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https://mahzenselt.blogspot.com/p/about-me.html

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Hi, everyone! My name is Ahsen and I am 19 years old. I am studying English Language Teaching in Marmara University as a second grad...

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According to Council Of Europe, Migration is a process of moving, either across an international border or within a country, encompassing any kind of movement of people, regardless of the causes.

There are different types of migration:

Temporary labour migrants (also known as guest workers)

Highly skilled and business migrants: Professionals, who move within the internal labour markets of transnational corporations and international organisations

Irregular migrants: People who enter a country without the necessary documents and permits

Forced migrants: Refugees, asylum seekers, or people forced to move due to external factors, such as armed conflicts or environmental disasters

Family members: Who join their close relatives who have already migrated

Return migrants: People who return to their countries of origin after a period in another country

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The UN Migration Agency (IOM) defines a migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a State away from his/her habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is.

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3-Advantages & Disadvantages Of Migration (for the host country)

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3-Advantages & Disadvantages Of Migration (for the host country)

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Advantages

It has the potential to fill job vacancies and develop skills gaps within the workforce, improve business productivity, and boost national productivity.

The economic benefits of migration to the host country of low-skilled labourers often outweighs the risks and cost to the host. In some cases, it can even be said that immigrants are a vital part of the cultural fabric of many countries.

Can benefit locations where the majority of the population is old.  As they are younger, they bring with them new ideas and skills that can help invigorate the economy.

Immigrants bring skills and knowledge that may not be easily obtained or duplicated in the local population. In terms of cultural diversity, migrants contribute much to their countries’ social fabric and identity as they integrate with other culture groups within their host country.

Disadvantages

Those who migrate may need to take on a lower paying job than they had in their homeland to maintain their standard of living. Additionally, with more people migrating, there is an increased cost of goods and services, causing wages to decrease. This is true also when immigrants have a higher education level and are willing to work for less pay.

Migration can be dangerous and can have a negative impact on the economy. While some migrants are able to find a decent job and earn a living for themselves, others may end up being exploited in the process. It is important for migrants to protect their rights because they may be taken advantage of due to language barriers or by placing their trust in people who do not want them to succeed.

Increased population can put pressure on public services. The more people there are, the more towns and cities have to build as well as new residential areas, schools and hospitals to accommodate them. This creates a strain on the government and its budget.

The number of people immigrating into a country can have economic and social implications. If unending numbers of people are migrating into an area, then it can have detrimental consequences like the displacement of jobs, unemployment and limited access to resources. There are also drawbacks as well such as increased rates of crimes, health risks and climate change.

Click here to read more about the topic

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Regardless of one’s background, settling in a new country is a challenging experience. It is even harder for people who have to migrate to another country due to forced displacement. Among some of the prominent hardships that most immigrants and especially refugees face are the language barrier, low employment opportunities, accommodation, and racial and religious discrimination.

The Language Barrier

The ability to communicate affects every aspect of our lives that involves interacting with others. Learning the language of the host country for an immigrant is essential for everything from finding a job to attending school or simply buying food. While language acquisition is easier for younger learners, it can be a big challenge for older immigrants to learn how to communicate in the language of their host country.

Low Employment Opportunities

The difficulty of finding a job is one of the main problems for immigrants. Perhaps the most important of the problems experienced by immigrants in this sense is that even if they find a job, they are usually forced to work long hours without getting paid overtime. In some countries, there are many educated immigrants whose skills are in high demand. As the article on BBC suggests, the problem is that there are barriers to matching them with jobs, resulting in 'brain waste'. Displaced people may not be able to provide proof of their degrees and qualifications even if they are considered valid across borders.

Accommodation

According to the report of the National Council on Family Relations, many immigrant families suffer from accommodation difficulties, including struggling to find affordable housing, facing health hazards, and overcrowding. Even if they find a place to live, immigrants often face unsafe housing conditions for migrants, including poor insulation and pest infestations.

Racial and Religious Discrimination

The term discrimination against immigrants refers to the unjust or prejudicial treatment of immigrants based on their national origin or religious background. In spite of the fact that many immigrants are welcomed in the country they settle in, there is still too much discrimination against them to be underestimated. In addition to xenophobic harassment and attacks, there are a variety of forms of discrimination, including reduced access to healthcare and unsafe and unfair working conditions. According to the article of the European Union, the European Network Against Racism (ENAR), the organization highlights that African migrants who need humanitarian protection are framed as “economic” or “illegal” migrants without any political assessment of the forces at play. Another example is that although one million people sought refuge in the EU in 2015, a number of Member States indicated that irregular migrants, especially Muslim migrants, were not welcome.

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Many people leave their homeland and travel and settle in different countries. Many do this because of persecution, famine, hunger, war, etc. Once they reach the country, immigrants and refugees have to face many problems. Before you read the challenges, read the list of the top 5 countries with the worst migration policies here.

Some of the major challenges faced by immigrants are mentioned here -
Prejudice
In most countries, it has been seen that immigrants face discrimination. Most countries' residents do not like immigrants entering their country and using up their resources and, most specifically, their job opportunities. Also, the fraud in immigration is increasing, and how to beware about it.
Raising Children
Children of immigrants have to face a lot of problems too. The challenges that such students have to face can be depressing and lead to panic disorders and anxiety. Research shows that these students have to struggle more in schools and colleges.

Difference in Culture

Your social customs and rituals may or may not match with that of the native people of the country. The cultural rituals important for you can be really annoying for them. Therefore, both parties need to keep an open mind.

Issues with Transportation

It is difficult for an immigrant to get a driver's license. Also, immigrants get little options with other means of transport as well. Also, most immigrants find traveling very costly. They usually face auto-related problems because of the age of their vehicle.
Access to Medical Services
Everyone must have access to medical facilities. Immigrants get a lower rate of medical insurance coverage and poor services too. This can be due to fear of deportation or financial issues. Many cannot participate in basic healthcare programs due to discrimination.
Housing
Finding an affordable, safe, and decent house in a foreign country is challenging for any immigrant. Most immigrants are jobless and cannot afford house rent. Finding a house in another country for you is extremely difficult, and you need to keep more safety for your house.
Lack of Employment Opportunities
Immigrants do face discrimination in their jobs. Many immigrants are excluded from important posts and projects even though they are capable. They are offered comparatively lower salaries and, in some cases, humiliated or bullied too.
Language Problems
It is of utmost importance that you can communicate with the other person. If you cannot talk in their language, if they do not understand you, you can neither work for them nor learn or understand anything about the country.

Summing Up

To conclude, every immigrant has to face many problems during their stay in a foreign country. Before you migrate, it is very important to read and know the migration laws very clearly. They are often humiliated based on cultural differences, skin color, and many more, as mentioned above.

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Some of the Major Challenges Faced By Immigrants

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Many people leave their homeland and travel and settle in different countries. Many do this because of persecution, famine, hunger, war, etc.

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5- The Most Welcoming Countries for Immigrants

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5- The Most Welcoming Countries for Immigrants

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Immigration is more convenient in many countries compared to others thanks to their liberal and lenient immigration policies. The most prominent ones of them are Türkiye, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Singapore, and Norway.

