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Doug Lemov Active Practice for Vocabulary Instruction

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Doug Lemov Active Practice for Vocabulary Instruction

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We've just finished our chapter on vocabulary in Reading Reconsidered. In it, we describe ways to teach new words directly (Explicit Vocabulary Instruction) and ways to increase how much word knowledge students absorb from reading words in texts (Implicit Vocabulary Instruction). The following is from our discussion of Explicit Vocabulary Instruction and talks about the key role of Active Practice-causing students to practice applying and using a word. We think it's the key to improving vocabulary instruction. We should note that much of what we write here represents adaptations of the ideas Beck, McKeown and Kucan discuss in their book Bringing Words to Life.
Explicit Vocabulary instruction includes five steps:

1. Careful and intentional selection of high-value words

2. Framing of a definition that students can use and apply

3. Guidance on 'parameters of use,' when and how a word occurs in language

4. Active practice-time spent using the word in different settings and applications

5. Maintenance and reinforcement

Of these, we believe the fourth step, active practice, is the most important. This may come as a bit of a surprise: its benefits are rarely plumbed but, as Isabel Beck et al. describe, practicing using words adeptly and accurately is the key to mastery. We learn words by using them and seeing them over and over in different settings that are rich and challenging. So a key part of vocabulary instruction is to put students in situations where they apply their nascent knowledge of a word. If we could make one small change to super-charge vocabulary instruction across American classrooms it would be to take the time teachers spend having students guess at word meanings and replace it with time spent using those words after having been given a definition.

This would mean replacing something like, "Who can tell us what 'destitute' means?" with first giving students a definition for destitute-"completely without the things needed to survive"-and asking questions in which students have to apply the word and its definition: "Who can tell me a situation that might cause someone who is rich to become destitute?" "Good, could a person ever be destitute even if they still had money?" "How is being destitute different from being poor?" "What's a good way to help someone who is destitute?"

In each of these cases, the teacher would insist that the students use the word "destitute" in their answer, as in, "If you were shipwrecked on an island all by yourself with a trunk of money, you'd still be destitute, even though you'd have lots of cash."

This process of active practice makes problem-solving a key part of vocabulary instruction. It merely places the problem-solving after a basic definition has been learned instead of asking students to make tenuous guesses of a word's meaning, which often results in a subpar definition and surface understanding of a word. This switch results in making the problem-solving more rich and rigorous than in many typical vocabulary lessons (represented in diagram 1) where teachers spend time asking students to guess at a word's definition, sometimes from context, sometimes from previous experience: "What does destitute mean here? Has anyone heard that word before?"

The idea is that this process is more rigorous than "just" telling students what a word means because they are problem solving. In fact, however, what students are doing is not always problem-solving. More often, they are guessing and that involves relatively low rigor, potentially only a few members of class, and can result in the perpetuation of mistaken ideas which can be just as easily be the ones students remember. In the second diagram, the definition comes early, but instead of just writing it down, students are asked to use it over and over and to problem-solve with it by applying it in various new settings. Because students start with a base of knowledge, this really is problem-solving and is likely to be both more rigorous and to result in greater mastery of the word because it results in students using and saying the word multiple times.

Again, time spent guessing a word's meaning is far less productive than time spent using and applying the word's meaning in increasingly complex situations, but the former tends to dominate what teachers do with new words. For example, consider whether it is more rigorous to have students answer the question, "What do you think clandestine might mean?" or something like, "How is clandestine similar to and different from surreptitious?" or "How could camouflage help you do something in a clandestine manner? Could you use blaring noise to help you do something in a clandestine manner? How?"
Active Practice to Master Meaning
Mastering meaning involves students using a word to illustrate its degree of meaning with fluidity, expertise, and a depth of understanding. There are four different ways you could ask students to practice mastering meaning and they should be done both verbally and in writing:

1. When a word would (and would not) apply. "Would it be accurate to say that Aunt Alexandra is acting like a tyrant in this scene? Explain."

2. Combining multiple new words: "Could a tyrant ever be humble? Tell me why or why not."

3. Narrate the story: "Can a group ever exert tyranny over another group? How? Explain how a group of people in To Kill a Mockingbird make decisions that are tyrannical?"

4. Define a change:"How would it sound different if Scout said that Aunt Alexandra's opinion was "indirectly stated" rather than "obliquely observed"? How is it different to state that Aunt Alexandra is being tyrannical as opposed to say 'bossy"?

