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Sofia Narvaez
Mirella Acosta

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Luna Paez, Mariana Pulido and Gabriela Rojas

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daniela mendez, lucia bello, mariana acosta

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Beca Jaimes
Isa Cuellar

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Manuela Marroquín and Mariana Rodriguez

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Mariana Serrano
Maria Gabriela Maya
Mariana Jiménez

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Sporophytes/diploid

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The diploid sporophyte is traditionally defined as the “dominant” generation. The fern sporophyte produces haploid spores via meiosis that are dispersed into the surrounding environment once they mature.

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In angiosperms, as in all vascular plants, the sporophyte phase is the dominant generation.

The gametophyte phase is reduced to a few cells and gametophyes are totally dependent on the sporophyte.

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haploid generation (the gametophyte)

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The dominant generation of the conifer is the sporophyte. In angiosperms, the plants contain a seed that takes part in flowering, and it develops within ovaries or fruits. The conifers are gymnosperms and usually, the seeds are naked on the cone rather enclosed in fruit

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Apple tree

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theres is 5 common species

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Ferns are a large group of plants occurring throughout the world. Most have rhizomes with roots and some have a trunk. Leaves are typically large and pinnate derived from a branch system. Similar to flowering plants, ferns have roots, stems and leaves. However, unlike flowering plants, ferns do not have flowers or seeds; instead, they usually reproduce sexually by tiny spores or sometimes can reproduce vegetatively, as exemplified by the walking fern.
FUN FACTS
-Fern leaves are called fronds
and they uncurl from croziers
-Ferns are seedless vascular plants of humid tropics and temperate areas. Some ferns live under sub-arctic conditions as well.
-They constitute the largest living group of primitive vascular plants with over 10,000 species. Ferns once dominated the earth in carboniferous period (about 300 million years ago).

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Apples are part of the rose family.

The largest apple ever picked weighed over 3 pounds.

It takes about 36 apples to make one gallon of apple cider.

Apple trees can live up to 100 years.

Apple seeds contain a small amount of cyanide.

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Main features:

- Mosses grow usually in moist, shady habitats.

- Mosses have no true stems or leaves (Mosses have green, flat structures that resemble true leaves, which absorb water and nutrients; some mosses have small branches.)

- Mosses are of great ecological importance as they are some of the firts organinsms to colonize rocks.

- They descompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants.

- Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosis.

- Mosses have traits that are adaptations to dry land, such as stomata present on the stems of the sporophyte.

Fun Facts:

- They're ancient plants. Mosses are non-flowering plants
which produce spores and have stems and leaves, but don't have true roots.
- They don't have roots.

- They're tougher than they look.

- Temperature control.

- Some mosses are luminous.
- Biodiversity.

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Young pine trees are usually conical, with whorls of horizontal branches. Older trees may have round, flat, or spreading crowns. Most species have thick rough furrowed bark. Pines have two types of branches, long shoots and short shoots, and three types of leaves, primordial, scale, and adult.

Pine trees are among the few tree species that don't have flowers or fruit. Pinecones carry seeds that are released after the seeds reach maturity. Pine trees reproduce through the male or female reproductive organs in cones. A single Pine tree has both male and female reproductive organs.

fun facts

Pine trees are considered evergreens because they keep their needles for approximately 2 years. When old needles falls, new needles quickly take their place. Pine tree needles can range in length from 1 inch to 11 inches. Both male and female pine trees produce woody cones

With roughly 100 varieties, Pine trees are the most prevalent coniferous tree on the planet.

Pine trees are a well distributed species of trees. They are found all over the northern hemisphere.

There are 115 different kinds of pine trees that are classified into 3 groups based on their leaf color, size and shape, and the kinds of cones and seeds they bear.

search by daniela and mariana

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Plants we see as ferns or horsetails are the sporophyte generation. The sporophyte generally releases spores in the summer. Spores must land on a suitable surface, such as a moist protected area to germinate and grow into gametophytes.
Sporophyte ferns have two methods of asexual reproduction. One is by vegetative cloning, branching off of the root-like underground stem, or rhizome, often forming large, genetically uniform colonies. The second form of asexual reproduction occurs by spores

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fertilization occurs when the fern’s egg and sperm combine to form a zygote. Ferns require water to enable the movement of the sperm to reach the egg. A zygote is a combination of genetic material from both the egg and sperm and contains a complete set of DNA to form a new fern plant.

