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Mohammad Akmal Hakim Bin Mohd Yusuf (2212333)

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Mohammad Akmal Hakim Bin Mohd Yusuf (2212333)

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Utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy that focuses on results to decide what is right and wrong. It's a variant of consequentialism.  It is also correlated with the Hedonisme Principle which brings the definition of seek pleasure and avoid pain.  But somehow, utilitarianism is defined as focusing on the outcomes or consequences of actions. a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm.

According to utilitarianism, the most ethical decision is the one that produces the greatest benefit for the largest number of people. It is the only moral framework in which military force or war may be justified. Because of the way it accounts for costs and benefits, it is also the most popular method of moral reasoning utilised in business.

Influences of the author They assert that an action is morally right if it leads to the greatest overall good or maximises utility.  Simply say, the greatest happiness for the greatest number.  For instance, a situation where a rescue team only has one time to rescue two groups of individuals consisting of two people and 10 people. According to the utilitarian theory, it is better for the rescuer to sacrifice the two victims in order to save 10 victims because this can provide more benefits and benefits than to save only two victims.

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Because ethics, philosophy, and religion all have a tremendous impact on human values, morality, and behaviour, their interactions are complicated and multifaceted. As a philosophical branch, ethics seeks to understand and prescribe moral principles, whereas religion typically provides a framework for moral goals and guides ethical action.  This is parallel with the contemplation by Hunt and Vittel (2006) in which they have explained that the religion has an influence towards one’s ethical judgement as the belief itself will affect how believers were making decisions.  We brought you the example of the existence of Ten commandments that have had a significant impact on the development of ethical thought and have played a foundational role in shaping moral principles in Judeo-Christian traditions. It contributes to the moral foundation that guide the conduct of individuals within a religious and cultural context or has been labelled as moral foundation (Khan, 2020)

Religious traditions have had a profound impact on the development of ethical frameworks throughout nations and civilisations.  Religion frequently provides a moral and ethical foundation for individuals within a civilisation. Religious teachings and beliefs can shape the moral ideals, ethical principles, and social standards that govern human behaviour in a society. In order to help people negotiate difficult moral dilemmas and make decisions that are consistent with their beliefs, many faiths offer a set of moral and ethical principles that serve as a guide for behaviour and decision-making (Cornwell et al,.2005).  Many civilisations acquired their moral precepts from religious traditions.  Moral principles are frequently derived from sacred writings, teachings, and the authority of a divine being in religious ethics. These ethical precepts help believers live virtuous lives by providing a moral compass for personal behaviour, social interactions, and society structures.  On the other hand, ethical values are a collection of rules or guidelines that control organisational or professional behaviour. In order to uphold integrity and guard against wrongdoing, ethical values frequently address matters of justice, honesty, accountability, and responsibility (Chou, Lee & Fudano, 2022). Nonetheless, the goal of moral and ethical values is to direct actions and choices in a way that is consistent with a set of values or beliefs.

The interplay of ethics, philosophy, and religion is complex, with each subject providing distinct insights into the nature of morality and human behaviour. While philosophy offers a secular forum for ethical debate, religion frequently develops moral ideals through sacred teachings. The interaction between these domains is dynamic, including places of convergence as well as potential sources of divergence. Understanding this link is critical for establishing discussion, mutual respect, and expanding the worldwide debate on ethics and morality.

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The first step in ethical reasoning is recognizing that a moral issue or dilemma exists. What are the real issues we experience when ethical dilemmas occur. It is important that we identify what the issue is because, sometimes, we often look at the solutions and decisions made. However, we do not see and examine what the real issue is. This involves understanding that there is a decision to be made that has ethical implications.

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Ethical reasoning requires gathering relevant information and facts about the situation or issue. This information may include the consequences of different actions, the stakeholders involved, and any relevant ethical principles or guidelines. The information we get in each ethical dilemma can help us find and determine what is the best decision we can make to ensure that the action we will take is good or bad for ourselves.

