding house. The largest investigation in Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) history led its agents to an apartment in Atlanta. Fingerprints uncovered in the apartment matched those of James Earl Ray, a fugitive who had escaped from a Missouri prison in April 1967. FBI agents and police in Memphis produced further evidence that Ray had registered on 4 April at the South Main Street roominghouse and that he had taken a second-floor room near a common bathroom with a view of the Lorraine Motel.

The identification of Ray as a suspect led to an international manhunt. On 19 July 1968 Ray was extradited to the United States from Britain to stand trial. In a plea bargain, Tennessee prosecutors agreed in March 1969 to forgo seeking the death penalty when Ray pled guilty to murder charges. The circumstances leading to the plea later became a source of controversy, when Ray recanted his confession soon after being sentenced to a 99-year term in prison.

During the years following King's assassination, doubts about the adequacy of the case against Ray were fueled by revelations of the extensive surveillance of King by the FBI and other government agencies. Beginning in 1976 the House Select Committee on Assassinations, chaired by Representative Louis Stokes, re-examined the evidence concerning King's assassination, as well as that of President John F. Kennedy. The committee's final report suggested that Ray may have had co-conspirators. The report nonetheless concluded that there was no convincing evidence of government complicity in King's assassination.

After recanting his guilty plea, Ray continued to maintain his innocence, claiming to have been framed by a gun-smuggler he knew as " Raoul. " In 1993 Ray's lawyer, William F. Pepper, sought to build popular support to reopen Ray's case by staging a televised mock trial of Ray in which the " jury " found him not guilty. In 1997 members of King's family publicly supported Ray's appeal for a new trial, and King's son Dexter Scott King supported Ray's claims of innocence during a televised prison encounter. Despite this support Tennessee authorities refused to reopen the case, and Ray died in prison on 23 April 1998.

Even after Ray's death, conspiracy allegations continued to surface. In 1999, on behalf of King's widow and children, Pepper won a token civil verdict of wrongful death against Lloyd Jowers, owner of Jim's Grill, a restaurant across the street from the Lorraine Motel. Although the trial produced considerable testimony that contradicted the original case against Ray, the Justice Department announced in 2000 that its own internal investigation, launched in 1998 at the King family's request, had failed to find sufficient evidence to warrant a further investigation.

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Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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At 6:05 p.m. on Thursday, 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was shot dead while standing on a balcony outside his second-floor room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. News of King's assassination prompted major outbreaks of racial violence, resulting in more than 40 deaths nationwide and extensive property damage in over 100 American cities.

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Thank you, sister Rosa! Ms. Parks, that is! This movie is all about the civil rights movement, from segregation trials to freedom marches. Plus a few words from Dr. Martin Luther King!

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The civil rights movement was an organized effort by Black Americans to end racial discrimination and gain equal rights under the law. It began in the late 1940s and ended in the late 1960s. Although tumultuous at times, the movement was mostly nonviolent and resulted in laws to protect every American's constitutional rights, regardless of color, race, sex or national origin.

July 26, 1948: President Harry Truman issues Executive Order 9981 to end segregation in the Armed Services.

May 17, 1954: Brown v. Board of Education, a consolidation of five cases into one, is decided by the Supreme Court, effectively ending racial segregation in public schools. Many schools, however, remained segregated.

August 28, 1955: Emmett Till, a 14-year-old from Chicago is brutally murdered in Mississippi for allegedly flirting with a white woman. His murderers are acquitted, and the case bring international attention to the civil rights movement after Jet magazine publishes a photo of Till's beaten body at his open-casket funeral.

December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Her defiant stance prompts a year-long Montgomery bus boycott.

January 10-11, 1957: Sixty Black pastors and civil rights leaders from several southern states-including Martin Luther King, Jr.-meet in Atlanta, Georgia to coordinate nonviolent protests against racial discrimination and segregation.

September 4, 1957: Nine Black students known as the " Little Rock Nine" are blocked from integrating into Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. President Dwight D. Eisenhower eventually sends federal troops to escort the students, however, they continue to be harassed.

September 9, 1957: Eisenhower signs the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law to help protect voter rights. The law allows federal prosecution of those who suppress another's right to vote.

February 1, 1960: Four African American college students in Greensboro, North Carolina refuse to leave a Woolworth's "whites only" lunch counter without being served. The Greensboro Four-Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, Franklin McCain and Joseph McNeil-were inspired by the nonviolent protest of Gandhi. The Greensboro Sit-In, as it came to be called, sparks similar "sit-ins" throughout the city and in other states.