Active Practice to Master Usage
Asking students to practice correctly avoids students misapplying words incorrectly. It's much harder to unlearn bad habits than it is to build new ones, so it's a good idea to have students practicing a variety of uses. There are two ways to do this:

1. Change the form: "In its adjective form we would say 'tyrannical.' Would Atticus agree that Aunt Alexandra is tyrannical?

2. Create a sentence with the word and/or other parameters: "Write a sentence in which you describe Aunt Alexandra looking 'obliquely' at Scout. Be sure to describe what Scout has done to earn such a glance."

It's quite a common practice to ask students to create sentences with new words, but you'll notice in the example above, that adding additional parameters adds rigor and helps to ensure that students are using a word correctly.
Three Keys to Active Practice
Practicing incorrectly can sometimes do more harm than not practicing at all. When practicing, be sure that students are accurately applying the word. It is not uncommon for an eager student to lose the meaning of a word in his/her earnest attempts to apply the word wherever the definition seems to fit. Whether it's active practice to master meaning or usage, there are three important keys to getting the most out of it. The first is that you want to ensure that students actually use the new word in their answers (you would be surprised by how often we forget this!). What happens instead of using a new word is that student will use a sentence that describes a word instead. For example, if a teacher asks a student to describe a time when they are sentimental, the student might start the sentence without using the word, "when I look at photo albums of my baby brother when he was little" - while that may demonstrate the meaning and accurate use of the word, unless the teacher pauses the student to revise their answer and use the word in their sentence, then the student doesn't actually get practice with the word.

The second key to successful active practice is that you want students' answers to illustrate their understanding of the word. We often hear students say something like "I detest broccoli." Without further explanation, it's not clear if they truly know what it means to "detest." In this case, we want to push students a bit further to expand their sentences to illustrate the meaning of the word, as in "I detest broccoli because it's bitter and doesn't taste good." Avoid questions that are mundane or obvious in order to ensure that students have to rigorously apply a word and its definition. The result of simple fill in the blank questions, or only asking questions that ask students to use the word to describe their own experiences can have two negative outcomes. The degree of the word may not match the context (e.g. "I was irate when my sister got ice cream before I did.") because they match a simple fill-in-the blank formula or they may generate a surface level of understanding about a word (e.g., "I adore my teddy bear.") without understanding its deeper meanings or connotations. Provide prompts that support students precise use of the word (e.g., "Write a sentence about why a mouse would likely despise a snake." versus "Write a sentence using despise.") or in which they combine similar words with slightly different meanings (e.g., "Write a sentence in which you describe something you dislike and something you detest. Use 'despise' and 'detest' in your answer and illustrate how their meanings are slightly different.") Asking these rigorous application questions increases the quality of their practice as well as deepens their understanding of the word and its definition.

The final key is that we also want to ask students to use different forms of the word so that they are able to practice using a word flexibly and deeply, and to consistently correct inaccurate part of speech or tense in their answers so that they are practicing using the word in its correct forms. Do not accept for example, "The pond was scarce of water." If we accept incorrect forms of new vocabulary words during practice then students will most assuredly make those mistakes beyond the classroom. Following these three keys of active practice can support teachers in asking students to rigorously apply their burgeoning vocabulary, and they are useful in giving feedback to students on their practice as they use new words and apply their meanings in a variety of contexts.

Active Practice, Isabel Beck, Vocabulary

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Active Practice: The Key to Vocabulary - Teach Like a Champion

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How to shift to learning words by using them instead of guessing at them.

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Iowa Reading Research Center - The University of Iowa

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Vocabulary acquisition is an essential part of language learning. A robust vocabulary equips students to comprehend and write texts that are complex, detailed, and specific. On the flip side, students who lack foundational word recognition skills often struggle to comprehend what they read (Gough et al. 1981; Stanovich 1980). Thus, it is important that we empower students with the tools they need to successfully decode and understand unfamiliar words. And according to the large body of evidence that makes up the science of reading, there is more to vocabulary learning than simply memorizing new terms with flash cards or guessing words from context. Vocabulary must be taught explicitly and systematically, in a way that engages all of the parts of the brain associated with word recognition. One way to do this is through the POSSUM (phonology, orthography, syntax, semantics, understanding, and morphology) approach, a vocabulary instructional tool that supports the development of word recognition skills in the brain.

