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Wesal & Zayed

The history of medical racism in the United States began during slavery, when enslaved African Americans were often used in medical experiments without consent. Doctors and researchers claimed that Black people felt less pain, using this false belief to justify surgeries and procedures done without anesthesia. One well-known example is Dr. J. Marion Sims, who performed gynecological operations on enslaved women and is still a controversial figure in medicine today.

In the 20th century, racism continued through studies like the Tuskegee Syphilis (1932–1972), where hundreds of Black men with syphilis were deliberately left untreated so scientists could “study” the disease. Around the same time, many Black, Indigenous, and Latina women were sterilized without their knowledge or consent under eugenic laws that aimed to control reproduction.

These events show how racial prejudice shaped early medical practices and research in America. They also explain why many minority communities developed deep mistrust toward doctors and hospitals — a mistrust that still influences perceptions of healthcare today.

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Today, we are going to talk about the Jim Crow laws.

These were unfair laws in the United States that separated Black people from white people.

They started after the Civil War, around the year 1877, and continued for almost 100 years.

The name “Jim Crow” came from a racist theater character that made fun of Black people.

These laws were part of a system called racial segregation, which means that people were divided because of their color.

At that time, Black people were free from slavery, but they still didn’t have equal rights.

The Jim Crow laws affected almost every part of life.

Black and white people couldn’t go to the same schools, restaurants, or even use the same bathrooms.

There were signs everywhere that said “White Only” or “Colored Only.”

It was a very sad and unfair time for Black Americans.

Many people fought against these laws, like Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks.

Their protests and speeches helped to change the system.

Finally, in the 1960s, new laws called the Civil Rights Acts ended Jim Crow segregation.

Today, we talk about this period to remember how important equality and respect are for everyone.

Thank you for listening.

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The prison-industrial complex is a system where prisons are tied to money, politics, and business profit. In the U.S., it affects Africans Americans the most. After slavery and segregation, laws like the ‘War on drugs’ unfairly targeted Black communities, leading to mass incarceration.

This system profits from cheap prison labor and keeps racial inequality alive, turning prisons into a modern form of social economic control over African Americans. Today, African Amerinans are still imprisoned at much higher rates compared to other Americans, often for minor offenses caused by baised policing and unequla access to justice. Private prisons, prison labors, and surveillance industries continto profit from incarceration, while families and communities suffer the consequences.

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Affirmative action was mainly created to address the long history of racial discrimination that African Americans faced in education, employment, and public life. After centuries of slavery and segregation, African Americans continued to experience systemic barriers that limited their opportunities. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy introduced the term “affirmative action” through an Executive Order, requiring government contractors to ensure equal employment opportunities regardless of race. A few years later, President Lyndon B. Johnson added an Executive Order that supported the affirmative action. It demanded active recruitment and promotion of African Americans and other minorities. Alongside the Civil Rights Act of 1964, these actions aimed to not only prevent discrimination but to correct the effects of past injustices by opening doors to Black Americans.

Over time, affirmative action allowed more African Americans to access higher education and professional careers that were impossible to get. It contributed to the rise of a growing Black middle class and helped diversify workplaces and universities. However, its effectiveness today is mixed. Even though affirmative action has helped create chances and include more people, many programs have faced legal problems and political pushback. Some states have even stopped using race-based affirmative action completely. Because of this, African Americans still face unfair treatment in many areas. Affirmative action is still important, but it isn’t perfect, in trying to make racial equality real in the United States.

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Hend and Nesrine

School Segregation

Introduction :

- The United States of America has undergone a lot of tragic events throughout its history, during the years of 1930 up until 1954. But one of the most significant occurrences that marked this period was indeed the start and the persistence of racial segregation, notably in schools, which reinforced systemic inequality and denied generations of African American children access to the same educational opportunities as their white peers.

Hend:

- In the past, school segregation in the United States meant that Black and white students were forced to attend separate schools because of their race. Not just separate schools, but separate toilets, libraries, cafeteria etc.. present on the same earth, but walking on different grounds and living separate lives.

This system was legalized by the 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson, which introduced the idea of “separate but equal.” However, in reality, Black schools were underfunded, had poor facilities, outdated books, and overcrowded classrooms, while white schools received far better resources.

Black students often had to walk long distances to reach school, while white students had access to buses. Teachers in Black schools were also paid less. Beyond material inequality, segregation created deep psychological harm by sending the message that Black children were inferior.

A major turning point came with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which declared that segregating schools was unconstitutional, stating that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.”