November 14, 1960: Six-year-oldRuby Bridges is escorted by four armed federal marshals as she becomes the first student to integrate William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans. Her actions inspired Norman Rockwell's painting The Problem We All Live With (1964).

1961: Throughout 1961, Black and white activists, known as freedom riders, took bus trips through the American South to protest segregated bus terminals and attempted to use "whites-only" restrooms and lunch counters. The Freedom Rides were marked by horrific violence from white protestors, they drew international attention to their cause.

June 11, 1963: Governor George C. Wallace stands in a doorway at the University of Alabama to block two Black students from registering. The standoff continues until President John F. Kennedy sends the National Guard to the campus.

August 28, 1963: Approximately 250,000 people take part in The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Martin Luther King gives his "I Have A Dream" speech as the closing address in front of the Lincoln Memorial, stating, "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.'"

September 15, 1963: A bomb at 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama kills four young girls and injures several other people prior to Sunday services. The bombing fuels angry protests.

July 2, 1964: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law, preventing employment discrimination due to race, color, sex, religion or national origin. Title VII of the Act establishes the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to help prevent workplace discrimination.

February 21, 1965: Black religious leader Malcolm X is assassinated during a rally by members of the Nation of Islam.

March 7, 1965: Bloody Sunday. In the Selma to Montgomery March, around 600 civil rights marchers walk to Selma, Alabama to Montgomery-the state's capital-in protest of Black voter suppression. Local police block and brutally attack them. After successfully fighting in court for their right to march, Martin Luther King and other civil rights leaders lead two more marches and finally reach Montgomery on March 25.

August 6, 1965: President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to prevent the use of literacy tests as a voting requirement. It also allowed federal examiners to review voter qualifications and federal observers to monitor polling places.

April 4, 1968: Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated on the balcony of his hotel room in Memphis, Tennessee. James Earl Ray is convicted of the murder in 1969.

April 11, 1968: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act, providing equal housing opportunity regardless of race, religion or national origin.

Sources

Executive Order 9981. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum.
Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library.
Governor George C. Wallace's School House Door Speech. Alabama Department of Archives and History.
Greensboro, NC, Students Sit-In for US Civil Rights, 1960. Swarthmore College Global Nonviolent Action Database.
Historical Highlights. The 24th Amendment. History, Art & Archives United States House of Representatives.
History-Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment. United States Courts.
History of Federal Voting Rights Laws. The United States Department of Justice.
"I Have a Dream," Address Delivered at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Oldest and Boldest. NAACP.
SCLC History. Southern Christian Leadership Conference.
Selma to Montgomery March: National Historic Trail and All-American Road. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. National Archives.

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Civil Rights Movement Timeline - Timeline & Events | HISTORY

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The civil rights movement was an organized effort by black Americans to end racial discrimination and gain equal rights under the law. It began in the late 1940s and ended in the late 1960s.

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Did World War II Launch the Civil Rights Movement?

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Centuries of prejudice and discrimination against blacks fueled the civil rights crusade, but World War II and its aftermath were arguably the main catalysts.

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Executive Order 9981: Ending Segregation in the Armed Forces

On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed this executive order establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, committing the government to integrating the segregated military.

In 1940, the US population was about 131 million, 12.6 million of which was African American, or about 10 percent of the total population. During World War II, the Army had become the nation's largest minority employer. Of the 2.5 million African Americans males who registered for the draft through December 31, 1945, more than one million were inducted into the armed forces. Along with thousands of black women, these inductees served in all branches of service and in all Theaters of Operations during World War II.

During World War II, President Roosevelt had responded to complaints about discrimination at home against African Americans by issuing Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, directing that blacks be accepted into job-training programs in defense plants, forbidding discrimination by defense contractors, and establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC).

After the war, President Harry S. Truman faced a multitude of problems and allowed Congress to terminate the FEPC. However, in December 1946, Truman appointed a distinguished panel to serve as the President's Commission on Civil Rights, which recommended "more adequate means and procedures for the protection of the civil rights of the people of the United States." When the commission issued its report, "To Secure These Rights," in October 1947, among its proposals were anti-lynching and anti-poll tax laws, a permanent FEPC, and strengthening the civil rights division of the Department of Justice.

In February 1948, President Truman called on Congress to enact all of these recommendations. When Southern Senators immediately threatened a filibuster, Truman moved ahead on civil rights by using his executive powers. Among other things, Truman bolstered the civil rights division, appointed the first African American judge to the Federal bench, named several other African Americans to high-ranking administration positions, and most important, on July 26, 1948, he issued an executive order abolishing segregation in the armed forces and ordering full integration of all the services.