Word Recognition in the Brain

For many strong readers, the process of seeing and recognizing a written word is automatic. However, our brains actually have to activate a complex series of neural pathways in order for word recognition to occur. These neural pathways are associated with several areas of the brain.

One of these areas is the phonological processor, which is located in the back part of the frontal lobe of the brain (Moats & Tolman, 2009). Its job is to process the speech sounds of language, which are called " phonemes." This region of the brain is necessary for oral language to be produced and received.

Next is the orthographic processor, which is located in the occipital lobe in the lower back of the brain (Moats & Tolman, 2009). The orthographic processor allows us to recognize and recall the letters and letter sequences, or graphemes, of written words. Without it, we would be unable to make sense of printed text.

Situated between the phonological and orthographic processors is an area called the " angular gyrus," or, neurologically speaking, the temporal-parietal-occipital junction (Moats & Tolman, 2009). While this region of the brain is not a language processor in and of itself, it works alongside the orthographic and phonological processors, enabling us to associate spoken phonemes with the written graphemes that represent them. In the classroom, these associations should be taught and reinforced through explicit phonics instruction.

Our ability to recognize words is also facilitated by meaning and context processors, which are located in the temporal lobe of the brain (Moats & Tolman, 2009). The meaning, or semantic processor, allows us to interpret the meaning of words both in and out of context. Just because we can decode a word using our orthographic and phonological processors does not necessarily mean we can understand the word's meaning. This principle is demonstrated by nonsense words, or sequences of letters that follow the spelling constraints of English but have no known meaning. For example, we can decode and pronounce nonsense words like "ip" and "glo" based on our knowledge of English spelling patterns. However, we cannot derive any meaning from them because we have not associated those letter patterns with any real-world concepts, as we have with patterns like "cat" or "pot." The brain's retention of a word's meaning is tied to a number of features, including synonyms, spelling features, root words, related words, and more.

The context processor works alongside the meaning processor to facilitate comprehension. Context can come in a variety of forms, including syntactic context, or the way a word is used grammatically, and content-based context, or the subject matter surrounding a given word. For example, syntactic context could help us differentiate between words like "duck" (noun) and "duck" (verb). In a sentence like "the duck swims in the pond," our context processor would allow us to recognize that the word "duck" is being used as a noun, meaning it could not have the definition "to lower the head or body." Content-based context would allow us to differentiate between words like "pool" (swimming) and "pool" (billiards). For example, in a sentence like "When it is hot out, I swim in the pool," we can use the surrounding context to understand that the word "pool" here is referring to a body of water, not a game played with balls and cues.

All that said, it is important to note that context plays a limited role in word recognition. While it can support this process, it cannot replace the role of the phonological and orthographic processors, which are vital to fluent and accurate decoding.

Together, the four language processors-phonological, orthographic, meaning, and context-make up something called the " four-part processing model for word recognition." This idea was first hypothesized in 1989 by researchers Mark Seidenberg and James McClelland and has since been referenced by numerous reading researchers (Seidenberg & McClelland, 1989). In this model, the phonological and orthographic processors work together to decode a written or spoken word. Then, the meaning and context processors work to attach meaning to the word that makes sense in context.

Notice that in this model, all four parts of the brain work together to support word recognition. This means that effective literacy instruction should engage all four processing systems and encourage them to be used in tandem.

One strategy that educators can use to ensure that all four processing systems are used during vocabulary learning is the POSSUM approach.

The POSSUM Approach

The POSSUM approach is a tool that educators can use to support explicit vocabulary instruction in the classroom. Dr. Maryanne Wolf is the author of this approach, which has been the basis for her evidence-based RAVE-O program in both its original and new iterations. The approach itself is based on two decades of cognitive neuroscience research on the developing reading brain (M. Wolf, personal communication, June 26, 2023). In this post, we will use the POSSUM acronym to describe six different elements of word recognition: phonology, orthography, syntax, semantics, understanding, and morphology. Engaging these six elements of word recognition during vocabulary instruction equips students to learn and retain new words.