However, even after this ruling, many states resisted integration, sometimes closing schools or using violence, as seen in the case of the Little Rock Nine in 1957.

School segregation was an unfair system that denied equal opportunities and reinforced racism, deeply affecting people’s minds, behavior, and quality of life.

Nesrine :

. However, nowadays, schools in the United States are much more inclusive and diverse. Students from different racial and cultural backgrounds can learn together, and equality is an important value in education. Yet, some patterns and inequalities from the past still echo in today’s society.

Even if segregation is no longer legal, some forms of discrimination still exist. Black students can sometimes face bullying, racist comments, or unfair treatment from classmates or even teachers. These situations are less common than in the past, but they show that prejudice has not completely disappeared.

So while American schools have made great progress toward equality, there is still a required work to be done to make sure every student truly feels respected and safe.

For example, some Black students have reported being unfairly punished more often than white students or being the target of racist jokes.

In fact, several students have reported the presence of segregation in their educational environnement like one report stating that in his 17 years of school experience, he is still noticing signs of segregation.

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Reparations is the process of making amends for the wrong doings inflicted on specific groups, in this case black people. Due to the lasting impacts of slavery, segregation and systemic racism endured by them throughout history. By providing financial educational and symbolic compensation.

In some cases, reparations have been implemented in the United States. For example, in 2021 Evanston Illinois became the first city that began paying reparations to its black residents. They approved a program that provides $25,000 in housing assistance, mortgage support, home repairs, etc to Black families that have suffered discriminatory housing practices in the mid-20th century.

This topic strikes many debates throughout the United States. Some argue that reparations are a very important step towards healing and restoring relations throughout the country, however others counteract this as they believe it’s the incorrect approach and that current efforts toward equality are already sufficient.

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African American voter suppression refers to the deliberate attempts (past and present) to limit or discourage African Americans from exercising their right to vote in the United States. It has evolved over time, but the goal has often been the same: to reduce Black political power and representation.

After the Civil War, the 15th Amendment granted African American men the right to vote, and during Reconstruction many exercised this new power. However, when federal protection ended in 1877, Southern states began passing discriminatory laws to suppress Black voters. These included poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses that effectively blocked African Americans from voting, while violence and intimidation by groups like the Ku Klux Klan reinforced fear. During the Jim Crow era, these tactics erased nearly all Black political participation. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s fought to end this injustice, leading to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed many of these barriers and protected Black voters. Yet voter suppression has continued in more subtle ways today, such as strict voter ID laws, voter roll purges, reduced polling locations in Black communities, and gerrymandering that weakens Black voting power. The 2013 Supreme Court case "Shelby County v. Holder" further weakened protections by removing federal oversight of state election changes, allowing new restrictive laws to appear. Although African Americans gained the legal right to vote over a century ago, ongoing efforts to limit their participation show that the struggle for equal access to the ballot box is still not over.

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How did it start?

It was founded in 2013 after the acquittal of George Zimmerman, who shot and killed Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager in Florida.

The hashtag (#BlackLivesMatter) was first used on social media by Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi to spread awareness.

What is the movement about?

Demanding justice and accountability for the unjustified deaths of black people

To challenge the systemic racism in institutions (law, education systems, and justice system)

To promote equality

Why it continues today?

Police violence and racial injustice still happens

The movement gained global attention after the death of George Floyd's murder in 2020

Many people believe racial equality has not yet been achieved

it continues to inspire activism, policy debates, and social awareness

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Environmental racism is when certain communities, mostly African Americans or other minorities, live in the places with more pollution and unsafe conditions. It happens when factories or landfills are built near their homes, which causes dirty air and health problems. We think it’s really unfair because these people don’t have the same power or resources to fight back. Unfortunately, environmental racism still exists today with cities like Mississippi and Chicago still struggling with unsafe water and poor air quality in minority areas. Everyone deserves clean air, clean water, and a safe place to live.

Source:https://www.nrdc.org/stories/what-environmental-racism

Ofeli and Mansoor.

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House Redlining refers to a discriminatory practice in the U.S. where financial services such as home loans, equity, and in insurance is denied by the banks and federal government against minorities.

Then: 1930-1960’s

Redlining was considered legal and supported by the government which targeted mostly black Americans, immigrants and other minorities. Neighborhoods labeled as “hazardous” (often black areas) were denied loans and insurance. This resulted in racial division in neighborhoods, schools and services. It blocked generations of black Americans from investment and created a huge wealth gap as home ownership is the main way American families build wealth. Redlining lead to disinvestment in neighborhoods and schools which resulted in horrible conditions.