Executive Order 9981 stated that "there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin." The order also established an advisory committee to examine the rules, practices, and procedures of the armed services and recommend ways to make desegregation a reality. There was considerable resistance to the executive order from the military, but by the end of the Korean conflict, almost all the military was integrated.
Download a high-resolution version of this document from the National Archives' Online Public Access Database.
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Executive Order 9981: Ending Segregation in the Armed Forces

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Executive Order 9981: Ending Segregation in the Armed Forces On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed this executive order establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, committing the government to integrating the segregated military.

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Podcast: Play in new window | Embed

Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

The lynching of Emmett Till in 1955 became a pivotal point for race relations in the United States. Instead of sitting by silently, his mother, Mamie Till Mobley, opted to utilize the media in a way it had not been used before.

She decided to hold an open casket viewing, welcoming as many people as she could to view her son's body, including Jet Magazine. With the gruesome images making their way around, She used her grief to not only tell the story of her son, but to push the Civil Rights Movement into a new era. Her selflessness led to the mass media becoming an important device for the Civil Rights Movement.

In this episode of Black History in Two Minutes or So hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. - with additional commentary from Peniel Joseph of the University of Texas, Austin, Farah Griffin of Columbia University and Chris Benson, the author of The Death of Innocence - we honor Mamie Till Mobley and the legacy of her bravery.

Black History in Two Minutes (or so) is a 4x Webby Award winning series.

If you haven't already, please review us on Apple Podcasts! It's a helpful way to for new listeners to discover what we are doing here: Podcast.Apple.com/Black-History-in-Two-Minutes/

Archival Materials Courtesy of:
* ASSOCIATED PRESS
* Getty Images
* Library of Congress

Additional Archival by:
* Chicago Defender
* Clarion Ledger
* Florida State University Digital Library
* Jet Magazine
* TIME
* Twitter

Executive Producers:
* Robert F. Smith
* Henry Louis Gates Jr.
* Dyllan McGee
* Deon Taylor

Senior Producer:
* William Ventura

Series Producers:
* Chinisha Scott
* William Ventura

Executive in Charge of Production:
* Robert L. Yacyshyn

Post Production Supervisor:
* Veronica Leib

Post Production Coordinator:
* Katherine Swiatek

Written By:
* Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

Additional Writing:
* Kevin Burke
* Kelsi Lindus
* Chinisha Scott
* William Ventura

Editors:
* Margaret Metzger
* Anne Yao

Producer:
* Kevin Burke

Archival Producer:
* Megan Graham

Research:
* Zoë Smith

Assistant Editors:
* Patrice Bowman
* Nicholas Mastrangelo

Director of Photography:
* Nikki Bramley
* Nausheen Dadabhoy
* Stephen McCarthy

Graphic Design:
* Anthony Kraus

Special Thanks:
* Daina Ramey Berry
* Sam Hartley
* Elyssa Hess
* Stacey Holman
* Hasan Jeffries
* Peniel Joseph
* Imani Perry

Music By:
* Oovra Music

Be Woke presents is brought to you by Robert F. Smith and Deon Taylor.

Follow Black History in Two Minutes on Facebook

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Subscribe to Black History in Two Minutes Youtube Channel

'Black History in Two Minutes' is also available on Apple.

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Podcast: Play in new window | Embed The lynching of Emmett Till in 1955 became a pivotal point for race relations in the United States. Instead of sitting by silently, his mother, Mamie Till Mobley, opted to utilize the media in a way it had not been used before.

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Crime

April 22, 2022 / 1:16 PM / AP

Remembering Emmett Till and his legacy

Remembering Emmett Till on the 65th anniversary of his death 04:26

Stymied in their calls for a renewed investigation into the killing of Emmett Till, relatives and activists are advocating another possible path toward accountability in Mississippi: A kidnapping prosecution against the woman who set off the lynching by accusing the Black Chicago teen of improper advances in 1955.

Carolyn Bryant Donham was named nearly 67 years ago in a warrant that accused her in Till's abduction, even before his mangled body was found in a river, FBI records show — yet she was never arrested or brought to trial in a case that shocked the world for its brutality.

Authorities at the time said the woman had two young children and they did not want to bother her. Donham's then-husband and another man were acquitted of murder.

In this file combo photo, John W. Milam, 35, left, his half-brother Roy Bryant, 24, center, who were charged with the murder of Emmett Till from Chicago, Bryant's wife Carolyn, is seen right.  AP

Relatives of Till still prefer a murder prosecution. But there is no evidence the kidnapping warrant was ever dismissed, so it could be used to arrest Donham and finally get her before a criminal court, said Jaribu Hill, an attorney working with the Till family.