P-Phonology

Phonology describes the sounds, or phonemes, that make up a word. As children develop phonological awareness, they learn how to pronounce unfamiliar words by breaking them down into their respective phonemes and blending those sounds together to produce a word. Not all students will innately understand how to segment a word, or break it into its individual phonemes. In fact, it is estimated that most children will need explicit instruction in phonological segmenting in order to successfully master the skill (Liberman & Shankweiler, 1985).

O-Orthography

Orthography describes the letters and letter sequences, or graphemes, that represent the sounds in a word. In order to read a word, students must be able to convert the graphemes they see into phonemes that they can pronounce. In order to spell a word, students must convert the phonemes they hear into graphemes that they can write down. Sometimes, graphemes are made up of more than one letter. For example, in the word "trash," the /sh/ sound is represented by two letters. When two adjacent letters combine to represent one speech sound, the resulting sound is called a " digraph." Graphemes can also be made of three adjacent letters, which is called a " trigraph," or four adjacent letters, which is called a " quadrigraph." Graphemes that are made up of more than one letter can be difficult to decode. Students should be explicitly taught different syllable types and spelling rules to reinforce their understanding of these words. The six major syllable types are: closed, open, r-controlled, vowel team, silent -e, and consonant -le. Note: Some educational materials categorize diphthongs as separate from vowel teams, resulting in seven major syllable types. The same principles of explicit instruction still apply. For more information on each syllable type, see our Reading Glossary.

S-Syntax

Syntax describes how a word functions grammatically within a sentence. In order to understand words syntactically, students must receive explicit instruction in the different parts of speech and how to recognize them. For example, understanding that the word "child" is a noun and that nouns generally precede verbs in English sentences would be a type of syntactic knowledge.

S-Semantics

Semantics describes an understanding of what a word means. This includes both the word's definition in context, as well as other meanings the word can have. Students with a high semantic knowledge have a large and nuanced vocabulary.

U-Understanding

Students may also use background knowledge from outside the text to understand a word. For example, they may have seen the word before in another context, or they may be able to associate the word with something they are exposed to in their daily lives.

M-Morphology

Morphology describes all of the parts that make up a word, including prefixes ("un-," "re-," "anti-"), suffixes ("-ly," "-acy," "-able"), and root words ("astro," "script," "phobia"). An understanding of a word's etymology-the origin of the word and how its meaning has changed over time-can be helpful when dissecting its morphology.

Practical Application

Educators can implement POSSUM when teaching new vocabulary words in the classroom. Students may benefit from the use of graphic organizers, such as our downloadable POSSUM Graphic Organizer (see "Supplemental Resources for Teachers and Families"), to keep track of new vocabulary terms. Caregivers can also use the POSSUM Graphic Organizer with their child when reading at home. Here are two examples of how the six elements of POSSUM can be used to support the learning of both simple and complex words. Note: strategies and applications may vary slightly from program to program.

Example 1

Core Word

"stop"

Example Sentence

"Melissa told her friend to sit down and stop talking."

Phonology

Review sounds: /s/ /t/ /o/ /p/

Orthography

Review spelling: s-t-o-p

Syllable types: closed syllable

Spelling rules: short-vowel rule

Syntax

Parts of speech:

Noun → "Soon, the music came to a stop."

Verb → "Please stop bothering me." (used in the example sentence)

Adjective → "She hit the stop button to pause the movie."

Semantics

Possible meanings:

Stop (noun): a pause or breaking off; something that impedes or obstructs

Stop (verb): to get in the way of; to cease or quit (used in the example sentence)

Stop (adjective): designed to stop

Understanding

Use background knowledge to make connections:

Have I seen or heard this word used elsewhere?

"stop sign"

"stop, drop, and roll"

"to put a stop to"

Morphology

Explore word parts: n/a

Additional conjugations:

stopped → past tense verb

stops → present tense verb

stopping → present progressive verb

Example 2

Core Word

"inaudible"

Example Sentence

"Her friend's reply was practically inaudible."

Phonology

Review sounds: /i/ /n/ /au/ /d/ /i/ /b/ /l/

Orthography

Review spelling: i-n-a-u-d-i-b-l-e

Syllable types: closed syllable, vowel team, open syllable (schwa), consonant -le

Spelling rules: "au" makes the "aw" sound, open "i" with schwa pronunciation, -le syllables always end in silent "e"

Syntax

Parts of speech:

Adjective → "Her words were inaudible through the glass."