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Picture link: https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/beauty/ferns/structure.shtml
Dominant Generation:
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/688773#:~:text=In%20ferns%20and%20lycophytes%2C%20as,surrounding%20environment%20once%20they%20mature
Main Feature:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/beauty/ferns/what.shtml#:~:text=Similar%20to%20flowering%20plants%2C%20ferns,exemplified%20by%20the%20walking%20fern
Fun Facts:
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/plants/plant-kingdom/essential-features-of-ferns-plant-kingdom/52174
picture of reproduction:
https://biologyreader.com/how-do-ferns-reproduce.html
Reproduction:
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/techniques/fluorescence/gallery/fernspores.html#:~:text=Sporophyte%20ferns%20have%20two%20methods,asexual%20reproduction%20occurs%20by%20spores.
https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/beauty/ferns/reproduction.shtml#:~:text=Reproduction%20by%20Spores&text=Plants%20we%20see%20as%20ferns,germinate%20and%20grow%20into%20gametophytes.
fertilization:
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/57-fern-life-cycle#:~:text=Fertilisation%20occurs%20when%20the%20fern's,form%20a%20new%20fern%20plant.

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https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Flowering-Plant-Life-Cycle-Angiosperm

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Flowering Plant Life Cycle, Angiosperm)]

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Mosses - Biology LibreTexts
https://www.montananaturalist.org
https://unacademy.com/

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Unacademy - India's largest learning platform

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India's largestlearning platform Popular goals Chat with educators, ask questions, answer live polls, and get your doubts cleared - all while the class is going on Learning isn't just limited to classes with our practice section, mock tests and lecture notes shared as PDFs for your revision One subscription gets you access to all our live and recorded classes to watch from the comfort of any of your devices Get the learning app Download lessons and learn anytime, anywhere with the Unacademy app Start learning

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http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/fieldbio/Survival/Pages/pine.html
https://homework.study.com
https://www.britannica.com/plant/pine
https://www.coolkidfacts.com/
https://www.thetreecareguide.com/how-do-pine-trees-reproduce/
https://www.clearviewtree.com/
The process of fertilization in pine trees discussed | Britannica

www.britannica.com › ... › Science

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Pine

Pinus sp.

Family: Pinaceae

Location:

dry, sandy soil

more numerous in the South and the East

Characteristics:

cone-bearing evergreens

straight trunk

bark can be dark and furrowed (White Pines) or divided into rectangular plates (Red Pine)

branches grow in whorls around the tree, adding a new whorl each year

can live over 400 years

white pine

Leaves:

slender needles occur in groups of 2 to 5 along the twigs

needle groups are bound in bundles at the base

White Pine has 5 needles per cluster; needles are short and shiny

Red Pine has 2 needles per cluster; needles are long and matte

all remaining species have 2 or 3 needles per bundle

white pine needles

red pine needles

Fruit (Cones) and Seeds:

cones differ by species

White Pine has long, slender cones

Red Pine has short, rounded cones

seeds occur in pairs between cone scales (1 pair per cone) and can be useful for identification; when seeds can not be seen easily, cones can be allowed to dry in a paper bag and the seeds shaken loose

red pine cone

white pine cone

Uses:

Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as glue. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling or for starting fires. The durable, yet lightweight character of pine wood makes it ideal for raft building. Dense boughs of needles can be used as roof covering on an outdoor shelter. A piece of this dried softwood can be used to construct the fireboard of a bow drill, useful for igniting a pile of tinder. In wet weather, pine needles are denser and less fibrous that grass, which makes them more resistant to moisture, and therefore an excellent source of tinder in bad weather. A section of green twig from this tree can be used as an old-fashioned toothbrush.

red pine bark

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Diploid, represents the sporophyte, where spores are produced, or asexual, rather than the gametophyte, or sexual, where gametes (male and female) are produced.

Spores are diploid, whereas gametes are haploid. All vascular plants have long-lived Sporophytic generations, they have Dominant Sporophyte generation.
In the case of Gymnosperms, they are also a vascular plant that lives in the diploid Sporophyte stage for most of its life span.

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*Known as a 'living fossil', the Ginkgo biloba is one of the world's oldest living tree species, it was around 350 million years ago.
*The extract from the ginkgo product comes out of its leaves.
*Ginkgo seeds can be poisonous.
*Is pyramidal in shape, with a columnar, sparingly branched trunk up to 30 metres tall and 2.5 metres in diameter.
*The leaves contain ginkgolides, which are used to improve blood circulation to the brain and to relieve Alzheimer’s, tinnitus and Reynaud's Syndrome.