"This warrant is a stepping stone toward that," she said. "Because warrants do not expire, we want to see that warrant served on her."

There are plenty of roadblocks. Witnesses have died in the decades since Till was lynched, and it's unclear what happened to evidence collected by investigators. Even the location of the original warrant is a mystery. It could be in boxes of old courthouse records in Leflore County, Mississippi, where the abduction occurred.

A relative of Till said it's long past time for someone to arrest Donham in Till's kidnapping, if not for the slaying itself.

"Mississippi is not the Mississippi of 1955, but it seems to still carry some of that era of protecting the white woman," said Deborah Watts, a distant cousin of Till who runs the Emmett Till Legacy Foundation.

In this Sept. 22. 1955 photo, Carolyn Bryant rests her head on her husband Roy Bryant's shoulder after she testified in the Emmett Till murder court case in Sumner, Miss.  AP

Now in her late 80s and most recently living in Raleigh, North Carolina, Donham has not commented publicly on calls for her prosecution. She did not seem to know she had been named in an arrest warrant in Till's abduction until decades later, said Dale Killinger, a retired FBI agent who questioned her more than 15 years ago.

"I think she didn't recall it," he said. "She acted surprised."

The Justice Department closed its most recent investigation of the killing in December, when the agency said Donham had denied an author's claim that she had recanted her claims about Till doing something improper to her in the store where she worked in the town of Money. The writer could not produce any recordings or transcripts to back up the allegation, authorities said.

Till relatives met in March with officials including District Attorney Dewayne Richardson, the lead prosecutor in Leflore County, but left unsatisfied, Watts said. "There doesn't seem to be the determination or courage to do what needs to be done," she said.

Richardson has been in office for about 15 years and was the first Black person to serve as president of the Mississippi Prosecutors Association. He did not return phone messages or emails seeking comment about a potential kidnapping case.

Keith Beauchamp, a filmmaker whose documentary "The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till" preceded a renewed Justice Department probe that ended without charges in 2007, said there's enough evidence to prosecute Donham.

"If we're saying we are a country of truth and justice, we must get truth and justice … no matter the age or gender of the person involved," said Beauchamp.

Stories about the events that led to Till's killing have varied through the years, but the woman known at the time as Carolyn Bryant was always at the center of it, said author Devery Anderson, who obtained original FBI files on the case while researching his 2015 book "Emmett Till: The Murder That Shocked the World and Propelled the Civil Rights Movement."

An undated file photo of Emmett Louis Till, whose body was found in the Tallahatchie River near the Delta community of Money, Mississippi, Aug. 31, 1955.  AP

Till was a 14-year-old from Chicago visiting relatives in Mississippi when he entered the store on Aug. 24, 1955; Donham, then 21, was working inside. A Till relative who was there at the time, Wheeler Parker, told The Associated Press that Till whistled at the woman. Donham testified that Till grabbed her.

Two nights later, Donham's then-husband, Roy Bryant, and his half-brother, J.W. Milam, showed up armed at the rural home of Till's great-uncle, Mose Wright, looking for the youth.

Wright testified in 1955 that a person with a voice "lighter" than a man's identified Till from inside a pickup truck and the abductors took him away. Other evidence in FBI files indicates that earlier that night, Donham told her husband that at least two other Black men were not the right person.

Authorities already had obtained warrants charging the two men and Donham with kidnapping before Till's body was found in the Tallahatchie River, FBI files show, but police never arrested Donham.

"We aren't going to bother the woman," Leflore County Sheriff George Smith told reporters, "she's got two small boys to take care of."

Roy Bryant and Milam were quickly indicted on murder charges and they were acquitted by an all-white jury in Tallahatchie County about two weeks later.

Grand jurors in neighboring Leflore County refused to indict the men on kidnapping charges afterward, effectively ending the threat of prosecution for Roy Bryant and Milam. Both men have been dead for decades, leaving Donham as the lone survivor who was directly involved.

Carolyn Bryant CBS News

Killinger, the retired federal agent, said he saw neither the original warrant during his investigation nor any indication that it was ever canceled by a court, and it's unclear whether it could be used today to arrest or try Donham. Even if authorities located the original paperwork with sworn statements detailing evidence, he said, courts need witnesses to testify.

"And it's my understanding that all those people are dead," Killinger said.

In:
Emmett Till

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Emmett Till’s relatives want prosecution of woman who accused teen of improper advances before his 1955 lynching

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Carolyn Bryant Donham was named nearly 67 years ago in a warrant that accused her in Till’s abduction.