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Ethical reasoning often involves examining and applying ethical principles or theories to the situation. Different ethical frameworks, such as utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, and others, provide guidance for assessing the moral aspects of a situation. Individuals may weigh these principles and consider how they apply to the specific circumstances.Each type of ethics has a different impact on every decision we make. So it depends on the individual to evaluate each type of ethics to suit the situation of the dilemma he is experiencing.

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Ethical reasoning involves considering the potential consequences of different actions. This includes evaluating the likely benefits and harms that may result from various choices.Considering the consequences that will be experienced by the individual with every action taken is very important because it will teach us a lesson. For example, if we feel that doing an action gives us benefits such as rewards and gifts, we will definitely repeat the action.

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Individuals engaged in ethical reasoning may reflect on their own values and beliefs, as well as the values and perspectives of others. This can help them assess how different options align with their personal or societal values. Although each individual has a variety of ethics that guide them in making decisions, they still have their own beliefs and values that will influence the decisions that will be made. It is these values and beliefs that will help individuals to give reasons why they make such decisions to maximise their satisfaction.

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In complex ethical dilemmas, individuals may need to balance conflicting ethical principles or values. Ethical reasoning helps them weigh the relative importance of these principles and make difficult choices. The ethics of the dilemma that we experience indeed causes us to be confused with the ethics that we have to follow. There will definitely be contradictions between each type of ethics that we want to use in making a decision. So, we must stabilise the use of every ethic that exists so as not to cause us to feel wrong in making decisions.

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Ethical reasoning also involves assessing the rights and duties of all parties involved. This may involve recognizing and respecting the rights of individuals, such as autonomy, privacy, and freedom from harm. We will not feel complete satisfaction in the decisions made because we do not look at others. We will not feel complete satisfaction in the decisions made because we do not look at others. Take other initiatives if the decision we make inconveniences people or disturbs the peace of others

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Ethical reasoning often requires engaging in thoughtful deliberation, considering multiple perspectives, and engaging in ethical discussions or debates with others to arrive at a well-considered decision. This is why we should be selfless. This is because, in every decision we make, there will be some things that will involve dealing with ourselves and others. Therefore, we cannot only look at ourselves, but we must look from various aspects and viewpoints.

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Ethical relativism says morality depends on culture, society, or personal convictions. It implies that morality is culturally and perspective-dependent.

Two types of ethical relativism are explained in relativism ethics. First, Individual Relativism discusses personal views and confidence. This suggests a person thinks they influence and assist them make decisions. Thus, they will ignore others' opinions. For instance, a person is certain that he can finish a work quickly even when others claim he can't. Second, Cultural Relativism. It focuses on social culture and tradition. Like ourselves, guys and cultural traditions vary amongst societies. Thus, society's acts cannot be used to judge good or bad. Because the society we despise will likewise despise our acts. In short, every culture and tradition has nothing bad or correct.

Key ethical relativism objections include:

Cultural Diversity: Ethical relativism recognises the great diversity of moral views and behaviours among cultures and societies. It advises tolerance and respect for these variances.

Moral disagreement: Ethical relativism is commonly used to explain cultural and individual moral differences. It assumes these disputes are normal.

Cultural Critique: Ethical relativism can excuse discrimination, injustice, and human rights abuses in some societies, according to critics. They say it doesn't support criticising these behaviours.

Moral Progress: Critics claim that ethical relativism might impede moral growth by preventing the potential of enhancing moral norms or addressing harmful practices.

Inconsistencies: Cultural or individual moral beliefs can collide with ethical relativism. It does not provide a clear conflict resolution approach.

Tolerance vs. Universal Values: The balance between cultural tolerance and universal moral ideals is a topic of continuous debate in ethics. Many philosophers seek a balance between cultural variation and universal ethics.