Türkiye

According to the article of Assegaf (2021), Türkiye is considered a migrant-friendly country, both for voluntary migrants and for forced migrants. According to the factsheet of the European Union, with more than 4 million refugees, Türkiye hosts the largest refugee population in the world. As for forced migration, since 2016, Turkey has made significant changes to its international protection laws and regulations to facilitate refugee access to employment, education, and health services. Türkiye is attempting to integrate these migrants into Turkish society by converting them into properly skilled individuals. As for voluntary migrants, who are mostly skilled migrants, Türkiye is working on developing regulations to attract highly skilled international workers.

Canada

Canada is considered to be the most immigration-friendly country in the world. The country has long been a safe haven for immigrants because of its liberal immigration policy. Additionally, according to the UN, Canada is one of the best countries to live in.

Australia

In terms of permanent residency regulations, Australia offers a simple process. Besides having a high level of education and living standards, Australia offers immigrants good employment prospects as well.

New Zealand

As a country with abundant natural beauty and a rich cultural heritage, New Zealand is also a welcoming place for immigrants. With most of its citizens being born outside of the country, it is among the most multicultural and admired countries in the world. There are many reasons for people to consider New Zealand as a possible future residence, such as its excellent education system, excellent infrastructure, low unemployment rate, low crime rate, and stable economy.

Germany

By far the largest number of migrants to enter any OECD country was received by Germany in 2018. Germany ranks among the world's strongest economies and has the lowest unemployment rates in the EU. In addition, it is a popular destination for immigrants seeking an education because German institutions charge little or no tuition.

Singapore

Singapore is known as being one of the most developed countries in Asia and offers lenient immigration and citizenship policies. As being one of the highest-ranking countries on the Human Development Index, it has been an increasingly attractive destination for immigrants from Malaysia, China, India, and Indonesia.

Norway

Many people are drawn to Norway due to the relatively lenient immigration laws, and it is considered to be one of the most immigration-friendly countries. It is a very friendly country where people usually live long, healthy, and happy lives. Besides having a beautiful landscape and being pollution-free, Norway also offers high living standards, employment opportunities, and free education.

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Internet infrastructure stocks are diverse. They include companies that merchandise software and hardware that affect internet use. Most did well last year, with an average 28% rise. This is better than the growth of the S&P 500, which went up 27% last year. 2022 seems like it'll be a strong year too, and for a [...] More

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Internet infrastructure stocks are diverse. They include companies that merchandise software and hardware that affect internet use. Most did well last year, with an average 28% rise. This is better than the growth of the S&P 500, which went up 27% last year. 2022 seems like it'll be a strong year too, and for a [...]

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6- Factors that Attract Qualified International Workforce to Migrate to Türkiye

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6- Factors that Attract Qualified International Workforce to Migrate to Türkiye

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Türkiye ranks third in terms of permanent foreigner inflows in 2019, according to OECD (The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) data. Around 579 thousand foreigners have obtained legal permanent resident status in Türkiye, constituting 0.7% of the population.

According to the article of Assegaf (2021), Türkiye draws many highly skilled EU citizens, descendants of Turkish migrants in the EU, and other international residents. Despite this, as per the OECD data, Türkiye is among the less attractive to potential highly qualified immigrant workers.

There are several factors for the qualified international workforce to migrate to Türkiye and they can be classified as follows:

►  Booming Turkish economy

►  Growing opportunities for higher education

►  Research and development

►  Increasing foreign direct investment opportunities
►  Turkey’s potential to become a soft power in the region

Apart from these, according to the article "Migration Policy Debates" by Stiftung (2019), although Türkiye does not rank highly among talented migrants in international comparisons, it may be an attractive destination for migrants from specific countries of origin, with specific language skills, or with cultural backgrounds that can't be captured by synthetic indicators.

The studies by IMF World Economic Outlook (2020), OECD (2014), Migration Council Australia (2015), and Quak (2019) state that migration contributes positively to the hosting country’s economy.

The integration of highly skilled migrants into the Turkish labor market would likely be possible given that most migrants arrive in Turkey with employment offers already secured, so they can start working almost immediately upon arrival.

Thus, highly-skilled migrants would contribute positively to the Turkish economy within a short period of time without having to undergo lengthy training or education.

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Turkey, on one hand, trying to attract qualified foreign professionals and investors to create an economy producing goods with high added value and increase the domestic savings, and on the other hand, struggling to cope up with the inflow of refugees in huge numbers from the troubled neighbors, has introduced new arrangements to regulate the international workforce movements inside the country.

Within last three years, www.turkishlaborlaw.com provided you with every legislative step taken by the government, and every aspects of the implementation regarding foreign employment, including full translation of INTERNATIONAL WORKFORCE LAW No. 6735, and many other Regulations.

In this review, we will try to give you a whole view of arrangements and implementation on international workforce as a guideline. At the end of each topic you will be provided with the related links of our website in which you can find detailed information on the topic in hand.
INTERNATIONAL WORKFORCE LAW
"International Workforce Law No. 6735" that regulates the processes and transactions to be followed on work permits and work permit exemptions granted to foreigners, and the rights and obligations in the field of employment of international workforce has been issued in the Official Gazette numbered 29800 on 13 August 2016.

Easier work permit application and simplified granting procedures are introduced for qualified foreign professionals and investors. You will find the details of said law in the following topics.
You can download the full English translation of the new "International Workforce Law No. 6735" in our website. For outlines of International Workforce Law No. 6735. WORK PERMIT APPLICATION PROCESS
Applications for work permits can be made inside or outside Turkey. Foreigners residing abroad shall apply to the Turkish Consulates in their country of residence or of citizenship.

Foreigners with a valid residence permit (valid for a minimum of 6 months, except for residence permits for educational purposes) can apply directly to the Ministry of Labor and Social Security.

Both foreigners and their employers should submit the required documents to the Ministry.
For detailed information press here! TYPES OF WORK PERMITS
Types of work permits are specified in Article 10 of "International Workforce Law No. 6735", which is in effect as of 13 August 2016.

Temporary Work Permit: Foreigners will be granted upmost one year work permit on their first application provided that the permit's duration is not exceeding their employment or service contract periods, and that they are employed for a certain job in a certain workplace owned by real person or legal entity, or public institution and public

Permanent Work Permit: Foreigners holding long-term residence permits or minimum eight years of legal work permit may apply for permanent work permit. However, having the requirements for application shall not confer an absolute right for foreigners.

Independent Work Permit: Foreign professionals of some occupational groups may be granted independent work permit provided that they satisfy the special terms stipulated in other laws.

Turquoise Card: Turquoise Card owners after three years of transition period will have the same rights permanent work permit provides.

You can find the detailed information about the types of work permit in the link below. TURQUOISE CARD REGULATION
Turquoise Card is a document that grants foreigner the right of work permanently in Turkey, and the right of residence to his/her spouse and children who are dependent in line with governing legislation.

Turquoise Card owners will have the same rights as accorded to Turkish citizens after 3 years of transition period, excluding right to elect and be elected, or to enter into public service. And they will have no obligation of compulsory military service.
For detailed information press here. http://turkishlaborlaw.com/international-workforce-law TEN THINGS ABOUT FOREIGN EMPLOYEES IN TURKEY You can find the work permit, tax law, labor law and social security status of expats in the below link: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/506-ten-things-about-foreign-employees-in-turkey WORK PERMIT FOR MEMBERS OF SOME PROFESSION IN TURKEY Obligation of preliminary permission for healthcare and educational services
Some of the foreign professionals and personnel, such as professionals of healthcare and educational services, engineers and architects, R&D and free trade zone personnel are subject to special arrangements as regard to obtaining work permit in Turkey.