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Separate But Equal Doctrine

In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that racially segregated public facilities were legal, so long as the facilities for Black people and whites were equal.

The ruling constitutionally sanctioned laws barring African Americans from sharing the same buses, schools and other public facilities as whites-known as "Jim Crow" laws -and established the "separate but equal" doctrine that would stand for the next six decades.

But by the early 1950s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) was working hard to challenge segregation laws in public schools, and had filed lawsuits on behalf of plaintiffs in states such as South Carolina, Virginia and Delaware.

In the case that would become most famous, a plaintiff named Oliver Brown filed a class-action suit against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in 1951, after his daughter, Linda Brown, was denied entrance to Topeka's all-white elementary schools.

In his lawsuit, Brown claimed that schools for Black children were not equal to the white schools, and that segregation violated the so-called "equal protection clause" of the 14th Amendment, which holds that no state can "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

The case went before the U.S. District Court in Kansas, which agreed that public school segregation had a "detrimental effect upon the colored children" and contributed to "a sense of inferiority," but still upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine.

Brown v. Board of Education Verdict

When Brown's case and four other cases related to school segregation first came before the Supreme Court in 1952, the Court combined them into a single case under the name Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

Thurgood Marshall, the head of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, served as chief attorney for the plaintiffs. (Thirteen years later, President Lyndon B. Johnson would appoint Marshall as the first Black Supreme Court justice.)

At first, the justices were divided on how to rule on school segregation, with Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson holding the opinion that the Plessy verdict should stand. But in September 1953, before Brown v. Board of Education was to be heard, Vinson died, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower replaced him with Earl Warren, then governor of California.

Displaying considerable political skill and determination, the new chief justice succeeded in engineering a unanimous verdict against school segregation the following year.

In the decision, issued on May 17, 1954, Warren wrote that "in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place," as segregated schools are "inherently unequal." As a result, the Court ruled that the plaintiffs were being "deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment."

Little Rock Nine

In its verdict, the Supreme Court did not specify how exactly schools should be integrated, but asked for further arguments about it.

In May 1955, the Court issued a second opinion in the case (known as Brown v. Board of Education II), which remanded future desegregation cases to lower federal courts and directed district courts and school boards to proceed with desegregation "with all deliberate speed."

Though well intentioned, the Court's actions effectively opened the door to local judicial and political evasion of desegregation. While Kansas and some other states acted in accordance with the verdict, many school and local officials in the South defied it.

In one major example, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas called out the state National Guard to prevent Black students from attending high school in Little Rock in 1957. After a tense standoff, President Eisenhower deployed federal troops, and nine students-known as the " Little Rock Nine"- were able to enter Central High School under armed guard.

Impact of Brown v. Board of Education

Though the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board didn't achieve school desegregation on its own, the ruling (and the steadfast resistance to it across the South) fueled the nascent civil rights movement in the United States.

In 1955, a year after the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery bus boycott and would lead to other boycotts, sit-ins and demonstrations (many of them led by Martin Luther King Jr.), in a movement that would eventually lead to the toppling of Jim Crow laws across the South.

Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, backed by enforcement by the Justice Department, began the process of desegregation in earnest. This landmark piece of civil rights legislation was followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

In 1976, the Supreme Court issued another landmark decision in Runyon v. McCrary, ruling that even private, nonsectarian schools that denied admission to students on the basis of race violated federal civil rights laws.

By overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine, the Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education had set the legal precedent that would be used to overturn laws enforcing segregation in other public facilities. But despite its undoubted impact, the historic verdict fell short of achieving its primary mission of integrating the nation's public schools.

Today, more than 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education, the debate continues over how to combat racial inequalities in the nation's school system, largely based on residential patterns and differences in resources between schools in wealthier and economically disadvantaged districts across the country.

HISTORY Vault: Black History

Sources

History - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment, United States Courts.
Brown v. Board of Education, The Civil Rights Movement: Volume I (Salem Press).
Cass Sunstein, "Did Brown Matter?" The New Yorker, May 3, 2004.
Brown v. Board of Education, PBS.org.
Richard Rothstein, Brown v. Board at 60, Economic Policy Institute, April 17, 2014.

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Brown v. Board of Education: Summary, Ruling & Impact | HISTORY

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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional.

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Montgomery Bus Boycott |American Freedom Stories | Biography | History

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The March On Washington: The Spirit Of The Day | MLK | TIME

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Malcolm X - How Did He Inspire a Movement?