Now: 2025

Redlining was made illegal under the Fair housing act in 1968 however it still affects minorities such as black and Latino communities in a more settle and less obvious way. Minorities are still more likely to be denied mortgages and loans even with similar income to whites as well as they were charged higher interest rates. There is a continuous racial wealth gap where white families still hold more wealth than minorities. The same areas still face poverty, low home values and underfunded public services.

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The Fox News article "Teachers face scrutiny for celebrating Charlie Kirk's death" and CNN's coverage of a judge's statement about a "full-throated assault on the First Amendment" both deal with the question of free speech, but they approach it from very different angles. The Fox News piece focuses on educators who mocked or celebrated the assassination of conversation activist Charlie Kirk, describing how several teachers and professors were investigated or suspended for their online comments. The article frame these incidents as evidence of ideological bias in the education system and emphasizes that teachers, as public employees, have a professional responsibility to uphold certain standards. It suggests that while free speech is important. it should not excuse behavior that promotes hatred, disrespect, or political extremism in the classroom.

By contrast, CNN's reporting on the "full-throated assault on the First Amendment" highlights a federal judge's criticism of government actions that targeted pro-Palestinian academics for deportation. The judge argued that the government's attempt to punish people for their political beliefs represents a ganders violation of free speech rights. This coverage frames free expression as a fundamental right that must be protected even for non-citizens, and it portrays the government's interference as an overreach that threatens democratic values.

The key difference between the two lies in how each defines the limits of free speech. Fox News underscores the responsibility that comes with public speech, especially from educators who influence students, while CNN emphasized the protection of speech from government control, even when it is controversial or unpopular. In short, Fox's article prioritize accountability and professionalism, whereas CNN's story stresses liberty and constitutional safeguards. Both ultimately deal with the tension between freedom and responsibility, but they stand on opposite sides of where that palace should be drawn.

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Both CNN and FOX News reported on the U.S. State Department's decision to revoke visas from foreigners who allegedly celebrated the death of Charlie Kirk. Although both articles discuss the same event, their tone, word choice, and purpose reveal differences in how each outlet presents political news.

In regards to the FOX News article's title, we can see that they specifically use the word "offensive," which insinuates that they are persuasive and emotional with their stance. Whereas CNN avoids any specific underlying messages in its title, keeping it more neutral. CNN can be seen using neutral vocabulary such as "allegedly" and "reportedly". However, FOX News uses words like "defending American values" and "offensive comments". With that being said, we can see that the primary purpose of the article by FOX News is to support and justify the government's decision, and CNN aims at informing the public of the revocations, the government's decisions and to raise questions about the matter at hand.

To conclude, we can assume that each article was made for different purposes and are both news outlets with specific political leanings.

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1) Document 1 Summary: “Teachers Face Scrutiny for Celebrating Charlie Kirk’s Death”

- This document, published by Fox News Digital on September 17, 2025, portrays how teachers across U.S. states such as Massachusetts and Pennsylvania faced scrutiny and disciplinary action after posting celebratory or mocking comments online about the assassination of conservative activist Charlie Kirk earlier that month. It underscores the increasing conflict between free speech and professional conduct within education, illustrating how political polarization and social media activity can influence teachers’ careers and spark national discussions on ethics and bias in schools.

2) ' Full-throated assault on the First Amendment ' : Judge rips into Trump over attempts to deport pro-Palestinian academics.”

- This document, published on October 1, 2025 by Devan Cole and Holmes Lybrand, portrays and refers to a federal judge’s criticism of former President Donald Trump’s administration for allegedly trying to deport pro-Palestinian academics, calling it a “full-throated assault on the First Amendment.” The article highlights a legal and political conflict and aspect over the freedom of speech which is highly valued, praised and is a sacred given right found in The Bill of Rights as well as academic liberty, illustrating the way judicial authorities defended constitutional rights against what they had previously viewed as politically 'motivated government actions. It emphasizes the tension between national policy and freedom of expression, portraying the court’s stance as a defense of democratic principles in the United States.

3) Why?

- the administration impermissibly chilled the free speech of pro-Palestinian non-citizen professors and students by targeting them for deportation.

- ⁠stating they misused their power to "target noncitizen pro-Palestinians for deportation". The judge found their intent was to "strike fear" and "curb lawful pro-Palestinian speech" by terrorizing activists into silence.

- ⁠State Department spokesperson asserted the right to revoke the visas of foreigners who commit "anti-American, pro-terrorist, and antisemitic hate".