Professionals of healthcare services must obtain preliminary permission from Ministry of Health.

Preliminary permission for professionals of educational services is granted by Ministry of National Education.

Work permits of foreign national faculty members who are to work within the scope of Higher Education Law No. 2547 will be granted by Ministry of Labor and Social Security relying on the preliminary permission of Higher Education Council.

For detailed information: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/465-work-permit-for-members-of-some-profession-in-turkey WORK PERMIT EXTENSION APPLICATION
Applications for extension of work permit shall be made before the expiration of work permit in any case, as of within sixty days prior to the expiration of work permit. Applications for extension made after the date of expiration shall be rejected.
For detailed information: https://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/legal-news/419-change-in-work-permit-extension-application SOCIAL SECURITY STATUS OF EXPATS AND COMPANY PARTNERS Posting Between Contracting Countries
Social security obligation of foreigners working or dealing with business in Turkey depends on, in general, whether they are;

working under an employment contract or self-employed,

residing abroad or in Turkey,

posted to Turkey for a certain or an undefined period of time,

the citizens of the countries Turkey has bilateral social security agreement with or not.

For detailed information: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/493-social-security-status-of-foreigners-and-company-partners PROHIBITED OCCUPATION FOR FOREIGNERS IN TURKEY
The following professional occupations cannot be performed by foreigners:

Dentistry (dentist, dental surgery)

Nursing (midwife, nurse)

Pharmacist

Veterinary

Managing director in private health institutions

Lawyer (Judge, public prosecutor)

Security staff

Exportation of fish, abalone, mussel, sponge, pearl, coral

Diving, maritime pilotage, and captainship, engineering and mariner on ships, within the territorial waters

Customs brokerage

Tourist guiding.

For detailed information: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/502-prohibited-occupation-for-foreigners-in-turkey VALIDITY AND CANCELLATION OF WORK PERMIT
Turkey's new "International Workforce Law No. 6735", which is in effect as of 13 August 2016, sets forth new arrangements on validity and cancellation of work permit and work permit exemption.
You can find the reasons of cancellation in the link below: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/443-validity-and-cancellation-of-work-permit-in-turkey GRANTING WORK PERMIT EXCEPTIONALLY
Work permit can be granted to certain categories of persons who have some status and/or qualifications determined by Ministry of Labor and Social Security. However, there is not such a type of work permit called "exceptional," and it should not be taken as an exemption from work permit requirements. Granting work permit exceptionally is simply means that, principles for assessments of applications and time periods specified in Law will not be applied to some persons.
For detailed information: https://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/433-granting-work-permit-exceptionally-in-turkey FOREIGNERS IN THE SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION
NEW REGULATION FOR REFUGEES

"THE REGULATION ON WORKING PROCEDURES OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION APPLICANTS AND HOLDERS OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION STATUS," based on the Law on Foreigners and International Protection, No. 6458, and determining the procedures and principles governing the employment of the applicants or the beneficiaries of international protection status, has been issued in Official Journal No. 29695, dated 26 April 2016.

The "Law on Foreigners and International Protection, No. 6458" defines different types of international protection status;

A person from European countries or stateless person under certain condition.
- Subsidiary Protection: A person outside European countries under certain condition.
- Conditional Refugee: A person or a stateless person, who neither could be qualified as a refugee nor as a conditional refugee but nevertheless needs protection for certain reasons.
- Applicants of International Protection: A person applied for the international protection status but not yet qualified for it.
For detailed information: http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/legal-news/383-new-regulation-for-refugees WORK PERMIT FOR SYRIAN REFUGEES
Regulation on Work Permit of Refugees under Temporary Protection " has been issued in the Official Journal No. 2016/8375, dated 15 January 2016.

You can reach the detailed information on

The refugees who will be granted work permit

Employment quota

Work Permit Exemption for Seasonal Workers in Agriculture and Stockbreeding

in the below link
http://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/legal-news/362-turkey-grants-work-permit-for-syrian-refugees WORK PERMIT FEES AND WHERE TO PAY
For work permit applications in Turkey certificate fee and valuable paper fee must be paid separately after the application found appropriate. Foreigners should not make any payment before the massage related to these amounts received from the Ministry.

For applications out of Turkey the fees will be paid while receiving employment visa.
https://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/legal-news/422-new-work-permit-fees-and-where-to-pay REGISTERED ELECTRONIC MAIL OBLIGATION IN WORK PERMIT APPLICATION
In the announcement of Ministry of Labor and Social Security, General Directorate of International Labor Force, dated 25 October 2017, it is stated that renewal of Work Permit Application System is about to be completed; and new system will put into practice soon.

The Employer, in all types of work permit application abroad or inside Turkey,

Foreigners, applying for independent or permanent work permit inside Turkey.

will have to obtain a Registered Electronic Mail, and electronic signatures must be used.
https://turkishlaborlaw.com/news/business-in-turkey/545-registered-electronic-mail-obligation-in-work-permit-application WORK PERMIT APPLICATION OF FREE TRADE ZONE PERSONNEL
Work permit application of foreign free trade zone personnel legally staying in Turkey will be made to relevant free zone management by the free trade zone firm. Applications are evaluated by Ministry of Economy and granted by Ministry of Labor and Social Security. It should be noted that "relevant free zone management means" regional directorates of free zones at which the workplace is established, not the General Directorate of Free Zones of Economy Ministry.

Implementation Regulation, determining the application and issuance of work permits related to foreigners who wish to work in the scope of Free Trade Zone Law, No. 3218, has been issued in Official Gazette No. 30078, dated 27 th May 2017.
You will find the brief translation of said Regulation in the link below: http://datassist.com/blog/145-work-permit-application-of-free-trade-zone-personnel

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A Review of International Workforce in Turkey - Turkish Labor Law

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Turkey, on one hand, trying to attract qualified foreign professionals and investors to create an economy producing goods with high added value and increase the domestic savings, and on the other hand, struggling to cope up with the inflow of refugees in huge numbers from the troubled neighbors, has introduced new arrangements to regulate the international workforce movements inside the country.

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Nur Çögen Student, Teacher Candidate, and Online Content Creator E-mail: nurcogen@iluminate.blog Social Media: Hi viewers! My name is Nur and I am a student from Istanbul. I hold a Bachelor of Arts…

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Hi everyone!

It's Mehmetcan Alaf but you can call me Can like everyone else. I am an ELT student at Marmara University in İstanbul/Turkey, I am in second grade and also a part-time instructor at Limon Akademi. I teach English to fourth-grade students there.

I am twenty-one years old but I will be twenty-two years old in a short time. I was born and raised in Adana but I live in Istanbul now.

I love teaching people things. This is why I've decided to be an English Teacher.

My hobbies are watching sitcoms, especially The Office, and watching formula 1 races and football games. I also like to visit museums and art galleries.

If you wonder why I've created this blog, you can find your answers in my '' Welcoming Post ''.

-canalaf

me at Istanbul Archeology Museum

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Hi everyone! It's Mehmetcan Alaf but you can call me Can like everyone else. I am an ELT student at Marmara University in İstanbul/Turkey, I am in second grade and also a part-time instructor at Limon Akademi. I teach English to fourth-grade students there.

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1-What is migration?

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2- Who are called "immigrants"?

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Migration is mostly compulsory

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Migration has immense effects worldwide

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Hosting too many immigrants puts the country in a difficult position in many ways

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3-What are the disadvantages of migration?

