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Autoridades trabajan en el área de un accidente de carretera en Oaxaca, en agosto de 2023. JOSE DE JESUS CORTES (REUTERS)

Un accidente carretero ha enlutado a Oaxaca. Al menos 16 personas fallecieron y otras 35 resultaron heridas después de que el autobús en el que viajaban se estrellara contra un tráiler en la madrugada de este martes en la carretera entre la capital del Estado y la ciudad de Tehuacán. Las autoridades confirmaron que la mayoría de los pasajeros eran migrantes venezolanos. El gobernador Salomón Jara lamentó el siniestro y dijo que se da atención médica a las víctimas. "Enviamos un abrazo y nuestro pésame a las familias de las personas fallecidas, a quienes también brindaremos todo el apoyo", dijo.

El choque se produjo a la altura del kilómetro 91, cerca de una caseta de cobro, y provocó el cierre total de la carretera en ambos sentidos durante horas, mientras los servicios de emergencia atendían el incidente. Las imágenes difundidas por los medios locales muestran que ambos vehículos terminaron completamente destrozados después del impacto, producido alrededor de las dos de la mañana.

La circulación en la autopista, una de las principales vías de comunicación entre Oaxaca y el vecino Estado de Puebla y la capital del país se restableció parcialmente casi nueve horas del accidente, informó Caminos y Puentes Federales (Capufe). Los primeros reportes apuntan a un choque frontal entre el autobús y un camión de carga tipo torton, de dos ejes y que suelen tener una capacidad para transportar unas 20 toneladas.

Un hombre observa los restos de un autobús dañado durante un accidente en Oaxaca. JOSE DE JESUS CORTES (REUTERS)

La mayor parte de los heridos fueron trasladados al Hospital General de Tehuacán, la ciudad más grande de la zona, por parte de paramédicos de la Cruz Roja. Otros fueron llevados a centros de salud de los Estados de Puebla y Oaxaca, en el vecino poblado de Santiago Miahuatlán y en Tehuacán. Ante la gravedad de las lesiones, las autoridades se limitaron a dar un saldo preliminar.

Las autoridades aún no han detallado cuántas víctimas eran de origen venezolano, aunque insistieron en que la mayoría eran "extranjeros de distintas edades" y que una mujer de Venezuela murió al ser trasladada por los servicios de emergencia. Una lista preliminar, compartida por medios locales, apunta a que más de una decena de los lesionados son de ese país. La Embajada del país sudamericano en México no se ha pronunciado públicamente. El Gobierno de Oaxaca ha dicho que el autobús pertenecía a la empresa Servicios Integrales Blanesca, que este viaje tenía una lista de 47 pasajeros y que el conductor huyó del lugar del accidente. Elementos de la Guardia Nacional, Capufe y la Fiscalía de Oaxaca se trasladaron para realizar las dirigencias correspondientes y levantar los cuerpos.

Apenas en febrero pasado, otro accidente a unos kilómetros de la zona dejó un número similar de fallecidos, entre ellos migrantes colombianos, venezolanos y centroamericanos. Los viajes en autobús se han convertido en una de las rutas más comunes de quienes migran hacia Estados Unidos. A principios de mes, otro siniestro carretero en una autopista del Pacífico mexicano dejó al menos 18 muertos, entre ellos dos inmigrantes indios y otros dos del continente africano, después de que el vehículo en el que viajaban cayera por un barranco. En julio, otro incidente similar dejó 29 fallecidos cerca del municipio oaxaqueño de Magdalena Peñasco.

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Al menos 16 muertos en un accidente carretero en Oaxaca

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Las autoridades confirman que la mayoría de los pasajeros eran migrantes venezolanos y dan un saldo preliminar de 35 heridos

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By collecting long-forgotten archeological data, a new project reveals the researchers who toiled unrecognized.

In Don DeLillo's 1982 novel " The Names," an American businessman living in Athens can't quite bring himself to visit its most iconic monument. "For a long time I stayed away from the Acropolis," he says. "It daunted me, that somber rock." He prefers "to wander in the modern city, imperfect, blaring"; when he catches sight of the Acropolis from odd angles, he finds its exalted reputation forbidding. "The ruins stood above the hissing traffic like some monument to doomed expectations," he observes.