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Feminist ethics emphasises gender equality and tackling gender-based inequities. A unique sort of ethical theory, feminist ethics emphasises gender and feminist views in ethical analysis. Gender inequality and gender-based experiences affect moral thinking. Feminist ethics addresses ethical, social, and political challenges affecting women and other marginalised groups. Traditional ethical frameworks generally ignored or marginalised women's viewpoints and experiences. These limitations are addressed by feminist ethics, which provides a more inclusive and egalitarian framework for moral and ethical dilemmas.

Example of Case Study:

Media Gender Representation: Female underrepresentation and harmful stereotypes in media and entertainment can be addressed by feminist ethics. Ethical analysis can examine media's influence on social views and the need for diverse and realistic portrayals of women.

Political Leadership and Representation: Feminists can address the paucity of women in political leadership and the ethical implications of gender diversity in government.

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A key idea in political and ethical philosophy, social contract theory examines the fictitious agreement people make to create a lawful and orderly society. According to the theory, people voluntarily give up some liberties in return for the advantages of social cooperation, which results in the development of a common set of laws and institutions.  Simply say, according to the social contract hypothesis, members of society coexist in conformity with a set of moral and political norms. Some people think that if we follow the social compact, we can live moral lives out of our own free will rather than because they are mandated by a higher power.  Social contract can be both in explicit and implicit

1. Implicit Contract

According to the notion of an implicit social compact, people offer agreement to join a society and be ruled by its government by residing in territory controlled by that society, which typically has a government. This assent is what gives such a government legitimacy.

2. Explicit Contract

Political power is justifiable, according to explicit social contract theory, since it is founded on the agreement of the governed. This agreement or treaty, such as a written constitution or a collection of laws, is often used to create this consent.

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Care ethics, popularised by Carol Gilligan, emphasises empathy, connectivity, and caring relationships in ethical decision-making. It emphasises care's morality and ethical role. Care ethics, or ethics of care, emphasises empathy, caring relationships, and the moral worth of emotional and interpersonal ties. This ethical paradigm emphasises "care" as a key factor in moral decision-making. Care ethics has grown in response to deontology and utilitarianism, which emphasise abstract principles like impartiality.

Important care ethics concepts include:

Relationships: Care ethics emphasises how personal ties shape morality. It implies that our ethical obligations stem from our relationships with family, friends, and neighbours.

Care as a Virtue: Care ethicists consider caring a virtue like honesty or courage. Caring is a moral virtue that should be cultivated.

Particularity: Care ethics prioritises human needs above universal morality. Each situation's concrete and personal features are considered.

Contextual Ethics: Care ethics is highly contextual. It suggests making ethical decisions based on the individual relationships and situations, taking into consideration their intricacies and complexities.

Empathy and Emotional Engagement: Care ethics emphasises empathy and emotional engagement in moral decision-making. It teaches people to examine others' feelings and needs and respond with empathy.

Gender and Care: Care ethics emphasises feminine characteristics like nurturing, empathy, and care work, making it related with feminist ethics. Some care ethicists believe these qualities should be included in a more comprehensive ethical framework because standard ethical theories undervalue them.

Critical of Impartiality: Care ethics undermines standard ethical theories' impartiality and universal ideals. It shows that these theories' impartiality and abstraction can ignore individual needs and weaknesses.

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Deontological ethics, associated with philosophers like Immanuel Kant, emphasise the intrinsic moral principles or duties that guide actions. Actions are considered morally right or wrong regardless of their consequences. It also emphasises the inherent moral principles that govern actions. They argue that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, irrespective of their consequences. Deontologists prioritise duties and rules as the basis for ethical decision-making.

Deontologists say that those who practise this concept in every decision they want to make in their lives, they will always give their best in everything they do. They will also leave things that they do not want to do. All this will be done well even if these deontologists are given the same treatment or different treatment to themselves. Simply put, they only do something because they want to do it, and they leave something because they themselves don't want to do it. This means that there is not a single thing that affects the actions and decisions made by this deontologist.