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7-Factors contributing to immigrants’ acquisition of the host country language

For immigrants to successfully integrate into society and the economy, they must be fluent in the language of the host nation. It increases productivity by increasing contacts with the native-born population and enhancing access to better-paying occupations. Despite these significant advantages, many immigrants continue to have low levels of language ability in their home nation.

The ease or difficulty of learning a particular language, the amount of exposure to the host country language, and the incentives for learning the language are all factors that affect immigrants' acquisition of the native tongue. Age of arrival, the linguistic distance between the original language and the host country language, the reasons for migration, cognitive ability, and education all have an impact on an immigrant's capacity to acquire a new language. Because of disparities in foreign language education and exposure in their home countries, immigrants have different pre-migration exposure to the host country's language. After immigration, exposure to the local tongue varies depending on the location (whether in an ethnic enclave or not), family structure, and whether or not the immigrant was married to a native.
The expectation of future earnings and employment opportunities, as well as the anticipated length of stay in the host nation, all affect the incentives for language learning.

The main factors about the issue are listed below:

-Ability and efficiency in learning a new language
-Degree of exposure to the host country language
-Economic incentives for acquiring the language

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8-Is Immigration Good Or Bad For Economy?

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8-Is Immigration Good Or Bad For Economy?

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Economic migration is when someone moves from one region to another in search of better living conditions or job opportunities. We usually talk about economic migration between countries—when people immigrate from one country to another. But moving around within a country can also be considered economic migration; moving from the countryside to a city is a particularly big trend.

Economic migration causes all kinds of big debates. Some people argue that people should be able to take jobs anywhere, regardless of where they were born (this is sometimes called the ‘free movement of labor’). Other people think that’s a bad idea, either for the place the migrants are going or the place they are leaving.

When asked if the average American citizen would be better off if the US let in more low-skilled immigrants, only 10% of the economists polled in a 2013 survey said no.¹ But 89% of those same economists said there was a chance that more immigration would leave many low-skilled American workers substantially worse off. Obviously, that’s not everyone’s opinion, but it seems a lot of economists feel that economic migration boosts the overall economy for the place the migrants are going, but can cause problems for people already at the bottom of the economic ladder.

There’s a lot of research saying that economic migration boosts overall economic growth. According to the World Bank, international migration helps to increase world GDP, as it allows workers to move to where they are most productive.² For countries with low birth rates immigrants can be particularly important. According to the OECD, migrants have been responsible for 47% of the increase in the American workforce and 70% of the increase in the European workforce over the last 10 years .³

Migrants also tend to contribute more to the public purse in taxes than they take out because they are usually of working age, meaning they are less likely to depend on state resources, and more likely to be working and paying taxes.⁴

However, economic migrants are often blamed for increasing competition for jobs, which can put downward pressures on wages and employment prospects for some domestic workers. People also worry about the longer term effects of migration on government spending (especially when migrants bring their families who may not be working), as more people put a bigger strain on health, education, transportation and other state services.

There’s also a debate in some countries about how easy it should be for citizens to come and go. On one hand people worry that their best and brightest will leave the country in droves for higher salaries abroad, often after after receiving years of publicly funded education. That’s called brain drain, and it can be a big issue for countries trying to develop high skilled industries. But on the other hand, economic migrants usually send money back to their home country—these transfers are called remittances. Often, countries rely in large part on the money they get from remittances – worldwide the total coming in from remittances is about 3 times the amount sent as foreign aid.²

The question of whether economic migration is good or bad touches on a lot more than just economics. There are social, cultural, and moral arguments used to argue for and against migration, as well as security concerns raised by letting people move back and forth. So far, economic migration has been one of the biggest and most divisive political questions of 21st century, and it seems likely to be central part of our politics going forward.

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Immigration is when people move from one country to another for more than just a short stay. People become migrants for all kinds of reasons, whether retirement, love, study, or fleeing war or persecution (we call these last people refugees). One of the biggest (and most controversial) groups are economic migrants.

Economic migration is when someone moves from one region to another in search of better living conditions or job opportunities. We usually talk about economic migration between countries-when people immigrate from one country to another. But moving around within a country can also be considered economic migration; moving from the countryside to a city is a particularly big trend.

Economic migration causes all kinds of big debates. Some people argue that people should be able to take jobs anywhere, regardless of where they were born (this is sometimes called the 'free movement of labor'). Other people think that's a bad idea, either for the place the migrants are going or the place they are leaving.

When asked if the average American citizen would be better off if the US let in more low-skilled immigrants, only 10% of the economists polled in a 2013 survey said no.¹ But 89% of those same economists said there was a chance that more immigration would leave many low-skilled American workers substantially worse off. Obviously, that's not everyone's opinion, but it seems a lot of economists feel that economic migration boosts the overall economy for the place the migrants are going, but can cause problems for people already at the bottom of the economic ladder.

There's a lot of research saying that economic migration boosts overall economic growth. According to the World Bank, international migration helps to increase world GDP, as it allows workers to move to where they are most productive.² For countries with low birth rates immigrants can be particularly important. According to the OECD, migrants have been responsible for 47% of the increase in the American workforce and 70% of the increase in the European workforce over the last 10 years .³

Migrants also tend to contribute more to the public purse in taxes than they take out because they are usually of working age, meaning they are less likely to depend on state resources, and more likely to be working and paying taxes.⁴

However, economic migrants are often blamed for increasing competition for jobs, which can put downward pressures on wages and employment prospects for some domestic workers. People also worry about the longer term effects of migration on government spending (especially when migrants bring their families who may not be working), as more people put a bigger strain on health, education, transportation and other state services.

There's also a debate in some countries about how easy it should be for citizens to come and go. On one hand people worry that their best and brightest will leave the country in droves for higher salaries abroad, often after after receiving years of publicly funded education. That's called brain drain, and it can be a big issue for countries trying to develop high skilled industries. But on the other hand, economic migrants usually send money back to their home country -these transfers are called remittances. Often, countries rely in large part on the money they get from remittances - worldwide the total coming in from remittances is about 3 times the amount sent as foreign aid.²

The question of whether economic migration is good or bad touches on a lot more than just economics. There are social, cultural, and moral arguments used to argue for and against migration, as well as security concerns raised by letting people move back and forth. So far, economic migration has been one of the biggest and most divisive political questions of 21st century, and it seems likely to be central part of our politics going forward.

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Immigration is when people move from one country to another for more than just a short stay. People become migrants for all kinds of reasons, whether retirement, love, study, or fleeing war or persecution (we call these last people refugees). One of the biggest (and most controversial) groups are economic migrants.

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9-Do migrants take the jobs of native workers? 

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9-Do migrants take the jobs of native workers? 

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The evidence does not support policy intervention to “protect” native employment. Instead, the quantitative evidence shows that, overall, immigrants do not take native workers’ jobs in the long term and that they stimulate job creation through increased production, self-employment, entrepreneurship, and innovation. They also provide opportunities for native workers to upgrade their occupation and specialize in higher-skill jobs. Any short-term negative effects on native employment are small and insignificant. For the most part, these findings align with public opinion in developed countries. In the worst case, the only workers whose jobs are affected are those with strikingly similar skills and background—generally earlier immigrants. High-skilled immigrant workers complement physical capital and technology and the human capital of both low- and high-skilled native workers. This complementarity leads to greater and more efficient production and to economic growth, making all consumers and the national economy better off.