Today, most tourists have no such hesitancy: in the summer, as many as twenty thousand visit the Acropolis each day. And yet, after millennia of human habitation, Athenian history isn't confined to a few famous spots. Over the last two centuries, as the city has grown from a sleepy village to a sprawling capital, new ruins have been continually discovered. Greek national law requires so-called rescue excavations before the construction of new houses, buildings, subway lines, sewer systems, or almost anything else; although these are faster and less comprehensive than the research excavations conducted for purely archeological reasons, they can still reveal the locations of shrines, wells, walls, roads, and cemeteries, as well as smaller artifacts, such as oil lamps, toys, and loom weights. Collectively, all of this material constitutes a kind of secret history of the city.

Until recently, information from rescue excavations was sequestered in a vast gray literature of reports published in Greek by the state archeological service. But, in 2014, a group of Greek archeologists and a cartographer launched an organization called the Dipylon Society, which aims to share these discoveries more widely. Dipylon has undertaken a series of fascinating, high-tech projects, including digital maps, searchable databases, and free mobile apps with guided walking tours. Its first app, Walk the Wall Athens, appeared in 2018. It leads users through a twisting six-kilometre course, past thirty-five locations where parts of the ancient city's walls survive. The route snakes through the basements of hotels and apartment buildings, beneath shops and through parking garages, connecting points where the twenty-five-hundred-year-old monumental walls are still accessible. At these hidden spots, the app allows you to see historical photos, read key findings from the rescue excavations, and hear an audio narration in Greek or English.

Dipylon's projects reflect years spent gathering, digitizing, and synthesizing data from almost fifteen hundred rescue excavations conducted in Athens over the past hundred and sixty years; it has changed our understanding of the archeology of the city. But, by recovering one sort of lost history, Dipylon has revealed another. During Athens's most explosive decades of growth, the archeologists who ran excavations for the state archeological service were predominantly female; their work was often unheralded and unacknowledged. Now, in digital form, it's coming to light.

On a sunny morning last fall, I joined a wall walk led by Annita Theocharaki, a founding member of Dipylon. A tall, curly-haired woman in her early sixties, Theocharaki runs a family business by day; Dipylon, which now has a full-time staff of six, is a lasting passion project that she helps run on nights and weekends. We met at Kotzia Square, a pedestrian plaza fringed with leafy trees and charming neoclassical buildings. A dozen students had gathered outside a gated enclosure, inside which stone embankments lined a stretch of old road that was barely the width of a bike path. "Imagine a road continuing directly beneath us toward the walls," she said, sweeping her arms in a diagonal from where we stood to the edge of Kotzia Square. The students shifted their gaze to follow her hands.

"You can see the burials on either side of the road," she continued, gesturing to bits of pale stone beside the path-actually parts of weathered burial shafts and stone sarcophagi from a cemetery dating back to the eighth century B.C. "It's common to find cemeteries just outside the city walls, but placing graves right beside the road was also about display," she said. "Anyone walking in or out of the city would see all of the funerary monuments." As she spoke, the sun moved across the site, bathing the pale stone and red dirt in early morning light.

We followed Theocharaki across the square, tracing the path of the old road that ran invisibly beneath us. At the corner, tucked underneath the looming façade of the National Bank of Greece, an open-air site plunged some twenty feet below the modern city; inside this pit was a huge section of the ancient wall from the fourth century B.C. More of the wall was visible under glass panels in the sidewalk. Although it is now far below the level of the modern city, it was likely around ten metres high in the fourth century B.C. and still stands to half that height. "Fortification was just as important as the acropolis or the agora," Theocharaki said as we looked down. "It was not only a matter of protection-the walls were also beautiful, monumental structures. Something citizens could admire."

From there, our path grew stranger. In the underground parking lot of a bank, a massive section of wall rose beside us in the shadows as we walked down a sloping concrete ramp. (According to one of Plato's dialogues, Socrates once walked past this spot on an ancient ring road.) A few blocks away, we descended into a subterranean warren of busy printers' shops. Theocharaki told some workmen that we wanted to see the wall, and one began to clear aside piles of posters and paint-splattered buckets cluttering the corridor. Once he finished, we peered through a steel grate and saw the pale chiselled blocks winding away into the darkness. "I can't believe it's here," a student said.