-

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Charlie kirk Fox news vs CNN (mai, hind Alhosani, hana)

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Charlie kirk Fox news vs CNN (mai, hind Alhosani, hana)

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Both articles provide the same examples but the fox news articles shows one side (the state's side) it justifies the actions the department is taking (revoking the visas) to "protect" the Americans ("Aliens who take advantage of America’s hospitality while celebrating the assassination of our citizens will be removed."). They show the examples of the foreigners tweets to not question the policy the state is taking. The CNN article, has a more analytical tone and raises concerns ("raised questions about their legality under the First Amendment"). They provided an example of a tweet criticizing the decision taking of the government (“The Trump administration must stop punishing people for their opinions alone.”) But they did show a more neutral side. they showed the governments side and the people questioning it. We thought that because CNN appears to be more "left-leaning" so they'd be more "celebratory" of his death meanwhile fox news would criticize the left for doing so. when reading both text they are not so different from each other but there are small details that differentiate them both, like CNN shows a more neutral side meanwhile Fox news is more right-leaning.

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Mansoor, wesal, nisrine 1st and 3rd article

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Mansoor, wesal, nisrine 1st and 3rd article

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The CNN article focuses mainly on the legal and constitutional side of the story. It talks about how a judge strongly criticized Trump’s actions and defended the right to free speech for everyone, even non-citizens. The tone is formal and serious, showing concern for the First Amendment and the dangers of government power being misused. It feels like CNN is more focused on protecting freedom and warning about political overreach.

On the other hand, the Fox News article talks about teachers who celebrated Charlie Kirk’s death and the backlash they faced. It focuses more on behavior, accountability, and professional ethics. The tone is emotional and moral, stressing how wrong it is to react with hate or mock someone’s death. Fox News seems to highlight respect, discipline, and the need for proper conduct, especially in schools.

Overall, CNN discusses freedom and justice on a national level, while Fox focuses on values and consequences in society. CNN sounds more political and critical, while Fox sounds more cultural and judgmental. Both show bias in their own way — CNN toward defending free speech, and Fox toward moral responsibility and order.

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Both articles discuss the U.S. State Department’s decision to revoke six visas from foreigners who allegedly celebrated the assassination of conservative activist Charlie Kirk, but they present it differently.

The Fox News article supports the government’s action, stressing national security and immigration enforcement. It quotes Secretary of State Marco Rubio, who said the U.S. will defend its borders and culture from those who disrespect Americans. Fox portrays the move as a necessary and patriotic step to protect the country.

The CNN Politics article, however, takes a critical approach. It mentions examples of the revoked individuals’ posts and questions whether punishing people for their opinions violates the First Amendment. CNN also includes comments from civil rights advocates defending freedom of expression.

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Between the 15th and 19th centuries, European colonial expansion deeply reshaped the Americas. The most dominant colonial powers were Spain, Britain, and France, each leaving long-lasting linguistic, political, and cultural legacies.

Spain colonized vast regions including Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and much of South America imposing its language, religion, and institutions.

Britain established colonies in North America and the Caribbean, notably starting with Jamestown in 1607. British colonization involved settler expansion, economic exploitation, and transatlantic slavery.

France controlled parts of North America, including Quebec and Louisiana, as well as several Caribbean islands. French legal and cultural influence remains in some of these regions today.

Unlike these powers, Germany did not create colonies in the Americas but left a cultural mark through waves of migration in the 18th and 19th centuries. German-speaking communities settled in areas like Pennsylvania, Texas, and southern Brazil, contributing to local culture through religion, farming, and craftsmanship.

Maps showing German influence usually reflect these immigration patterns, not colonial control.

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Poverty Rates / Hend / Fatima / Latifa / Wadeema

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Poverty Rates / Hend / Fatima / Latifa / Wadeema

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This document is a map portraying the rate of poverty, the less fortunate; under developed States , during the year 2023.