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Nearly a century after the Confederacy's guns fell silent, the racial legacies of slavery and Reconstruction continued to reverberate loudly throughout Alabama in 1965. On March 7, 1965, when then-25-year-old activist John Lewis led over 600 marchers across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama and faced brutal attacks by oncoming state troopers, footage of the violence collectively shocked the nation and galvanized the fight against racial injustice.

The passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 months earlier had done little in some parts of the state to ensure African Americans of the basic right to vote. Perhaps no place was Jim Crow's grip tighter than in Dallas County, Alabama, where African Americans made up more than half of the population, yet accounted for just 2 percent of registered voters.
WATCH: Full episodes of 'I Was There' online now.
For months, the efforts of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to register Black voters in the county seat of Selma had been thwarted. In January 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr., came to the city and gave the backing of the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC) to the cause. Peaceful demonstrations in Selma and surrounding communities resulted in the arrests of thousands, including King, who wrote to the New York Times, "This is Selma, Alabama. There are more negroes in jail with me than there are on the voting rolls."
READ MORE: Civil Rights Movement Timeline
The rising racial tensions finally bubbled over into bloodshed in the nearby town of Marion on February 18, 1965, when state troopers clubbed protestors and fatally shot 26-year-old Jimmie Lee Jackson, an African American demonstrator trying to protect his mother, who was being struck by police.

In response, civil rights leaders planned to take their cause directly to Alabama Governor George Wallace on a 54-mile march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery. Although Wallace ordered state troopers "to use whatever measures are necessary to prevent a march," approximately 600 voting rights advocates set out from the Brown Chapel AME Church on Sunday, March 7.

King, who had met with President Lyndon Johnson two days earlier to discuss voting rights legislation, remained back in Atlanta with his own congregation and planned to join the marchers en route the following day. By a coin flip, it was determined that Hosea Williams would represent the SCLC at the head of the march along with Lewis, an SNCC chairman and future U.S. congressman from Georgia.

The demonstrators marched undisturbed through downtown Selma, where the ghosts of the past constantly permeated the present. As they began to cross the steel-arched bridge spanning the Alabama River, the marchers who gazed up could see the name of a Confederate general and reputed grand dragon of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan, Edmund Pettus, staring right back at them in big block letters emblazoned across the bridge's crossbeam.

Once Lewis and Williams reached the crest of the bridge, they saw trouble on the other side. A wall of state troopers, wearing white helmets and slapping billy clubs in their hands, stretched across Route 80 at the base of the span. Behind them were deputies of county sheriff Jim Clark, some on horseback, and dozens of white spectators waving Confederate flags and giddily anticipating a showdown. Knowing a confrontation awaited, the marchers pressed on in a thin column down the bridge's sidewalk until they stopped about 50 feet away from the authorities.

"It would be detrimental to your safety to continue this march," Major John Cloud called out from his bullhorn. "This is an unlawful assembly. You have to disperse, you are ordered to disperse. Go home or go to your church. This march will not continue."

"Mr. Major," replied Williams, "I would like to have a word, can we have a word?"

"I've got nothing further to say to you," Cloud answered.

Williams and Lewis stood their ground at the front of the line. After a few moments, the troopers, with gas masks affixed to their faces and clubs at the ready, advanced. They pushed back Lewis and Williams. Then the troopers' pace quickened. They knocked the marchers to the ground. They struck them with sticks. Clouds of tear gas mixed with the screams of terrified marchers and the cheers of reveling bystanders. Deputies on horseback charged ahead and chased the gasping men, women and children back over the bridge as they swung clubs, whips and rubber tubing wrapped in barbed wire. Although forced back, the protestors did not fight back.

Lewis later testified in court that he was knocked to the ground and a state trooper then hit him in the head with a nightstick. When Lewis shielded his head with a hand, the trooper hit Lewis again as he tried to get up.

Weeks earlier, King had scolded Life magazine photographer Flip Schulke for trying to assist protestors knocked to the ground by authorities instead of snapping away. "The world doesn't know this happened because you didn't photograph it," King told Schulke, according to the Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Race Beat.

This time, however, television cameras captured the entire assault and transformed the local protest into a national civil rights event. It took hours for the film to be flown from Alabama to the television network headquarters in New York, but when it aired that night, Americans were appalled at the sights and sounds of " Bloody Sunday."
READ MORE: When Did African Americans Get the Right to Vote?
Around 9:30 p.m., ABC newscaster Frank Reynolds interrupted the network's broadcast of "Judgment at Nuremberg"-the star-studded movie that explored Nazi bigotry, war crimes and the moral culpability of those who followed orders and didn't speak out against the Holocaust-to air the disturbing, newly arrived footage from Selma. Nearly 50 million Americans who had tuned into the film's long-awaited television premiere couldn't escape the historical echoes of Nazi storm troopers in the scenes of the rampaging state troopers. "The juxtaposition struck like psychological lightning in American homes," wrote Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff in The Race Beat.