This mechanism functions naturally only when labor markets are flexible. Admitting immigrants with a mix of skills while maintaining flexible labor markets allows firms to adapt to the labor supply. Countries benefit from engaging rather than restricting immigrant workers.

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Pros

Immigrants who are self-employed or entrepreneurs directly create new jobs.

Immigrant innovators create jobs indirectly within a firm, leading to long-term job growth.

New immigrants fill labor shortages and keep markets working efficiently.

High-skilled immigrants contribute to technological adaptation and low-skilled immigrants to occupational mobility, specialization, and human capital creation; both create new jobs for native workers.

By raising demand, immigrants cause firms and production to expand, resulting in new hiring.

Cons

Low-skilled immigrants may compete in the short term, but the effect is small and not statistically significant.

If low-skilled immigrant workers only supplement the work of high-skilled native workers, they may be trapped in low-skill, low-paying jobs.

If low-skilled immigrant labor is employed in lieu of physical capital, technological advances and capital upgrading are impeded.

A country that becomes dependent on low-cost immigrant workers may have to outsource jobs when these workers are not available.

Immigrants may increase production without boosting productivity.

Job loss is a core topic of heated public debates on immigration, but much of the public discourse is uninformed by the evidence ( Figure 1). If policymakers are to draft immigration measures that are context-specific, broadly advantageous, and acceptable to native and immigrant populations, common misconceptions about immigration must first be exposed. Educated answers to two core questions can provide sound information for decision-making: Do native workers really fear that immigrants will take their jobs? If so, is such fear backed up by scientific studies? In both cases, the answer is no.

A brief discussion of the economic theory of migration's impact on jobs helps put the issue in perspective. It is important to understand possible adjustment mechanisms that can be triggered by migration related to labor supply changes, such as the mobility or displacement of native workers, professional upgrading, and firm adaptation. Key concepts include skill distinction, competition versus complementarity, and job protection.

The simple labor market model

The traditional labor market model, with employers on the demand side and employees on the supply side, defines the equilibrium wage and employment at the intersection of demand and supply. Employers hire all the workers they need at this wage, and all employees who want to work at this wage can find a job. Immigration increases labor supply. In the short term, holding all else constant (such as the demand for labor and international trade), the increase in labor supply lowers the equilibrium wage and raises the equilibrium level of employment, but it is not clear who gains from the increase in employment. It is possible that some native workers lose their jobs or drop out of the market and that some immigrants find jobs while others remain unemployed. The outcome hinges on stringent assumptions, such as full employment, no labor market segmentation, identical skills for immigrants and native workers, and immediate access by immigrants to all jobs held by native workers. In this short-term model, immigrants are considered perfect substitutes for native workers, and they affect the labor supply curve as if natives have replicated themselves.

The pragmatic labor market model and job creation mechanisms

In real life, native workers and immigrants differ in their country-specific human capital, such as language fluency, professional networks, and social and cultural knowledge. Initial skill differences make new immigrants and native workers imperfect substitutes. In addition, labor shortages and job vacancies are more common than full employment.

Labor, capital, technology, and resources are all production inputs that can complement or substitute for one another. According to economic theory, immigrants-as one of the inputs in production-raise the price of inputs they complement and lower the price of inputs for which they are perfect substitutes.

The economics of migration tell us that a country needs immigrants because its native labor force is not large enough to meet demand or specialized enough to handle technological changes. Vacancies exist even under high unemployment because native workers and jobs do not always match or because unemployed workers might not want or be qualified for the jobs available. Native workers often shun low-skill, repetitive jobs, preferring to stay unemployed, especially in countries with a strong welfare state system. Employers may then try to fill jobs by bringing in low-skilled immigrants-or by outsourcing. While the skills required for the job might be below immigrants' capabilities, immigrants are willing to accept the jobs in order to move to a country offering higher wages than their home country. Immigrants also tend to have tight ethnic networks which help them locate where the jobs are.

At higher skill levels, there are also some jobs for which the native labor force might not yet be qualified; native workers cannot instantaneously adapt to all the high-skilled jobs that emerge from rapid technological advances. Hiring qualified immigrant workers is a reasonable short-term solution because they can complement the work of native workers.

High-skilled workers are by definition specialists. Because of their unique skills, they are less substitutable, command high wages, and complement capital and technology. High-skilled immigrants can collaborate with high-skilled native workers (for example, university professors, information technology experts, and dancers) and encourage further specialization. And they can work well with low-skilled workers, whether foreign- or native-born, whose skills they complement. The resulting synergies can lead to job creation, and the economy can accommodate many more workers as the low-skilled help the high-skilled specialize and climb the socio-economic ladder. As long as labor markets can adapt to the supply of immigrant workers, skill variety and balance can create more efficient production processes.

The factors held constant in the theoretical short-term model can change in the long-term so that labor markets can accommodate migrant workers without harming native workers. New firms may spring up to take advantage of the low-wage, readily available supply of immigrant workers. Existing firms may adjust their investments and physical capital to take advantage of the skills available, so the increased supply of immigrant labor does not simply shift the supply curve. As a result of these two mechanisms, firm profits rise, further increasing the demand for low-wage workers and driving up wages and employment. The country may open up more to international trade. And the economy may become more flexible in producing a differentiated output mix and adjusting to the new skill combinations.

Another reason why immigrants do not simply displace native workers is that, as new arrivals, they do not have access to the same jobs as native workers. In segmented labor markets, immigrants may be slotted for a long time into lower tier jobs as supplements to native workers. Although this benefits native workers, it can trap immigrants at low socio-economic levels. In addition, immigrants who are self-employed and entrepreneurs may directly create jobs, for themselves and for any native workers they might hire. As entrepreneurs and innovators, immigrants can provide more jobs indirectly, through research and development within their firms.

The demand for goods and services cannot remain static. Immigrants affect the labor supply as workers and increase the demand for goods and services as consumers. Higher demand affects the labor market by boosting demand for labor, leading to an increase in equilibrium employment. And immigrant workers, especially the higher skilled, pay more in taxes than they receive in government benefits.

Competition and negative job effects

There will always be some competition between immigrant and native workers with the same skills. Labor market flexibility determines how much.

The research on the impact of immigrant workers on native workers takes two approaches: an area approach or a production function approach. The area approach, or spatial correlations approach, compares economic outcomes for native workers in areas with large immigrant inflows and those with low inflows. Most studies have found no adverse effects of large immigrant inflows. Some caution is required, however, since simple spatial statistics might lead to the wrong conclusions. For example, in 1994 in Miami, the rise in black unemployment that coincided with the expected arrival of Cuban immigrants might have been blamed on immigration even though the immigrants never arrived because their ship was intercepted at sea on orders from the US president. Spatial studies might also understate the actual impact of immigration in a locality if there are flaws in the econometric models or their estimation. The second method uses national data and differentiates workers by skills using a production function [1]. These studies find a moderate degree of competition among low-skilled workers and a negative impact on native workers. However, more methodologically complex studies focusing on the degree of substitutability among workers and the effects on employment and wages of substitutable and nonsubstitutable workers find no negative effects.