It is with utter certainty that The United States of America has always had a division of Minorities and majorities throughout history, with the Black African Americans being segregated and discriminated against the Whites. A historical and influential event that proves this point is Apartheid where Black minorities fought for their rights. Millions of black citizens were forcefully removed from their homes, restricted and confined within tribal homelands according to their ethnicity, while whites remained and occupied towns and cities. Poverty has played a vital role in the partition of those citizens, coming from multiple other states in the US, mostly focused on the Southern States such as ( New Mexico and Texas ) . Moreover, the Southern states have been more rural and less industrialised than the Northern states, as they were more dependent on their resources such as agriculture, the green lands etc.. History is a boat filled with events, facts, presumptions and prepossession of lands which all led to the division of certain states around the US being varied and diverse. It is the land of individuals coming from all walks of life. Regarding the rates of poverty and percentages , we can interpret the contrasting estimates of under privileged counties , being at a rate of 22.7 to 37.6 and 37.7 to 63.2 ,which is more than half of the US population mainly focused on the southern parts of America as reported by the SAIPE program data in the year 2023. Thus, these areas have a drastically smaller income compared to the wider and national population because of certain factors such as lower levels of education attainment, labour force participation as well. Whereas in the other side of the US, such as Pennsylvania , Michigan, New York etc.. they have a more fortunate life and income, richer countries , with lower rates of poverty having a rough approximate of only 3.1 to 11.4 to 11.5 - 16.6 percent . And the middle class countries such as : California, Arizona and Montana, having an estimate of 16.7 to 22.1 and 22.2 to 28.6 , so it is escalating and dispersing amongst the civilisations and social groups. Finally, we can state that this map is a great example of the diversity present in the US, thus leading to a wide span of social groups .

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% Population African American Alone or in Combination

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% Population African American Alone or in Combination

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This map shows the growth of the African American population in the South. Historically, this population was shaped by the transatlantic slave trade, when Africans were captured, sold, and forced onto slave ships by European traders (and sometimes by rival African groups) to work as enslaved laborers in the Americas. They were brought primarily to work on plantations producing crops like tobacco, sugar, cotton, and rice—especially in the southern colonies of what became the United States. After the abolition of slavery, the South remained home to a large African American population, but the rise of Jim Crow laws between 1874 and 1975 led to racial segregation and severe oppression. As a result, many African Americans fled the South during this period in search of better opportunities and freedom in other parts of the country. In recent years, however, many have begun returning to the South, contributing to its population growth once again. This map is valuable because it visually represents these historical movements and the ongoing evolution of African American communities in the United States.

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Hispanic/Latino population (mazyona, roudha, afrah, amna)

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Hispanic/Latino population (mazyona, roudha, afrah, amna)

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The Percentage of Hispanic/Latino Population of The US🇺🇸

((July 1st, 2023))

-In the North, they are less than 5%.

-In the Northwest and West, they are 5% to 19.99%.

-In the Southwest, they are 20% to 49.99%.

-In the South, they are 35% to 50% or more.

-In the Southeast, they are 5% to 34.99%.

-In the East and Northeast, they are 5% to 19.99%.

((Analysis))

The Southern States that are 50% Hispanic/Latin Americans are border states that often serve as a first point of entry due to proximity. Like California, Texas, Arizona, and Florida.

Agricultural/Construction Work have been major drivers of migration to the South. The large demand for low cost labor in these sectors attracts flow of Hispanic/Latin migrants.

Many migrants come from impoverished countries like El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras with limited economic opportunities.

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This is an old map based on how they used to trade by "taking"/ importing slaves from Africa, making them work (picking cotton etc) then they export the goods (sugar, tobacco etc) and sending off the goods back to Africa ( rum, manufactured goods) which became a cycle for many years. The Africans were taken from their land aggressively and sold off to white men. They were forced to understand a new language, forced to work under harsh conditions, sold off, beaten, and killed, etc. the price of being black back then meant you exist solely to serve your "masters".. they were made to feel ashamed for their skin tone which was t he type of propaganda that was shared back then therefore they would paint their face white to feel as if they mattered, while in cartoons, it was shown how their facial characteristics were made in a vulgar racist manner, which made people feel as if Africans were only ought to be slaves which was wrong.

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The weather and climate affect both how people live and what natural disasters happen.

In cold northern areas, people build insulated houses and wear warm clothes, but they also face blizzards, ice storms, and snow. In warm and humid regions, homes need air conditioning, and people wear lighter clothing, but these areas often experience hurricanes, tropical storms, and flooding.

Dry regions, such as the Southwest, have fewer crops and need irrigation for farming. People there face droughts, wildfires, and dust storms because of the lack of rain. In the central United States, where warm and cold air meet, tornadoes are common. Meanwhile, mountain areas can have avalanches and landslides after heavy snow or rain.

Overall, the climate shapes how people live, what they build, and the kinds of natural disasters they must prepare for.

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Hello everyone! Welcome to the US History and Cultures course. My name is Claire Dutriaux. We will be working on this padlet for the next two weeks. This is where you will post your answers / discussions / various messages for the assignments, and I will also be posting course material that you will also find on Blackboard.