Dipylon originated in the early two-thousands, when Theocharaki met another archeologist, Leda Costaki, in the stacks of a research library in Athens. Both women had recently finished their dissertations: Theocharaki's on Athens's ancient walls, Costaki's on the city's ancient roads. "Dipylon" was the name of the main gate in classical Athens-a place where walls and roads meet. They thought that they'd combine their interests by creating a map of the roads and walls of the city. But they gradually began to imagine something more ambitious: gathering information from rescue excavations in one place. As they set to work, the true scope of the project soon became clear. Not only did they have to analyze and digitize a huge amount of material; they also wanted attractive digital interfaces, a complex database structure, and free mobile apps. They organized the Dipylon Society as a nonprofit to help secure grant funding and support a small full-time staff of designers, coders, archeologists, and a philologist.

By pulling together the rescue-excavation data, Dipylon was also exploring the social history of archeology in Greece. In the first half of the twentieth century, archeologists often prized artifacts more for their aesthetic qualities than for the social and historical information they might supply; even human skeletal remains were sometimes disregarded. Certain periods were valued more than others: in some early excavation reports, state archeologists called the classical period "the beautiful years" while the Roman era was considered of lesser worth. The Byzantine and Ottoman periods-during which Greece was part of the Eastern Roman and Ottoman Empires-lacked the cultural cachet of classical Athens and were often ignored. The emphasis was on monumental architecture, or on painted pottery, jewelry, or sculpture that might be displayed in a museum-not on roads, walls, and simple objects of daily use.

Such objects were still unearthed, however, often by female archeologists, who were less likely to have the option of an academic career. In the nineties, jobs in Greece's state archeological service were often offered on a contract basis, and women tended to fill these nonpermanent positions, which came without benefits. Understaffed, poorly compensated, and facing ferocious pressure from landowners eager to start building, state archeologists usually went unrecognized, their reports often signed only by their supervisors.

In the courtyard café of the Numismatic Museum of Athens-a beautiful three-story neoclassical mansion that was once the residence of Heinrich Schliemann, a German businessman and amateur archeologist-I had coffee with Olga Voyatzoglou, who worked on rescue excavations for the state service in Athens in the nineteen-seventies and again in the nineties. Now in her seventies, Voyatzoglou is a petite woman with a soft voice and quick smile. As she told me about her years in the archeological service, it became clear that she and Schliemann were opposites in many ways. Schliemann, who excavated at Troy and Mycenae, was internationally famous and bankrolled by a vast private fortune; he was more treasure hunter than archeologist. Voyatzoglou was relatively obscure, interested in systematic research, and supported by meagre public funds.

In the seventies, Voyatzoglou said, she supervised rescue excavations near the site of Plato's Academy. Athens was in the midst of a construction boom, and landowners had to pay the costs of labor for the teams of excavators that she supervised. "This was a very big problem," she recalled with a sigh. "Because the owner is paying, they don't want to lose money, so they are always saying, Go faster." Some landowners would begin construction illegally, digging the foundations of buildings themselves and destroying the archeology; others pressured her team to excavate only to a certain depth, fearing that they might find something. On a typical day, she was directing workers at three to four sites simultaneously while trying to protect and document the material being unearthed. She worked six days a week, with only Sundays off. When artifacts were discovered that might attract looters-such as a burial with expensive grave goods-police were posted to guard the sites overnight.

"Somebody else could go and have a coffee," she said. "Not me-I was always there." Still, despite the difficulties, she loved the work. "Every day you go in expecting to find something new." She oversaw excavations at well over a hundred sites during her time in the service-and yet only a small fraction of the material recovered is likely to appear in a museum. The rest languishes in long-term storage, its significance buried in excavation reports that, before Dipylon, were accessible only to specialists.

In 2021, Dipylon launched a project called Mapping Ancient Athens. An interactive tool, it layers data from the Neolithic through the modern period on a searchable map. You can explore houses in the Byzantine period, religious and cult locations in the Roman period, or water systems in the Ottoman period, browsing relevant information from the original rescue excavations. Click on the location of the Greek parliament building downtown, and you learn that, in the Hellenistic period (323-31 B.C.), the site was likely a fullery-a place where sheep's wool was processed and dyed red and blue. Nearby, under a popular vegan restaurant, a three-aisled Byzantine church is buried, with a gray marble floor dating to the tenth century A.D.

Museums are usually discrete sites within a city. But Mapping Ancient Athens turns the whole city into a kind of exploded museum, with every shop and corner harboring relics from a vanished world. This city-as-museum model highlights the precise, often forgotten work of archeologists like Voyatzoglou.