*Native to Xitianmu Mountain in Zhejiang, China.
*It is usually Europe’s number one selling herbal medication.
*Ginkgo leaves are fan-shaped, resemble the leaflets of the maidenhair fern, and are borne on short, spur-shaped but highly thickened shoots

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Eucalyptus trees are colloquially called "gums" because early settlers noted that some species of trees would exude a sticky gum

In the late 1880's, hospitals were advised to place fresh branches of eucalyptus trees under hospital beds as the vapours from the leaves were considered 'not only antiseptic, but sedative'. The aroma was believed to purify the air, promote healthy breathing and kill germs.

Eucalyptus oil is a renewable & sustainable resource - trees regrow again and again after being harvested - in fact, some of them have been harvested for more than 100 years.
Eucalyptus is very important and highly exploited plant because of its wood and oil for medical uses.

The Eucalyptus forest type is by far the most common forest type in Australia covering 101 million hectares, which is 77% of Australia's total native forest area.
Insects, birds and small mammals (such as bats) pollinate eucalyptus flowers. They are attracted by delicious nectar that is produced in big quantity.

Koala's diet is completely based on the leaves of eucalyptus. Despite wide variety of available species of eucalyptus, only few of them are on the koala's menu.

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Some of the most popular species are Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus deglupta, and Eucalyptus globulus. However, the most used for decoration is Eucalyptus gunnii.

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

https://www.bosistos.com.au/blogs/blog/fun-facts-about-eucalyptus-oil#:~:text=Eucalyptus%20trees%20are%20colloquially%20called,in%20his%20journal%20in%201770.

https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/forestsaustralia/australias-forests/profiles/eucalypt-2019#:~:text=The%20Eucalyptus%20forest%20type%20is,genera%20Angophora%2C%20Corymbia%20and%20Eucalyptus.
softschools.com

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National Center for Biotechnology Information

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The National Center for Biotechnology Information advances science and health by providing access to biomedical and genomic information.

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https://www.mayoclinic.org

https://www.britannica.com/plant/gymnosperm/Appearance-of-gymnosperm-divisions

https://byjus.com/question-answer/which-generation-is-dominant-in-gymnosperms/

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cone-bearing evergreens.

straight trunk.

bark can be dark and furrowed (White Pines) or divided into rectangular plates (Red Pine)

branches grow in whorls around the tree, adding a new whorl each year.

can live over 400 years.

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Bella Cantillo
Valentina van den brande

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sporophytes / diploid

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Pine Tree Reproduction

For a pine tree to successfully reproduce, 3 distinct steps must take place:

Step 1 – The first step in pine tree reproduction is pollination. For pollination to happen successfully, pollen must be transferred from male cones to female cones.

While pine trees grow both male and female cones, the intention is not to self pollinate. Female cones are produced high up in the crown of the pine tree, while male cones (catkins) are produced on the branches below.

Male pine cones do not look like the pine cones many are used to seeing but are long, thin, and soft structures located in clusters on the lower branches. Male cones are only present in the spring when producing pollen.
Pollen is carried from the male cones of one tree to the female cones of another by wind currents. Thus, completing the first step of reproduction.

Step 2 – Once the female cones have been pollinated, they will produce fertile seeds within the closed cone. It takes about two years for this step to complete itself. As the cone becomes brown, it develops scales, opens up, and resembles the familiar pine cones we all know.

At the base of each scale on a female pine cone, a seed lies waiting to be carried off by the wind or wildlife. Thus, completing the second step of the tree’s reproduction.

Step 3 – Seed dispersal is the final step in a pine tree’s reproductive cycle, and even this step displays how brilliant nature is. As the female cones open up, several species of birds and squirrels come along to feed on the seeds, potentially dispersing them miles away from the parent tree.

Sometimes, the pine cones are knocked off or fall off the tree. The shape and flexibility of cones allow them to bounce and roll away from its origin while dispersing its seeds.

Then there are those cones that remain closed until exposed to extremely high temperatures, like those temperatures produced in a forest fire. These cones only release seeds under such conditions, likely corresponding to the death of the parent tree in a fire.

Tip: When planting a pine tree on your property, it is smart to plant more than one. By doing this, you can all but guarantee the successful annual pollination of your trees and dispersal of viable seeds.
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Manuela C, Sara F

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The function of this unpleasant aroma is to attract pollinating insects so that they take charge of the exchange of pollen necessary for their reproduction; attracts flies that seek corpses in which they lay their eggs, from which saprophagous larvae will later emerge

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The corpse flower (Amorphophallus titanum), also known as titan arum, reeks of rotting meat and death when it blooms. Luckily for us, according to the Eden Project, this stinky plant blooms once every seven to nine years. (opens in a new tab)and each bloom only lasts 24-36 hours.

The spadix is surrounded by a large petal-like collar called a spathe which is green to cream on the outside and deep burgundy on the inside, with a deeply grooved texture. The flowers are at the base of the spadix and both male and female flowers grow in the same inflorescence.

