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A, De Humani Corpus Fabrica, Book VII, Plate 3 L, Corpus Callosum

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The picture shows the first precise image of the human brain in history. Vesalius (1514-1564) was an anatomist during the Renaissance period. In 1543, Vesalius published "De Humani Corpus Fabrica". This photo comes from this book. This book contains exquisite illustrations that show the most precise anatomical images of the human brain at the time. Vesalius described many anatomical features of the brain in his book, such as his first clear depiction of structures such as the corpus callosum and lentiform nucleus. He also classified the brain nerves into seven pairs and speculated that each pair of nerves had different functions. Vesalius's work changed the teaching technique of anatomy in Europe, and his precise images of the human brain made human understanding of the brain not rely solely on imagination.

Source:

1,https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7966481/

2,https://www.nature.com/articles/521160a

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Descartes (1596-1650) was a French philosopher and mathematician. His exploration of the brain combines philosophy and physiology. Descartes attempted to explain the relationship between the spirit and the brain. He proposed the famous "Mind–body dualism" which states that the spirit and body are completely different realities. He regards the human body as a complex mechanical device: sensory signals are transmitted to the brain through nerves, triggering the soul to interact with the body in the pineal gland. Descartes believed that the pineal gland is located in the center of the brain and serves as the workshop for the mind to act on the body. He also proposed the early concept of reflex, as shown in the figure, when a child's foot approaches a flame, the flame stimulation pulls the nerves located in the brain through the nerves in the leg to release spiritual energy, causing the leg muscles to contract and move the foot away. This experiment reflects Descartes' view on the neural mechanisms of the brain: he believed that the brain's nerves were filled with spiritual energy, and stimulation would induce these fluids to flow towards the muscles, causing them to move. Although this mechanism was later proven to be incorrect, Descartes' idea of separating psychology from physiology had a profound impact on the development of neuroscience.

Source:

1,https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8283885/

2,https://www.britannica.com/science/death/Descartes-the-pineal-soul-and-brain-stem-death

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Thomas Willis (1621-1675) was a physician in Oxford, England. He systematically illustrated the brain and nerves in his 1664 publication "Cerebromi Anatomy". The book provides a detailed description of the brain's structures such as the brainstem, cerebellum, ventricles, and cerebral hemispheres. He explained the vascular supply of the brain through extensive human and animal anatomy. This is the first complete description of the arterial ring structure at the bottom of the brain. To commemorate him, they named the arterial circulation that ensures balanced blood supply to various parts of the brain the "Circle of Willis" as shown in the picture. This structure ensures that even if the carotid or vertebral artery is obstructed, it can still supply blood to the entire brain. Willis' work laid the foundation for neuroanatomy, and his approach of combining anatomy with clinical practice greatly advanced people's understanding of neurological diseases.

Source:

1,https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC539424/

2,https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/circle-of-willis

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Phrenology is a theory that suggests that a person's psychological traits can be determined by the shape of their head. They believe that the brain is an organ of the mind, which is composed of different functions, each corresponding to a specific area of the brain. These areas have different human characteristics according to a certain structure. They also believe that the shape of the skull is related to the shape of these areas in the brain. Therefore, by measuring a person's head, they can determine their personality. Although Phrenology is now recognized as pseudoscience. But its foundation comes from some correct assumptions, such as the brain being the root of human behavior, and different brain regions may be responsible for different behavioral manifestations or cognitive functions.

Source:

1,https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-phrenology-2795251

2,https://www.britannica.com/topic/phrenology

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Electrical signals and brain nerve conduction

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Electrical signals and brain nerve conduction

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Luigi Galvani published an experiment in 1791, demonstrating that the muscles of frog legs contract when subjected to electrical stimulation. Thus, it was first proposed that electrical signals play a role in brain nerve conduction. Galvani's experiment shook the "neural fluid theory" for thousands of years and pioneered the field of electrophysiology. His discovery prompted people to search for the relationship between nerves and electricity: Italian scientist Volta invented the battery, further confirming the effect of electric current on neuromuscular systems. These studies by the end of the 18th century led scholars to view nerves as wires, not fluid tubes. Although the true mechanism of neural impulses was not elucidated until the mid-19th century, humans had already begun to recognize that nerves transmit information electronically before the 18th century, which was a significant change in the history of neuroscience.

Source:

1,https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069106000370

2,https://docs.backyardbrains.com/Retired/Experiments/Galvani_Volta

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During the Renaissance, some auxiliary technologies were developed to study the internal structure of the brain. Leonardo da Vinci conducted an experiment around 1508: injecting melted beeswax into the brains of cows or humans, wait for it to cool and solidify, then peel off the brain tissue to obtain a wax mold in the shape of the ventricles. Through this innovative method, Leonardo da Vinci accurately depicted the structure of the lateral and third ventricles. The same idea was also used to create models of hollow blood vessels. Willis and his assistants attempted to infuse dyes or molding materials into cerebral blood vessels to construct the cerebral vascular structure. In the 18th century, anatomical wax models also appeared in anatomy teaching. Craftsmen used colored beeswax to create realistic models of human organs as shown in the figure, including the brain and nerves, which could be preserved for teaching and display for a long time. These wax modeling techniques greatly facilitated the repeated study and display of the anatomical structure of the brain.

Source:

1,https://www.apollo-magazine.com/wax-anatomical-models-bologna/

2,https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2815944/

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Galen (129-216 AD) was a physician and philosopher of the Roman. He had a profound influence on early brain anatomy research. Due to Roman law's prohibition on dissecting the human body. He instead inferred the structure of the human brain by dissecting animals such as monkeys and pigs. Galen discovered that the brain has two compositions: the cerebrum and the cerebellum. He inferred that the cerebrum is responsible for sensation and memory, while the cerebellum controls movement. Galen also demonstrated the control of nerves over bodily functions through experiments: according to records, when he dissected a live pig, he cut off its recurrent laryngeal nerve, and the pig immediately stopped making sounds, thus proving that sound is controlled by brain nerves rather than the heart. Galen's works further developed Hippocrates' theory of brain centeredness and established the theory that the brain is the core of thought through experimental evidence.

Source:

1,https://pressbooks.pub/anne1/chapter/ancient-anatomy-galen/

2,https://austinpublishinggroup.com/surgery/fulltext/ajs-v1-id1009.php

3,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282470370_GALEN_AND_HIS_CONTRIBUTION_TO_ANATOMY_A_REVIEW