Dipylon's newest project is a guided walking tour through some of the neighborhoods where Voyatzoglou once worked. Launched in May, the free Walk to Plato's Academy app starts on a busy street near the original Dipylon gate and traces the route of an ancient road, which winds through the modern city to the site of the Academy, today a sprawling park. Before the launch, I joined a small team for a test-walk. The first person to arrive was Pavlos Habidis, a well-known Greek artist. In consultation with Dipylon's archeologists, Habidis had painted a series of watercolors imagining historical landscapes and buildings, and Dipylon had incorporated them into the app. Theocharaki and Costaki soon arrived, along with Maria Karagiannopoulou, an archeologist, and Spyros Mousouris, a Web developer.

When we reached the first of fifteen points along the walk, we stopped beside a noisy intersection. Holding up our phones, we began slowly turning in circles. On our screens, a panoramic watercolor by Habidis rotated three hundred and sixty degrees. The painting let us gaze into the area as it might have looked in the nineteenth century. There was a green meadow, a cluster of orangish clay buildings, and a pale road leading to a grove of trees. Inky hills faded into a distant blue sky. For a moment, the roar of motorcycles and the concrete, graffiti-covered buildings seemed to fade away.

"You know, that's not bad!" Habidis said, looking up and smiling. It was the first time he'd seen his artwork digitized inside the app.

We walked a few blocks to the next stop. Across the street, a construction crew was working with a bulldozer behind a blue steel fence. The archeologists all began speaking at once: What was being built? Had they gotten the proper authorization? It is believed that the area used to have a sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Artemis, and earlier excavations had uncovered an inscribed stone recording a fourth-century-B.C. mortgage on a house and a tavern. If something new was being built, this required a new rescue excavation.

We crossed the street to take a closer look. A tall man in work boots and a puffy green jacket walked over.

"We're archeologists," Karagiannopoulou said. "Not from the service, but we're making this app based on rescue archeology."

He nodded, looking slightly confused.

"When were there excavations here?" she asked.

"September of 2022," he said. "The owner didn't want a basement; they didn't go very deep."

"What will the new building be?" Karagiannopoulou asked.

"A restaurant," he said.

"There was a tavern here in antiquity!" she said, before explaining more about Dipylon.

He nodded, still seeming unsure why a group of archeologists was so interested in the site.

"We have to check the new excavation reports," Costaki said as we left.

We passed modern apartment blocks with laundry fluttering from their balconies, butcher shops and trendy cafés, and crumbling neoclassical buildings from the nineteenth century, many abandoned and covered in scrawls of graffiti. Though close to downtown, we didn't see a single tourist. "People were telling us, Oh, you can't take tourists to that part of Athens," Costaki said. "It's run-down. It's dirty." She shrugged. "But that's life. I mean, that's Athens. It's not only the Acropolis and the glorious monuments."

In the shadow of a looming highway overpass, as the roar of engines and the stench of exhaust drifted down, we gazed at Habidis's mellow rendering of a nineteenth-century olive mill which had once stood there. For most of the past two and half millennia, modern buildings hadn't obstructed the view; the Acropolis would have been visible from every point on the walk. Turning my phone, I saw a small Parthenon atop a white-and-mauve rock in Habidis's painting. By sliding a finger across the screen, it was possible to choose between contemporary and historical views. There was an intermediate zone where the two blurred into palimpsest, the rich specificity of the past hovering, faintly visible, beneath the modern street. By the end of the walk, this visual effect had become a state of consciousness. Beneath the seductive surface of the present, there is always something older-the cool of a vanished stream, the clay of a potter's workshop, the stones of a country villa, the grave of a young man buried with a flute and a lyre. Even archeology itself has a past, which can flicker back to life. ♦

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Nick Romeo on the female archeologists who pulled together forgotten archeological data to create high-tech maps of ancient Athens for historical preservation.

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Part 1

" Five Held in Plot to Bug Democratic Offices Here," said the headline at the bottom of page one in the Washington Post on Sunday, June 18, 1972. The story reported that a team of burglars had been arrested inside the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate office complex in Washington.

So began the chain of events that would convulse Washington for two years, lead to the first resignation of a U.S. president and change American politics forever.

The story intrigued two young reporters on The Post's staff, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward who were called in to work on the story. As Woodward's notes show, he learned from police sources that the men came from Miami, wore surgical gloves and carried thousands of dollars in cash. It was, said one source, "a professional type operation."