The connection wasn't lost in Selma, either. When his store was finally empty of customers, one local shopkeeper confided to Washington Star reporter Haynes Johnson about the city's institutional racism, "Everybody knows it's going on, but they try to pretend they don't see it. I saw 'Judgment at Nuremberg' on the Late Show the other night and I thought it fits right in; it's just like Selma."

Outrage at "Bloody Sunday" swept the country. Sympathizers staged sit-ins, traffic blockades and demonstrations in solidarity with the voting rights marchers. Some even traveled to Selma where two days later King attempted another march but, to the dismay of some demonstrators, turned back when troopers again blocked the highway at the Edmund Pettus Bridge.

Finally, after a federal court order permitted the protest, the voting rights marchers left Selma on March 21 under the protection of federalized National Guard troops. Four days later, they reached Montgomery with the crowd growing to 25,000 by the time they reached the capitol steps.

The events in Selma galvanized public opinion and mobilized Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act, which President Johnson signed into law on August 6, 1965. Today, the bridge that served as the backdrop to "Bloody Sunday" still bears the name of a white supremacist, but now it is a symbolic civil rights landmark.
READ MORE: The MLK Graphic Novel That Inspired John Lewis and Generations of Civil Rights Activists

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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How Selma's 'Bloody Sunday' Became a Turning Point in the Civil Rights Movement | HISTORY

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The assault on civil rights marchers in Selma, Alabama helped lead to the Voting Rights Act.

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The landmark case Brown v. Board of Education declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. However, for most black and white families, the decision was met with resistance and a court mandate didn't mean things were going to change.

Politicians and officials throughout the country found ways to ensure full-on school integration never happened. From protests, to throwing bricks, to blocking entrances at schools, the new law of the land was met with sharp resistance. Even as the NAACP intervened and busing orders were implemented, integrating schools seemed more like a wish than a sure thing.

In this episode of Black History In Two Minutes or So hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr., with additional commentary from Hasan Jeffries of Ohio State University, we take a look at a this monumental case. While it sought to provide access and equality for black kids across the country, decades later, it still come up short.

Black History in Two Minutes (or so) is a 2x Webby Award winning series.

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School Integration - BLACK HISTORY IN TWO MINUTES

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The landmark case Brown v. Board of Education declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. However, for most black and white families, the decision was met with resistance and a court mandate didn't mean things were going to change. Politicians and officials throughout the country found ways to ensure full-on school integration never [...]

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Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

In 1963, John Lewis' excitement would meet his life's purpose when he joined the Civil Rights Movement. He is now known as one of the greatest activists and change fighters to enter the arena of social and racial justice reform.

Lewis became one of the "Big Six" leaders of the Civil Rights movement and helped organized demonstrations and sit-ins, all while playing an active role in the March on Washington. His efforts would reach new heights after the march in Selma, Alabama lead to President Lyndon B. Johnson passing the Voting Rights Act in 1965.

In this episode of Black History In Two Minutes or So hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr., with additional commentary from Khalil Muhammad of Harvard University, Hasan Jeffries of Ohio State University, and Civil Rights Activist Vernon Jordan, we salute a freedom fighter whose message and activism can still be heard loud and clear to this day.

Black History in Two Minutes (or so) is a 4x Webby Award winning series.

If you haven't already, please review us on Apple Podcasts! It's a helpful way to for new listeners to discover what we are doing here: Podcast.Apple.com/Black-History-in-Two-Minutes/

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John Lewis: The Fight for the Right to Vote

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In 1963, John Lewis' excitement would meet his life's purpose when he joined the Civil Rights Movement. He is now known as one of the greatest activists and change fighters to enter the arena of social and racial justice reform.

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Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

The Double V Campaign was launched by a prominent black newspaper, the Pittsburgh Courier, in 1942. The campaign came in response to buzz generated from a letter written by a young black man, James G. Thompson. His article, entitled, "Should I Sacrifice to Live 'Half-American", broke barriers and started a conversation nationally that many blacks had been having for generations.

As the nation claimed victory in World War II, many black veterans carried their excitement back home. The charge was clear: victory over fascism abroad and victory over racism at home. This assertion came in response to decades of expecting African-Americans to choose patriotism in times of war, but not experience equal protection of the law at home.