Amorphophallus, commonly called Voodoo Lily, are exotic plants from the aroid family, famous for their huge flowers whose scent leaves no doubt why they are also called Corpse Flowers.

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ivescience.com/51947-corpse-flower-facts-about-the-smelly-plant.html

https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/3/5/3532

https://www.kew.org/plants/titan-arum#:~:text=Plant%20description,-Titan%20arum's%20flowers&text

https://www.plantdelights.com/collections/amorphophallus-corpse-flower#:~:text=Amorphophallus%2C%20commonly%20called%20Voodoo%20Lily,are%20also%20called%20Corpse%20Flowers.

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https://botanicalsociety.org.za/angiosperm-life-cycle-and-diversity_10/#:~:text=In%20angiosperms%2C%20as%20in%20all,totally%20dependent%20on%20the%20sporophyte.

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Carpets of spring flowers near Langebaan Lagoon. Photo: C. Voget.

The factsheet in the December issue of Veld & Flora follows on from the factsheet in the September issue, the factsheet in the June 2016 issue, the factsheet in the March 2016 issue and the Factsheets on the Classification of Life in September 2012 and Plant Classification in December 2015.

Flowers separate the angiosperms from all other plants. Fossil evidence indicates that flowers evolved from spirally arranged leaves and carpels or stamens (the female and male reproductive parts of a plant) so there is some truth in the well-known quote ' A flower is a leaf, mad with love'.

Although some angiosperm species bear female and male flowers on the same plant ( monoecious) and others bear female and male flowers on different plants ( dioecious), the typical hermaphrodite (male and female parts together) structure of a flower is quite different to the unisexual cones of most gymnosperms. Flowers also evolved into a myriad of different shapes and structures to tempt different animal pollinators or make use of wind and water for pollination. Like gymnosperms, flowering plants also produce seeds but these differ in that they contain an endosperm, and are entirely enclosed in protective ovaries that mature into the fruit.

A diversity of flowers

The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms over 200 million years ago. By 100-60 million years ago they had replaced conifers as the dominant plants on Earth. Five main groups are recognized: the Basal Angiosperms, Magnoliids, Monocots, Ceratophyllaceae and Eudicots.

Blue Waterlily (Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea growing at Kosi Bay. Photo: Ricky Taylor, iSpot.

Basal Angiosperms are a group of the most primitive flowering plants, comprising 0.5% of living angiosperms. One of the three orders within the group include members of the Nymphaeales which are represented in South Africa by the waterlilies.

Magnoliids consist of eight orders comprising 2.5% of living angiosperms today. They include our well-known Stinkwood Tree.

Aristea spiralis, a member of the Liliidae, growing at Cape Point.

Monocots share traits with magnoliids. Both arose between 130 and 125 million years ago from a common ancestor. They comprise about 28% of living angiosperms today and are classified into four superorders, one of which is the Liliidae. South Africa is particularly rich in species from this group.

Ceratophyllum demersum var. demersum growing on the lake margins in Kosi Bay. Photo: Ricky Taylor, iSpot.

Ceratophyllaceae comprises one genus Ceratophyllum with about 30 species - all of which are aquatic and lack roots and their leaves lack stomata. They comprise 0.012 % of the world's angiosperms.

Halfmens (Pachypodium namaquanum) growing in the Northern Cape. Photo: C. Voget.

Eudicots have a distinctive pollen structure, but otherwise they share many traits with the preceding groups. They contain five superorders and comprise some 69% of living angiosperms. South Africa has countless plants in this group including the daisies, ericas and succulents like the enigmatic Halfmens pictured here in its desert habitat in the Northern Cape.

Bear in mind that classification of plants is in a state of flux due to ever-increasing sophistication in molecular studies and the phylogenetic tree of Plantae may well differ in some publications.

Angiosperm life cycle

Almost all land plants reproduce by means of two distinct, alternating life forms: a sexual phase that produces and releases gametes or sex cells and allows fertilisation, and a dispersal phase. The sexual phase is known as the GAMETOPHYTE or haploid (n) generation and the dispersal phase is the SPOROPHYTE or diploid (2n) generation. In angiosperms, as in all vascular plants, the sporophyte phase is the dominant generation.