Bob Woodward, left, and Carl Bernstein were in their 20s when they began investigating the Watergate cover-up. (Ken Feil - TWP)

The next day, Woodward and Bernstein joined up for the first of many revelatory stories. " GOP Security Aide Among Those Arrested," reported that burglar James McCord was on the payroll of President Nixon's reelection committee. The next day, Nixon and chief of staff H.R. Haldeman privately discussed how to get the CIA to tell the FBI to back off from the burglary investigation. Publicly, a White House spokesman said he would not comment on "a third rate burglary."

Within a few weeks, Woodward and Bernstein reported that the grand jury investigating the burglary had sought testimony from two men who had worked in the Nixon White House, former CIA officer E. Howard Hunt and former FBI agent G. Gordon Liddy. Both men would ultimately be indicted for guiding the burglars, via walkie-talkies, from a hotel room opposite the Watergate building.

In Miami, Bernstein learned that a $25,000 check for Nixon's reelection campaign had been deposited in the bank account of one of the burglars. The resulting story, " Bug Suspect Got Campaign Funds" reported the check had been given to Maurice Stans, the former Secretary of Commerce who served as Nixon's chief fundraiser. It was the first time The Post linked the burglary to Nixon campaign funds.

VIDEO | From the Hollywood adaptation of Woodward and Bernstein's "All the President's Men,' Post editor Benjamin Bradlee (played by Jason Robards) expresses frustration at his reporters' sourcing.

As the two reporters pursued the story, Woodward relied on Mark Felt, a high ranking official at the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as a confidential source. With access to FBI reports on the burglary investigation, Felt could confirm or deny what other sources were telling The Post reporters. He also could tell them what leads to pursue. Woodward agreed to keep his identity secret, referring to him in conversations with colleagues only as "Deep Throat." His identity would not become public until 2005, 33 years later.

While Nixon cruised toward reelection in the fall of 1972, Woodward and Bernstein scored a string of scoops, reporting that:

* Attorney General John Mitchell controlled a secret fund that paid for a campaign to gather information on the Democrats.

* Nixon's aides had run " a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage" on behalf of Nixon's reelection effort.

But while other newspapers ignored the story and voters gave Nixon a huge majority in November 1972, the White House continued to denounce The Post's coverage as biased and misleading. Post publisher Katharine Graham worried about the administration's "unveiled threats and harassment."

As Hunt asked the White House provide money for himself and his co-defendants, John Sirica, the tough-talking judge presiding over the trial of the burglars, took on the role of investigator, trying to force the defendants to disclose what they knew. Hunt and the other burglars pleaded guilty, while McCord and Liddy went to trial and were convicted.

As Hunt's demands for "hush money" persisted, John Dean, a White House lawyer, privately told Nixon that there was " a cancer on the presidency." When the FBI finally pierced the White House denials, senior officials faced prosecution for perjury and obstruction of justice. In April 1973, four of Nixon's top aides lost their jobs, including chief of staff Haldeman, chief domestic policy adviser, John Ehrlichman, Attorney General Richard Kleindienst and Dean himself.

When Nixon's press secretary Ron Ziegler said previous White House criticisms of The Post were "inoperative," Woodward and Bernstein's reporting had been vindicated.

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The Watergate Story | The Post Investigates - The Washington Post

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A June 1972 break-in at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate office complex begins the chain of events that convulsed Washington for two years, lead to the first resignation of a U.S. president and changed American politics forever.

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"The New York Times." (2021). In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-New-York-Times

Luzón, A. F. (2021). Gutenberg: el inventor que cambió el mundo. Historia National Geographic. https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/gutenberg-inventor-que-cambio-mundo_11140

Ewbank, H. L. (2017). Radio in the Digital Age. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.1330

Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From new media to communication. En R. P. Hawkins, J. M. Wiemann, & S. Pingree (Eds.), Advances in interpersonal communication research (Vol. 1, pp. 110-134). Ablex Publishing.

Talens, J., & Díez, S. Z. (1995). Historia general del cine. In Cátedra eBooks. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA39263974

Rodríguez V, P.  Ruiz T, A. (2005). La televisión: ¿caja tonta o caja mágica?. Grupo Comunicar. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/158/15825183.pdf

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La televisión es un medio de comunicación audiovisual. Transmite imágenes y sonidos a través de ondas electromagnéticas. Utiliza un receptor para convertir estas señales en imágenes y sonidos en una pantalla. Su propósito principal es informar, entretener y educar a la audiencia. La televisión ofrece una variedad de programas, como noticias, series, películas, documentales y programas educativos, adaptados a diferentes gustos y edades. Además de ser una fuente de entretenimiento, la televisión puede influir en la opinión pública, dar visibilidad a cuestiones sociales y culturales, y conectar a personas de diferentes lugares. También puede ser una herramienta para la publicidad y la promoción comercial.