To show the situation for those who practice this deontology, we can see by giving a situation. For example, in a class at IIUM, a group of students who are in the class are given an assignment by their lecturer to be completed before the set date. Their lecturers only remind them to complete the assignments that have been given immediately. Therefore, this deontologist will consider an action to be good if they complete the task not just to get good marks or a gift from the lecturer. They consider it their responsibility and trust. On the other hand, deontologists consider their actions immoral when they do not think about the punishment or fine they will get if they do not do the task.

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Virtue ethics is the oldest ethical theory in the world, which originated from Ancient Greece. It contrasted directly with the deontology theory. Virtue ethics theory is a theory that focuses on the moral character of individuals rather than on the morality of their actions or the consequences of those actions. It validate the source of the action, which in other word is the intention of the action.

Plato- Identified four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. These are the necessities traits every human should have in order to have a good life.

Aristotle- eudaimonia ( a combination of well-being, happiness and flourishing )

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the virtue ethics theory was not widely applied because of the rise of other theories such as deontology and consequentialist

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Divine command theory argues that the nature of right and wrong is based on religious beliefs, which in this context refers to Jewish and Christian religions that are claimed to be divine. According to this theory, both Jewish and Christian religions define “ethically right” as being something “commanded by God”, and “ethically wrong” means something “forbidden by God”. -This theory has created some serious problems for believers and non-believers alike. Non-believers, such as atheists, reject totally the theory because they believe that God does not exist. When God does not exist, it does not make sense that ethics should be based on God’s command. On the other hand, believers have problems with this theory because of etiological reasons. Islam makes the purpose of existence of humankind in this world clearly. Human beings are created for the sole purpose of worshipping the One God through the engagement of good things and avoidance from engaging in wrong things. For Muslims, what is right and wrong is clearly espoused through the word of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. Based on these two important foundations, Muslims believe that a conduct is right because Allah s.w.t or His Prophet Muhammad has commanded it. Muslims believe and accept Allah’s commandment of what is right and wrong because Allah s.w.t knows everything, including what is the best for the people

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Proposed by Max Stirner on 1844. In philosophy, egoism is the theory that one’s self is, or should be, the motivation and the goal of one’s own action.

Niccolo Machiavelli-sees man as a being whose actions are motivated by his drives, appetites, and passions, which lead him often to immoral behavior

Plato-One should perform an act only if it is in one's interest

Egoism theory is a theory that recognized one’s own self and personal interest as one’s foundation of morality.

It is also the main factor that led someone to perform an action. There are three types of egoism. Psychological egoism, Ethical egoism and Rational egoism.

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Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions of morality and principles of right and wrong. It is the study of what is considered morally acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and it involves examining and evaluating the moral values and principles that guide human conduct. Ethics provides a framework for individuals and society to make moral judgments and decisions, and it often involves the exploration of fundamental questions about what is good, what is just, and what is virtuous.

Ethics is a matter that guides and guides people in making a decision. This decision will determine what action will be taken based on what is determined by the individual himself. If the individual makes a correct assessment of the decision made, then it will help in getting a positive effect in every action taken. On the other hand, if the individual cannot determine the best decision in each ethical dilemma experienced, then it will have a negative effect on the individual.

An analogy that can be used in ethics is like a rule book wherever we are. This rule book will be consulted by each individual to ensure that all actions taken and all decisions made can increase satisfaction within themselves. The same goes for ethics. When we want to do something, we will think first, whether the thing or decision we do will benefit us or vice versa. For example, we want to decide whether we want to go to class or not. This decision can be made if we evaluate what are the bad and good effects of not going to class. Therefore, this ethics becomes a duty in every individual to ensure that everything that is done can guarantee a positive effect.

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Muhammad Harith Syakir bin Lukman (2211653)

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Muhammad Harith Syakir bin Lukman (2211653)