In this episode of 'Black History in Two Minutes or So' hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. - with additional commentary from Farah Griffin of Columbia University and Peniel Joseph from the University of Texas - we explore a campaign that ignited many African-Americans to take down Jim Crow laws and become key players in the civil rights movement.

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The Double V Campaign of World War II | Black History in Two Minutes

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The Double V Campaign was launched by a prominent black newspaper, the Pittsburgh Courier, in 1942. The campaign came in response to buzz generated from a letter written by a young black man, James G. Thompson. His article, entitled, "Should I Sacrifice to Live 'Half-American", broke barriers and started a conversation nationally that many blacks had been having for generations.

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Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s influence was large, perhaps his greatest legacy came when he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech on August 28, 1963.

As the highly revered activist from the Civil Rights era prepared for the March on Washington, Dr. King worked with his advisors to craft his speech. About half-way through, with the crowd's interest fading, the Baptist minister from Atlanta, Georgia's decision to improvise would lead to a magical moment we never saw coming.

Dr. King and his speech would awaken not only the estimated quarter of a million people in attendance, but followers who also believed in an inclusive America.

In this episode of Black History in Two Minutes or So hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr., with additional commentary from Farrah Griffin of Columbia University, we look at the journey Dr. King took to deliver words that would ignite generations of believers then and now.

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Martin Luther King Jr. - Was his 'I Have a Dream' speech Improvised?

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Podcast: Play in new window | Embed While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s influence was large, perhaps his greatest legacy came when he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech on August 28, 1963. As the highly revered activist from the Civil Rights era prepared for the March on Washington, Dr. King worked with his advisors to craft his speech.

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Be Woke Presents Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

Shirley Chisholm is a political icon who paved the way for politics as we know it today. As an active participant for women's rights and the Civil Rights Movement, her presence and experience would prepare her for a stage unseen by black women before.

During her seven terms as the first black woman to serve in congress, Chisholm set her sights on challenging the system. Unsurprisingly, her tenacity made her a force to be reckoned with. A true visionary indeed, Chisholm sought the presidential nomination in 1972, and her mere presence on the campaign trail was a victory for minorities in politics.

In this episode of Black History in Two Minutes or So, our host Henry Louis Gates Jr., with additional commentary from Kimberlé Crenshaw of UCLA and Columbia Law Schools and Imani Perry of Princeton University, we honor the legacy of Shirley Chisholm and her contributions to the political arena at large.

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Shirley Chisholm - The First Black Congresswoman | Black History in Two Minutes (or so)

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Shirley Chisholm is a political icon who paved the way for politics as we know it today. As an active participant for women's rights and the Civil Rights Movement, her presence and experience would prepare her for a stage unseen by black women before.

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Brenda Travis of McComb, Mississippi, encountered the dangers of merely existing in Jim Crow's America as a child after witnessing her brother's unlawful arrest in the middle of the night. It would be that event that inspired a young Travis to enter the arena, ready and willing to fight for injustice.

After partnering with a civil rights organizer in town, 16-year-old Travis led a sit-in at the local Greyhound bus station. She became known as a member of the McComb Five, where she'd not only be the youngest participant, but the only woman in the movement. Despite being jailed for a month and expelled from school, Travis' existence and hunger for justice elevated the local movement which sparked strikes and marches.

In this episode of Black History In Two Minutes or So hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr., with additional commentary from Imani Perry of Princeton University and Hasan Jeffries of Ohio State University, we look at a young activist who quickly recognized the power in rallying like-minded people in the name of advanced equal rights for all.

Black History in Two Minutes (or so) is a 4x Webby Award winning series.

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Brenda Travis of McComb, Mississippi, encountered the dangers of merely existing in Jim Crow's America as a child after witnessing her brother's unlawful arrest in the middle of the night. It would be that event that inspired a young Travis to enter the arena, ready and willing to fight for injustice.

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Electrified by the rhetoric of Malcolm X, founding members Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale created an organization aimed at protecting the Black community from racism and violence. And thus, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in Oakland, Calif., in October of 1966.

While history tends to focus on the violence of this group, their influence was more in-depth. From social programs, to community outreach, there was a genuine interest in the practical advancement for African-Americans, while serving and protecting the community from police brutality.

Hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. - with additional commentary Hasan Jeffries and Kathleen Cleaver - we look at how the Black Panther movement uplifted the black community in ways often untold.

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The Birth of the Black Panthers - BLACK HISTORY IN TWO MINUTES

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Electrified by the rhetoric of Malcolm X, founding members Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale created an organization aimed at protecting the Black community from racism and violence. And thus, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in Oakland, Calif., in October of 1966.

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Martin Luther King Jr's death: the aftermath revisited by those who were there