***

Datos históricos:  En la década de 1920, Charles Francis Jenkins y John Logie Baird lograron transmitir imágenes en movimiento a través del aire, sentando las bases para las transmisiones televisivas regulares. El 30 de septiembre de 1929, se emitió el primer programa de televisión comercial en Estados Unidos, marcando el comienzo de la era de la televisión como medio de entretenimiento y comunicación.
En 1954, se introdujo el primer sistema de televisión a color compatible con los televisores en blanco y negro existentes y para  1965, la televisión a color se volvió más común.

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El cine es un tipo de arte y medio de comunicación que involucra la creación y proyección de imágenes en movimiento en una pantalla. Combina imágenes, sonidos, música y efectos visuales. Cuenta historias, presenta ideas y emociones, y transporta a la audiencia a diferentes mundos y experiencias. Su propósito principal es entretener, informar y conmover al público. El cine puede servir como una ventana a diferentes culturas, momentos históricos y perspectivas, al tiempo que proporciona una plataforma para la expresión creativa y la narración. Además de ser un arte bello, también tiene la capacidad de reflexionar sobre cuestiones sociales, políticas y filosóficas, generando impacto en la sociedad.

***

Datos históricos: En 1895, los hermanos Lumière, Louis y Auguste, presentaron públicamente su invento llamado "cinematógrafo", que permitía la proyección de imágenes en movimiento. Esta invención es considerada uno de los hitos iniciales en la historia del cine. En 1925 se creó al película "El nacimiento de una nación", dirigida por D.W. Griffith. Esta película estadounidense es conocida por su duración y complejidad narrativa, marcando un avance en la técnica cinematográfica y estableciendo estándares para la producción cinematográfica. Mas adelante, en 1927 la película "El cantante de jazz", dirigida por Alan Crosland, introdujo el sonido sincronizado con las imágenes, marcando el comienzo de la era del cine sonoro y dejando atrás el cine mudo.

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La comunicación audiovisual es un forma de comunicar información. Se utiliza tanto elementos visuales como auditivos para transmitir un mensaje. Puede incluir una combinación de imágenes, sonidos, gráficos, música y otros elementos para comunicar de manera efectiva. Se conoce comúnmente el video, que incluye audio e imagen de una o varias personas, donde puede entrar el cine y la televisión, pero también puede involucrar muchos otros elementos.
El propósito principal de la comunicación audiovisual es transmitir información de manera más completa y cautivadora. Al combinar elementos visuales y auditivos, se busca captar la atención del público de manera más efectiva, facilitando la comprensión y retención del mensaje. La comunicación audiovisual se utiliza en diversos medios, como la televisión, el cine, los videos en línea, las presentaciones multimedia y más, con el objetivo de informar, entretener, educar y persuadir a la audiencia de manera impactante y atractiva.

***

Datos históricos: En 1895, los hermanos Lumière inventaron el cinematógrafo, una máquina que permitía proyectar películas en movimiento en pantalla grande. Esta invención marcó el inicio del cine como una forma temprana de comunicación audiovisual. En la década de 1920, Charles Francis Jenkins y John Logie Baird contribuyeron al desarrollo de la televisión, llevando a la primera transmisión televisiva en 1927 y al inicio de las emisiones regulares en la década de 1930. En la década de 1950, la televisión a color comenzó a hacerse realidad. En 1954, la RCA lanzó un sistema de televisión a color que eventualmente llevó al desarrollo de la transmisión a color a fines de la década.
A partir de la década de 2000, la digitalización y la expansión de internet transformaron la comunicación audiovisual. Plataformas de streaming como YouTube, Netflix y otras han revolucionado la forma en que se produce, distribuye y consume contenido audiovisual.

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La radio es un medio de comunicación que transmite sonidos y voces a través del aire. Funciona como una conversación que llega a muchas personas al mismo tiempo. Las estaciones de radio emiten programas de diferentes tipos, como música, noticias, conversaciones y entrevistas. El propósito principal de la radio es informar y entretener a la audiencia. Es útil para mantener al tanto al público de lo que está sucediendo en el mundo, para escuchar música o aprender cosas nuevas a través de programas educativos.