A study in the late 1990s of the displacement effects of immigrant workers on native workers in Canada found mixed effects according to the origins and occupations of the immigrants [2]. US immigrants, who had similar skills and competed with Canadians in many fields, had significant negative effects on Canadian workers. European immigrants, who complemented Canadian workers in most fields and competed with them in a few, had negative effects only where they competed with Canadian workers. And developing country immigrants had negative effects on Canadian workers only in the few occupations in which they competed with rather than complemented them. There is some evidence from 2012 that suggests part of the decline in youth employment for the US was related to increased competition from substitutable immigrant workers in low-skill jobs.

Low-skilled workers, who can perform repetitive, manual tasks at a lower cost than it takes to upgrade equipment, are often substitutes for capital. From this angle, employers may view all low-skilled workers as close substitutes. Thus, immigrant and native workers with low skills may compete directly for jobs, at least in the short term. Most studies agree that this has occurred in some markets and areas. However, the negative employment effect is small and not statistically significant. More often, the negative effects arise in the case of competition between recent and earlier immigrants, who have very similar skills.

When low-skilled immigrant workers are hired alongside high-skilled native workers it frees native workers to specialize, invest in education and training, and upgrade their occupations. The jobs they vacate are then available for others to fill, whether immigrant or native workers. But this complementarity and the ensuing upward mobility of native workers may consign generations of immigrant workers to low-skill, low-paying employment, especially in hierarchically structured labor markets. By reinforcing perceptions that some occupations are "immigrant jobs" and solidifying stereotypes, this pattern of employment and mobility reduces social cohesion and integration and may prevent immigrants from investing in education and entering higher-skilled occupations.

Over time, immigrants adjust to the culture of their new home and invest in learning fresh skills, which might put them in competition with native workers. There is not enough evidence, however, to sustain this claim, mostly because immigrants operate in different jobs, sectors, and industries than native workers. And even if immigrants have been in a country for a long time-and have mastered the same skills as native workers-they still differ from native workers and work in different jobs.

Repeatedly hiring workers from abroad into low-skill, low-paying jobs can create two negative effects: dependency on low-paid foreign workers and neglect of capital and technology upgrading. Most agricultural or seasonal jobs exhibit these effects. While filling these jobs with immigrant workers does not directly affect native workers' jobs, there are wider ramifications, such as difficulty enforcing the return home of seasonal workers, some of whom may stay in the US and go underground as undocumented workers. Failing to upgrade capital or use new technology could mean that these jobs and outputs would become uncompetitive, eventually moving abroad.

Immigrants are more likely than native workers to start a business and create their own jobs. However, while immigrants may take business start-up opportunities away from native workers, they do not put native workers out of business because immigrants operate in different ethnic niches.

Immigrant workers may contribute to growth in the production of goods and services, but productivity may not always grow along with it. For high-skilled Russian émigrés to Israel in the 1990s, the immigrant share in production was positively correlated with productivity in high-tech industries but strongly negatively correlated in low-tech industries [3]. The positive correlation in high-tech industries reflects complementarities between technology and the skilled immigrant workforce.

Jobs can be differentiated by sector as well as skill. If many low-skilled immigrant workers enter a specific sector-for example, construction-they will compete with low-skilled native workers in that sector. For example, when the share of immigrant workers rose in some blue-collar fields in France, some native French workers moved away from these sectors. Some of them went into less repetitive occupations in the same area, and some moved to other areas. The native workers who stayed in the high-immigration areas were able to upgrade their occupations when immigrants moved into their former, low-skill jobs. The native workers who moved to other areas had lower average earnings than the native workers who stayed in the area and changed jobs.

Some argue for the need for strong employment protection laws to shield native workers against job losses to immigrant workers. While such legislation can reduce job loss in the short term, it may exacerbate the negative impact in the long term by slowing or preventing the movement of native workers into higher skilled, better paying jobs.

Immigration's positive contributions to labor markets

Studies find no correlation between unemployment and the share of immigrants in a country. Indeed, a study of the effect of increased immigration in Europe in 1991 found that in competitive markets, labor migration increased the efficiency and flexibility of labor markets and slowed wage growth, allowing more people to find jobs [4]. Data from 2001-2007 for 17 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries show similar results: there is no correlation between unemployment and immigration rates ( Figure 2).

Empirical studies that took advantage of natural experiments to study the effects of increased immigration found no adverse effects on native workers. A study of the arrival of 125,000 Cuban immigrants in Miami between May and September 1980-a 7% increase in the labor force-found no negative effects on native Floridians but some negative effects on earlier Cuban immigrants [5]. Although it is possible that Miami was particularly successful at absorbing immigrants, other studies have also found that other US cities with high shares of immigrants were able to absorb low-skilled immigrants within industries by adapting production technologies to the new local labor supply. There was no evidence that immigration harmed employment opportunities for low-skilled native workers.

In the 1940s, the US Bracero Program recruited unskilled Mexican laborers to fill agricultural jobs that were not being filled locally. This short-term, demand-driven immigration enabled farmers to meet growing demand for affordable agricultural goods. The braceros did not take jobs away from Americans, but their low cost and substitutability with capital postponed technological upgrading and increased employer profits.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Germany recruited unskilled guestworkers to fill labor shortages (by 1972, the proportion of guestworkers in the construction sector was 17.8%). No displacement of native workers has been recorded; rather, immigrants expedited the upward mobility of German workers due to their complementarity in the production process, contributing to Germany's "economic miracle" ( Wirtschaftswunder). The immigrants fared less well, however, operating under less favorable labor market structures than German workers, making it harder for them than for native Germans to translate their human capital into a good first job. In the 1990s, during another influx of immigrant labor to Germany, there were again no adverse effects on native workers because there was no substitutability between them, but earlier migrants suffered some adverse employment and wage effects. Had the German labor market been less segmented and more flexible, it would have been even more efficient in dealing with the effects of increasing immigration[6].

Similar effects occurred in other countries. In northern Italy in the mid-1990s, immigrants filled many manual labor-intensive jobs that had gone unfilled, enabling factories to expand, rather than shrink and fail, which would have left many native workers unemployed. Similarly, in Greece in the early 2000s, low-skilled, low-cost immigrant workers helped some industries withstand competition from low-labor-cost countries, preserving the jobs of native workers. And in Austria in the early 2000s, segmentation of the labor market prevented rising unemployment among native workers as more immigrants were hired.

Immigration can affect native workers at the household production level as well. For example, in Italy, low-skilled immigrant women provided household services that enabled high-skilled native women to spend more time at work.

Immigrants with advanced degrees from US universities working in science, technology, engineering, and math dramatically boost the employment of native workers. And immigrants with advanced degrees are more likely to start successful companies than are native workers with similar education. These immigrant entrepreneurs, far from taking jobs from native workers, create jobs for them as well as for themselves [7]. In the US during 1996-2004, 0.46% of immigrants created new businesses compared with 0.35% of native workers. And immigrant workers in the US have a higher innovation rate than native workers, patenting at double their rate. As these patents turn into marketable products and services, they create new jobs.

When immigrants are clustered in routine, labor-intensive jobs, native workers are able to specialize and upgrade their own skills. In Europe, immigration over 1996-2007 is associated with job creation and employment upgrading into higher-skill, better paying jobs for native workers. Employment creation was significantly larger in countries with more flexible labor laws [8]. More immigrant labor was also associated with higher self-employment among native European workers[9]. In Denmark, the hiring of low-skilled, non-European immigrants resulted in a reallocation of occupations across firms and municipalities as native workers pursued more complex occupations.

