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Climate change in Pakistan is affected by many variables, including its size, altitude, storms, Indus waterway framework, climate, the impact of Western instability and the broader impact of climate change. Geographically, Pakistan is diverse, including the Himalayas and Karakoram mountains in the north, the vast Indus River Basin, and the Middle Eastern oceans in the south. This difference in topography causes climate change throughout the country. As a result, northern regions such as Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Jammu and Kashmir are exposed to cold and heavy snowfall during winter months, while southern regions such as Karachi remain hot and dry. Altitude is an important factor in improving Pakistan's security. High altitude cities like Islamabad and Murree have mild summers compared to lower altitude areas like Multan and Sukkur. Cyclones coming from the Indian Ocean play an important role in bringing heavy rains to the provinces of Punjab, Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa during the summer months. The Indus River is one of the longest waterways in the world and affects the climate of neighboring regions. For example, the Indus Delta has a coastal climate influenced by the Eastern Sea. The southwest, which includes the Balochistan region, has a climate characterized by high temperatures and rainfall. Here in Quetta, winters are harsh, summers are hot and there is little rainfall throughout the year. Disturbances coming from the west, starting from the Mediterranean, caused winter rains and snowfall in the north and west of Pakistan. Due to these effects, heavy rainfall may occur in cities such as Peshawar and Rawalpindi during the winter months. Progress in climate change is causing climate change in Pakistan. Like many other parts of the world, Pakistan experiences fluctuations in temperature, precipitation and frequent extreme weather conditions. These changes have major impacts on agriculture, water use, and overall climate change. As Pakistan grapples with climate change and its challenges, systematic reform and social control have finally become central.

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Pakistan topographical feature ranges from high mountains in north to coastal areas in south. Pakistan has all types of climates. It is extremely cold in highland areas and mild in lowland. Monsoon winds occur in Pakistan. South -west monsoon occurs in summer from June-September. North-east monsoon winds occur in winter. Monsoon winds bring summer rainfall to Indus plain and northern areas. Karachi receives rainfall from monsoon winds in summer. Western depression causes rain in Pakistan from December to May. Western areas receive rain in winter from western depressions. Convectional current give rainfall to north and north-western Pakistan. Southern Pakistan does not receive rainfall from convectional current. Relief rainfall in Northen and western mountains due to high alitude. Tropical cyclones generate over arabian sea and cause rainfall occasionally.

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1. The physical features and topographical characteristics of an area, such as mountains, deserts, and coastlines, play an important role in determining the climate. The latitude, longitude, and elevation of a region determine its exposure to direct sunlight, which can influence the local temperature. The presence of mountains can block the cold air.

2. The position of a region relative to the equator and the poles can have a significant impact on its climate. Regions closer to the poles tend to have cooler climates, while regions near the equator tend to be warmer.

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Factors leading to climatic variations:

Climatic conditions vary in different parts of Pakistan due to different reasons.

▪ Mostly high temperature due to latitudinal effect.

▪ The high altitude of Northern and Western Mountains results in relief rainfall.

▪The Indus Plain and the Northern areas receive summer rainfall due to the monsoon winds.

▪ Costal areas such as Karachi have a low temperature range and high level of humidity. The winds from Arabian Sea keep temperatures comparatively low in summer and high in winter.

▪ The Western regions of Pakistan receive rainfall in winters due to western depressions that originate in the Mediterranean Sea.

▪ Convectional currents bring rainfall to Northern Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in May and June. Central Pakistan experiences high temperatures due to continental effect.

▪ The southern region of Pakistan don't receive convectional rainfall in summers due to temperature inversion layer.

▪ Tropical cyclones bring strong, destructive winds and heavy rain to coastal areas.

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Pakistan's topographical features range from lofty mountains in the north to the coastal plains in the south. These differences in terrain lead to significant changes in the climate of the various regions. The factors accounting for climatic variations include:

High temperatures being common due to latitudinal effect. The southern Pakistan is closer to the equator, receiving direct rays of sun and higher temperatures than northern Pakistan, that is further apart from equator. Relief rainfall is caused in northern and Western mountain regions as they are higher in altitude.

The system of monsoon winds causes summer rainfall in the Indus plain and the northern areas.

The coastal areas of Pakistan have a maritime climate and the Arabian sea keeps the temperatures away from extremes. For example Karachi enjoys a low level temperature range and high humidity.

Western depression bring rainfall from the Mediterranean sea to western areas of Pakistan in winters. Areas like Quetta receive most of their rainfall by western depressions and it contributes to the regions' overall temperatures.

Between may and June, convectional currents bring rainfall to Punjab and areas like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Meanwhile, the convectional currents don't provide rainfall to areas in south due to temperature inversion layer in summers.

Continental effect leads to extreme temperatures in the central Pakistan. Areas like Lahore and Multan have hotter temperatures than coastal areas like Karachi.

Tropical cyclones also bring destructive winds to coastal areas but are rare.

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Pakistans topographical features ranges from lofty mountains in the north to coastal plains in the south. There are variations in the climatic conditions and some of the factors effecting the climatic variations are listed below:

Latitudinal effect : Areas closer to the equator receive relatively direct rays of the sun resulting in high temperatures. E.g : southern Pakistan is closer to the equator than northern Pakistan.

Continental Effect: A general term covering the climate areas protected from or unaffected by maritime influence.

Altitude and Temperature: There is a bond between altitude, air, density and temperature.The air is densest at sea level because that is where it absorbs more water vapours. The higher the altitude the lower the temperature.

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CLIMATIC VARIATIONS:

Pakistan has different types of climate.The climate varies because of several reasons such a the continental effect.Areas alongside the coast will experience maritime influence letting the cold breeze enter.However this influence cause humidity in areas like Karachi.Because of the high altitude areas in northern pakistan the temperature there is low and in winters it can be freezing cold.Western depression also is a reason for these variations these winds start in the mediterranean sea in winters and these winds cause rainfall in areas of the western side such as peshawar etc

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There are many factors that are affecting climate like latitudnal effect, the areas near the equator have high temperature due to the direct sunlight and the areas far from the equator have low temperature. Altitude also effects climate a lot like the highland areas have low temperature and lowland areas have high temperature. Angle of sun affects the temperature if we move near the angle of sun Temperature start increasing and when we move far from the equator temperature start decreasing.

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Factors accounting for climatic variations.

Generally high temperature due to latitudinal effect.

Relief rainfall in the Northern and Western Mountains due to high altitude.

Monsoon Winds systems bring rainfall to the Indus plain and northern areas.

Coastal areas have maritime climate change i.e. Low temperature rang