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Datos históricos:  La radio fue inventada por Guglielmo Marconi, quien realizó las primeras transmisiones inalámbricas exitosas a finales del siglo XIX. Su trabajo fue crucial para establecer las bases de la radiocomunicación.El 7 de noviembre de 1920, la estación KDKA en Pittsburgh, Estados Unidos, llevó a cabo la primera transmisión radiofónica comercial, marcando el inicio de la radiodifusión tal como la conocemos hoy. Durante la década de 1930, se desarrollaron las tecnologías de radio de amplitud modulada (AM) y frecuencia modulada (FM), lo que permitió una mayor calidad de sonido y la posibilidad de transmitir música y programas variados. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la radio desempeñó un papel crucial en la difusión de noticias y propaganda. Las transmisiones radiales eran utilizadas por gobiernos y fuerzas armadas para influir en la opinión pública y mantener a las tropas informadas.

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Una historieta es una narrativa que combina ilustraciones con texto para contar una historia. Por medio de viñetas o secuencias de imágenes que llevan diálogos y narración, pueden tocar diversos temas, desde aventuras y comedia hasta dramas y temas sociales. Su propósito principal es entretener, comunicar ideas y emociones, y transmitir mensajes de manera atractiva y accesible. No solo cumple una función de entretenimiento, sino que también pueden ser utilizadas para la sátira, la crítica social, la educación y la reflexión sobre diversos aspectos de la vida y la sociedad. Las historietas son una forma versátil y poderosa de contar historias y transmitir información.

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Datos históricos:
En el año 1800 la palabra "cartoon" pasó de referirse a bocetos a referirse a dibujos satíricos. En 1843 las historietas pasaron a ser parte de periódicos como "Punch" en Gran Bretaña y "The New Yorker". Así las historietas ganaron popularidad, porque no solo eran entretenidas sino que también hablaban de temas de interés público. A principios del siglo XIX el avance tecnológico permitió la animación y en 1928 Walt Disney presentó la historieta animada "Steamboat Willie" con sonido, haciendo algo muy importante y especial en la historia de las películas y los dibujos animados.

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Una revista es una publicación impresa o digital que se produce cada cierto tiempo, puede ser semanalmente, mensualmente o trimestralmente. Las revistas pueden contener diferentes tipos de contenido dependiendo de su propósito, por ejemplo, noticias, entretenimiento, estilo de vida, ciencia, moda, salud, etc.
El propósito principal de una revista es proporcionar información, entretenimiento y conocimiento a su audiencia. Es diferente al periódico porque explora temas de manera más profunda y a veces más creativa. Las revistas se enfocan en el tema de interés de su audiencia. Lo que hace especiales a las revistas es que utilizan mas recursos visuales, como ilustraciones y fotografías.

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Datos históricos: Comenzó por la influencia del movimiento Arts & Crafts y el tipógrafo Will Bradley, quien creó la revista Cosmopolitan en 1916. También destaca cómo la litografía de Jules Chéret agregó color y creatividad a la ilustración de revistas entre 1870 y 1900. Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial, se introdujeron tecnologías como la reproducción fotográfica y la automatización de la imprenta y en 1928 se creó la revista "Vogue". Para 1930 las revistas se dirigían principalmente a personas ricas. En 1985 las condiciones económicas afectaron las revistas a nivel internacional.

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El periódico es una publicación que puede ser impresa o digital, es publicada con regularidad y  contiene noticias, reportajes, artículos de opinión, análisis entre otros. Su propósito principal es informar a la sociedad sobre lo que esta sucediendo actualmente, temas de interés público, política, economía, deportes y otros temas importantes que estén pasando en el mundo.

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Datos históricos: La aparición de la escritura en los años 3000-3500 a. C. hizo posible la comunicación a través del lenguaje escrito. Mas adelante, en 1450, Gutenberg invento la imprenta. Esta novedosa invención permitió que el lenguaje escrito fuera transmitido a miles de personas. En la actualidad uno de los periódicos mas influyente es "The New York Times". Fue fundado el 18 de septiembre de 1851 por Henry Jarvis Raymond y George Jones, "The New York Times" se ha convertido en uno de los periódicos más respetados y reconocidos a nivel mundial.