In Europe and the US, immigration has a strong positive association with productivity growth, because immigrants specialize in manual-intensive tasks and native workers in communication-intensive tasks. Immigration has a positive net effect on productivity and employment of native workers, unlike the offshoring of jobs. Immigration reduces the share of offshored jobs rather than the share of native workers' jobs [10]. In the enlarged European Union (EU15), the free movement of workers improved the allocation of skills and boosted productivity. The receiving labor markets were able to absorb migrants from new EU members without any significant negative effects on employment levels.

It is difficult to accurately measure the employment impacts of immigrant workers on native workers because of the absence of a direct measure of the counterfactual-what would have happened had there been less migration. Natural experiments and quasi-experimental research have been able to fill part of that analytical gap.

Data accuracy is another problem, particularly for employment classification, self-reported wages (such as in national censuses), and foreign experience and education. Simple stratifications, such as number of years of formal education, do not adequately define skill levels. Job categories are imperfectly transferable across countries, so professional experience is also not easily quantifiable.

Studies usually choose to evaluate either legal or unauthorized migrants. It is difficult to gather accurate information on unauthorized immigrants. To overcome this problem, some research has focused on periods after unauthorized immigrants have been granted amnesty.

Future research should continue to concentrate on immigrant cohorts' skill and education levels and on native workers' occupational specializations in response to rising migrant employment, particularly in the long term. To deepen understanding of labor market reactions to immigration, research should include impacts in developing countries.

The evidence does not support policy intervention to "protect" native employment. Instead, the quantitative evidence shows that, overall, immigrants do not take native workers' jobs in the long term and that they stimulate job creation through increased production, self-employment, entrepreneurship, and innovation. They also provide opportunities for native workers to upgrade their occupation and specialize in higher-skill jobs. Any short-term negative effects on native employment are small and insignificant. For the most part, these findings align with public opinion in developed countries. In the worst case, the only workers whose jobs are affected are those with strikingly similar skills and background-generally earlier immigrants. High-skilled immigrant workers complement physical capital and technology and the human capital of both low- and high-skilled native workers. This complementarity leads to greater and more efficient production and to economic growth, making all consumers and the national economy better off.

This mechanism functions naturally only when labor markets are flexible. Admitting immigrants with a mix of skills while maintaining flexible labor markets allows firms to adapt to the labor supply. Countries benefit from engaging rather than restricting immigrant workers.

The author thanks two anonymous referees and the IZA World of Labor editors for many helpful suggestions on earlier drafts and Victoria Finn for excellent research assistance.

© Amelie F. Constant

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employment job creation native workers job upgrading immigration impact economic complementarity competition

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Do migrants take the jobs of native workers?

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Immigrants who are self-employed or entrepreneurs directly create new jobs. Immigrant innovators create jobs indirectly within a firm, leading to long-term job growth. New immigrants fill labor shortages and keep markets working efficiently. High-skilled immigrants contribute to technological adaptation and low-skilled immigrants to occupational mobility, specialization, and human capital creation; both create new jobs for native workers.

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10- Country with the most immigrants in the world

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10- Country with the most immigrants in the world

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10- According to World Population Review, The United States host most immigrants in the World.

An estimated 50.6 million people in the United States—a bit more than 15% of the total population of 331.4 million—were born in a foreign country.

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File:Flag of the United States.svg - Wikipedia

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According to IOM Türkiye’s latest ''Migration Flow Report'', there are more than 5 million foreign nationals present in Turkish territory, 3.7 million of whom are seeking international protection.

Most are Syrians (3,736,799 individuals) who are granted temporary protection status.

In addition, international protection applicants from countries including Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and Iraq constitute another group of foreign nationals. According to DGMM, there were 31,334 international protection applicants present in Türkiye in 2020.

Moreover, according to UNHCR, there are close to 330,000 international protection status holders and asylum-seekers.

In addition, there are 1,311,633 foreign nationals present in Turkey holding residency permits.

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12-Turkey’s Combat against Irregular Migration

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12-Turkey’s Combat against Irregular Migration

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Strategies for Combating Irregular Migration

The country of origin, transit, and destination should find common ground and issue necessary legal reforms,

Ensure coordination between all relevant units of the country working within this field directly or indirectly and all national and international institutions,

Take all necessary measures to improve border security,

Make necessary arrangements in the fields of work and minimize illegal employment,

Accelerate the process of migrants on acquiring status,

Strengthen the measures on combating organized crimes such as the smuggling of migrants,

Determine the severe sanctions against those who transport irregular migrants,

Investigate the reasons why persons migrate from the country of origin and develop projects for overcoming these problems.

Source

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Migration is usually caused by forced displacement, search for a better quality of life or educational opportunities.

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4- What challenges do immigrants face in a new country?

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Immigration Policy Equality GIF by Creative Courage - Find & Share on GIPHY

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Discover & share this Creative Courage GIF with everyone you know. GIPHY is how you search, share, discover, and create GIFs.

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The number of refugees migrating to Türkiye exceeds the number of qualified international workers.

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Racial discrimination is commonly experienced by immigrants.

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Immigrants are mostly vulnerable people like women or children.

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Some immigrants can stay where they migrated even when their hometown gets secured.

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Immigrants tend to breed exceedingly in which they migrated for fear that their race would become extinct.

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Most of the immigrants enter the country illegally.

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The vast majority of people migrating to Türkiye are Syrians.

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5- Which countries are the most welcoming to immigrants?

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American Flag Usa GIF by INTO ACTION - Find & Share on GIPHY

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Discover & share this INTO ACTION GIF with everyone you know. GIPHY is how you search, share, discover, and create GIFs.

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The main reason for the immigrants who migrated to our country is the civil war in their country.

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6- What are the factors that attract qualified international workforce to migrate to Türkiye?

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Dribbble - professions_week_people.gif by Al Boardman

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Dribbble: the community for graphic design

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7-What drives the language proficiency of immigrants?

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8-Is migration good or bad in terms of economy?

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Today we're going to talk about Immigration and how it affects economies. So, that poem on the statue of liberty? The one that reads in part, " Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore." That's some lofty stuff, right? Well, sentiment aside, immigrants are good for the economy.

Before we get into the Economics of Immigration, let's step back and have a quick look at the history. Homo Sapiens have been moving around the planet for a long, long time. Estimates vary, but modern humans started to spread out from Africa between 80,000 and 60,000 years ago, and since then they've been busily migrating all over the globe. By 12,000 years ago, we were on all the continents except Antarctica. Because Antarctica is a terrible place to live if you aren't a penguin. And honestly, even they seem unhappy there.

Today we're going to look at international migration, when people move between countries, rather than internal migration, which refers to people moving around within their home country, because international migration has the most appreciable economic effect. We're also not going to talk about forced migrations, like the Atlantic Slave Trade that kidnapped many million Africans, and transported them to the Americas as chattel between the 16th and 19th centuries.

We're going to focus on voluntary migration because people who choose to move internationally are very often seeking economic opportunity. In 1889, a geographer named Georg Ravenstein wrote in his Laws of Migration, " Bad or oppressive laws, heavy taxation, an unattractive climate, uncongenial social surroundings, and even compulsion... all have produced and are still producing currents of migration, but none of these currents can compare in volume with that which arises from the desire inherent in most men to 'better' themselves in material respects."