The gametophyte phase is reduced to a few cells and gametophyes are totally dependent on the sporophyte. Haploid (n) microspores and megaspores (i.e. each spore has a single set of chromosomes) are produced by meoisis. Female megaspores develops into the embryo sac (megasporophyte) that grows inside the ovule, which is retained within the flower on the plant. Male microspores develop into pollen grains (microsporophtes) and are transferred to other flowers - preferably on different plants - during the pollination process. Pollen grains land on the stigma and a pollen tube grows from the pollen grain down the style, eventually reaching the ovary and entering the ovule. The male gamete or sperm (two in the case of angiosperms) then travels along the tube to the embryo sac within the ovule where it fuses with the female gamete (ovum) to form a diploid (2n) zygote (with two sets of chromosomes).

The zygote grows by cell division (mitosis) into an embryo within the seed. In angiosperms the second sperm cell fuses with the large central cell of the female gametophyte, which then develops into the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The seed then germinates and grows into the familiar form of the plant (the mature sporophyte). The sporophyte plants produce flowers in which the haploid (n) megaspores and microspores are produced. These have undergone a process of cell division called meiosis that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. The haploid gametophyte generation takes place within the flowers which will eventually release the diploid sporophyte seeds - and so the cycle continues.

LINKS TO THE CURRICULUM

GRADE 11 Life Sciences, Strand 1: Diversity, Change and Continuity. Topic: Biodiversity of Plants. Content: Grouping of bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

GRADE 12 Life Sciences Strand 1: Life at Molecular, cellular and tissue level. Topic: Meiosis: the process of reduction division purposes of reduction division (gametogenesis and exceptions: mosses, ferns), Importance of meiosis: diploid to haploid: production of gametes.

Discover more about South African angiosperms by visiting iSpot and PlantZafrica.
Download the factsheet by clicking here.
IMAGES for the life cycle diagram are reproduced with thanks to Alice Notten, PlantZafrica, (SANBI) and The Protea Atlas Project, SANBI.

TEXT adapted by Caroline Voget from the book The Story of Life and the Environment: An African perspective by Jo van As, Johann du Preez, Leslie Brown and Nico Smit, published by Struik Nature.

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Angiosperm life cycle | Learning About Biodiversity

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Carpets of spring flowers near Langebaan Lagoon. Photo: C. Voget. The factsheet in the December issue of Veld & Flora follows on from the factsheet in the September issue, the factsheet in the June 2016 issue, the factsheet in the March 2016 issue and the Factsheets on the Classification of Life in September 2012 and Plant Classification in December 2015.

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Name: Pine Tree

Classification (Details):

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Pinophyta

Class: Pinopsida

Order: Pinales

Family: Pinaceae

Genus: Pinus

Species: Over 115 species

Latin: Pinus

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Latin name: Taxus baccata

Native words: Old Irish (ibar) Scots Gaelic (iubhar) Old English (eow) Welsh (ywen) eastern Celtic (iw)

Ogham sign: I

Height when mature: 25m (82ft)

Height after 10 years: 1-2m (3-6ft)

Gymnosperms are also a vascular plant that lives in the diploid Sporophyte stage for most of its life span.

And this Sporophytic generation gives rise to gametophytic generation.

Hence, diploid Sporophytic generation is dominant in gymnosperms

Yew trees are a group of coniferous trees with dark-green linear needle-like leaves, small red berry-like fruits, and small inconspicuous flowers.

Yews are typically medium-sized evergreen trees.

Yews are identified by their thin, scaly brown bark, tiny single-seed cones, red fruits, and linear flat leaves.

The English yew (Taxus baccata) is the most common species. But Irish yew, Western yew, and Japanese yew are also ornamental conifer trees.

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pine trees actually produce two kinds of cones: a female cone and a male cone. Cones are modified stems that have been retasked for reproduction. The female cone, which is larger than the male cone, consists of a central axis and a cluster of scales, or modified leaves, called strobili.

The male cone produces tiny amounts of pollen grains that become the male gametophyte. Each pollen grain is reduced to two or three cells in a waxy protective coat. These grains have winglike structures that allow the wind to carry them up the tree to the female cones.

Deep inside the female cone, ovules develop into the mature female gametophyte that bears fertile egg cells.

When the egg cells are ready, the pollen grain enters the micropyle, an opening in the female cone near the ovule. The pollen grain germinates and constructs a special pollen tube so that fertilization can take place. One of the two male gametes produced by the pollen then fuses with the female egg cell. This union of gametes produces an embryo of the sporophyte generation. The embryo is protected inside the cone by a tough seed coat, which is surrounded by a papery wing case.

Later the scales open up and the seeds are blown away by the wind. Under favorable conditions the seed germinates and grows into a new pine tree.
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https://leafyplace.com/yew-trees/

https://tree2mydoor.com/pages/information-trees-tree-directory-yew-trees

https://byjus.com/question-answer/which-generation-is-dominant-in-gymnosperms/