Ravenstein was writing during the Great Atlantic Migration, which began in the 1840s as huge numbers of Europeans relocated to the Americas. Between 1880 and 1910 alone, somewhere in the neighborhood of 17 million Europeans arrived in the United States. The 19th century also saw a smaller, but still significant, number of Asian immigrants arrive in the US, mostly settling on the West Coast. Many of them came to join in the Gold Rush -- working as laborers in the mines. They also worked in factories and helped build the Transcontinental Railroad.

All this immigration was, in many ways, a result of technological advances. Improved transportation like steamships reduced the cost and difficulty of migrating across the Atlantic, and the rapidly growing industries of the United States needed workers to keep producing. This influx of immigrants, while good for the industrial economy of the US, eventually ran into resistance. Beginning in the late 19th century, a series of laws were passed to restrict immigration. By the 1930s, European immigration was severely curtailed, and Asian immigration was banned outright. Many of these laws remained in effect until the 1960s, when new laws helped precipitate a wave of immigration.

And today, immigration's a really big deal. Immigration is one of the most contentious issues in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches are in a three way fight about how we handle immigration. Newly elected President, Donald Trump, made immigration his first major issue which continues to be in the news to this day. I'm not going to give an up-to-the-minute journalistic report on immigration policy, but I will talk about the economic arguments for and against.

First, and let's just get this out of the way, the overwhelming majority of economists agree that immigration is a good thing for national economies. Many, many studies indicate that increased immigration is associated with overall increases in GDP and productivity. Opponents of immigration, however, point to some of the costs that can come along with immigration. They point to data indicating that immigrants with low skills are likely to remain poor, and that some of those economic disadvantages can be passed to their children; that recent immigrants use a lot of social services; that immigration might result in short term drops in wages and contribute to inequality by shifting money from labor to capital. And the data -- it bears some of this out.

The thing is, though, these arguments don't look at the net effects of immigration.

Harvard economist George Borjas wrote about a family of economic models he called the Immigration Surplus. Population growth via immigration increases the demand for goods, which can, in the long run, lead to more hiring and higher wages. This can come at the cost of people who are already working, as inexpensive immigrant labor can drive down wages. But most economists point to this as a short-term effect, and that the overall growth in the economy driven by population growth will eventually push wages up. So the benefits of immigration tend to not only outweigh, but to exceed the costs.

Studies indicate this holds true, even in cases of extreme immigration events. Labor markets quickly adapt to inflows of new workers. One study looked at the effects of the Mariel boatlift

on the labor market in Miami. In 1980, nearly 100,000 Cuban migrants arrived in South Florida, and around 60,000 of them settled in Miami. Despite this massive influx of labor supply, the study found the Mariel immigration didn't drive down wages of native workers, and didn't cause widespread unemployment. The immigrants were quickly absorbed into the workforce with negligible effects on other workers.

One of the interesting things about the immigration surplus is that it only accounts for benefits that accrue to citizens who already lived in the country before the immigrants arrived. It doesn't take into account the huge economic benefits the immigrants themselves enjoy. Irish workers who came to the US in the 1870s could double their wages. Guatemalans who immigrated to the US in the 1990s, were able to increase their incomes sixfold. An economist named John Kennan has estimated that if immigration restrictions were eliminated worldwide the world's labor supply would double, there'd be significant economic growth, and that workers from developing countries could see their wages jump from $8,900 to more than $19,000.

George Borjas's Immigration Surplus findings do draw a distinction between high and low skill workers. It notes that the arrival of larger numbers of high skill workers is associated with a larger immigration surplus. And the model also indicates that if immigrant flows are too weighted toward unskilled workers, the immigrant surplus will be smaller, and the growth that comes along with immigration can be slowed. But, the surplus, in most cases, still exists.

Encouraging the immigration of high-skill workers has other benefits as well. Studies indicate that high-skill immigrants are innovators. One such study found that foreign-born entrepreneurs register about 25% of new patents in the US, and another found that a 1998 doubling of the quota for H1-B visas -- which enable employers to more easily hire high-skill foreign workers -- that led to an average 15% revenue increase for companies that participated. Doesn't take an Einstein to figure maybe you want to expand the H1-B Visa program.

One subtext to this high-skill versus low-skill conversation here in the United States -- and it gets to one of the most contentious parts of the immigration debate -- is how immigrants actually get or got into the country. It centers on the differences between immigrants who arrive in the U.S. via official channels, and those that enter the country without going through the legal documentation process. So, what do we do with 11 million undocumented immigrants who are already here?

Well, in 2014, the federal government deported 369,000 immigrants, 9 times as many as were expelled in 1994. And from an economic standpoint, kicking people out might not make the most sense. In fact, a wide range of studies find that extending legal status to undocumented immigrants would be a net positive. Proponents say that newly documented workers would gain labor protections, and would be free to pursue work that better matches their skill-set. As a result, on average, some economists estimate these workers wages could rise up to 15%. And when workers get paid more, they tend to buy more stuff. That increased demand, once again, leads to more production, which leads to more hiring.

And that's not just pie in the sky liberal thinking. The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office projected in 2007 that immigration reform would bring undocumented workers into the tax base, and that growth in revenue would offset costs by a ratio of two to one. Many partisan organizations agree on this point as well. The liberal think tank, Center for American Progress, estimated that giving undocumented workers legal status could create more than 200,000 additional jobs per year. Grover Norquist, of Americans for Tax Reform, wrote that legalizing undocumented workers would, " free millions of those now working to move to where their work is most productive for themselves and the national economy." And the conservative Heritage Foundation wrote in 2006 that, " Whether low-skilled or high-skilled, immigrants boost national output, enhance specialization, and provide a net economic benefit."

Let's stop for a minute, and really appreciate the rareness of this situation, that the Center for American Progress and the Heritage Foundation AGREE on something. Researchers have modeled the economic effects of different possible policy responses to undocumented immigrants in the U.S. -- full deportation, full legalization and full legalization with added border control. They found that full deportation would cut GDP by 0.61% and full legalization would, on the other hand, INCREASE GDP by 0.53%. Legalization with more border enforcement winds up in the middle increasing GDP by 0.17%

So, if the debate over immigration were solely about economics, there wouldn't be much of a debate. But, as we've learned, the world is a complex place. Many immigration opponents argue that expanding immigration is a security risk. They argue that relaxed border enforcement can lead to more illegal items, like drugs, being smuggled into the country. There's also a strong sentiment that people shouldn't be rewarded with citizenship for breaking the law. But let's go back to the broader community of all immigrants.

Cliché as it might sound, the US really is a nation of immigrants. The United States has the world's largest total immigrant population -- at 41 million. And sentiment in the U.S. about immigrants is changing. A 2015 study from the Pew Research Center found that about half of U.S. adults say immigrants strengthen the economy. Compared to 40% who say they are a burden. Back in 1994, that was reversed. Nearly 2/3rds of the population then saw immigrants as a burden. Only 30% said they strengthened the country. Pew also discovered that young people hold a more positive view of the contributions of immigrants to the country than older generations. Which means it's likely, pro-immigrant sentiments gonna keep on growing. Economically, and otherwise.

Economics of Immigration

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Part 4: Lesson 64: The Economics of Immigration - GLOBAL ISSUES: 2017

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Today we're going to talk about Immigration and how it affects economies. So, that poem on the statue of liberty? The one that reads in part, " Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore." That's some lofty stuff, right?

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9-Do migrants take the jobs of native workers?

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10-Which country hosts the most immigrants?

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11-What are the statistics of people migrating to Turkey?

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12-How is Turkey dealing with irregular migration?