Semantics

Possible meanings:

Inaudible (adjective): unable to be heard

Understanding

Use background knowledge to make connections:

Have I seen or heard this word used elsewhere?

Have I seen or heard parts of this word used elsewhere?

Morphology

Explore word parts:

Prefix: in → not

Root word: audi → to hear

Suffix: ible → to be capable of

Additional conjugations:

Why It Works

Breaking down unfamiliar words using the POSSUM approach equips students to learn and retain new vocabulary terms. As we saw above, the brain's ability to recognize words relies on several different systems and requires phonological, orthographic, semantic, and contextual input. The reason the POSSUM approach works is that it encourages educators to explicitly teach new vocabulary in a way that systematically engages all four systems of language processing. Because these areas are interconnected and interrelated, activating them at the same time can lead to a ripple effect of literacy benefits.

For example, it has been demonstrated that explicit instruction in morphology can lead to increased proficiency in grapheme-phoneme mapping, as it provides an additional connection in the brain that supports rapid word recognition and comprehension (Bowers et al., 2010). When students receive explicit instruction in phoneme-grapheme relationships, as well as the ways in which morphology, syntax, and other variables can affect these relationships, they are also better equipped to become proficient spellers than if they are taught to spell through memorization alone (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Berninger et al., 2002). A greater awareness of orthography, or spelling, can in turn increase the depth of students' vocabulary, as well as their reading and writing proficiency (Graham, 2000; Graham et al., 2018). For example, a student who has been taught that the root "geo-" in the word "geography" means "earth" may be able to apply this knowledge to understand other words, like "geology" or "geocentric."

Additionally, studies have shown that curricula that use the POSSUM approach have more significant effects on students' reading fluency and comprehension than those that use only isolated phonics instruction or repeated reading (Morris et al., 2011; Lovett et al., 2017). While POSSUM originates from the RAVE-O curriculum, this evidence-based approach can be integrated into any classroom as a way of providing systematic and explicit vocabulary instruction.

The number of words in the English language is almost incalculable. There are around 600,000 words listed in the Oxford English Dictionary alone. Developing a thorough and useable understanding of these words through memorization and context clues alone would be an impossible task. However, when vocabulary learning is supported by a systematic approach, such as POSSUM, and also paired with explicit instruction in decoding and language comprehension skills, guesswork and memorization are taken out of the equation. Instead, students are taught the practical knowledge they need to break down new and unfamiliar words, taking their literacy skills to new heights.

Supplemental Resources for Teachers and Families
POSSUM Graphic Organizer
Educators can use this graphic organizer in the classroom to structure vocabulary learning and help students work through all six elements of the POSSUM approach. Caregivers may also use this resource to support vocabulary learning while reading with their children at home.

References

Gough, P. B., Alford, J. A. Jnr., & Holley-Wilcox, P. (1981). Words and contexts. In O. J. L. Tzeng and H. Singer (eds.). Perception of print: Reading research in experimental psychology. Erlbaum Associates.

Graham, S. (2000). Should the natural learning approach replace spelling instruction? Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 235-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.235

Moats, L. & Tolman, C. (2009). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS): The challenge of learning to read (Module 1, 2nd e.d.). Sopris West.

Stanovich, K. E. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.2307/747348
Editor's Note: This post was edited on June 26, 2023 to clarify that Dr. Maryanne Wolf is the author of the original POSSUM framework.

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Explicit Vocabulary Instruction Using the POSSUM Approach

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Teach students to use phonology, orthography, syntax, semantics, understanding, and morphology in the process of learning new vocabulary words.

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Comprehensive Vocabulary Scope and Sequence

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Comprehensive Vocabulary Scope and Sequence

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Situation Models in Language Comprehension and Memory

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Situation Models in Language Comprehension and Memory

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Teacher Vocabulary Use and Student Language and Literacy Achievement

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Teacher Vocabulary Use and Student Language and Literacy Achievement

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Vocabulary knowledge is the strongest predictor of reading comprehension. Four kinds of vocabularies contribute to reading comprehension: core vocabulary, academic words, content-area words, and literary words. TextProject provides free resources for all four types of vocabulary .

The Core Vocabulary

The core vocabulary consists of a relatively small number of English words that accounts for the majority of all words in books from grades K to 12. About 4% of the different words in schoolbooks account for at least 90% of all of the words in school books. Automaticity in reading the core vocabulary is the foundation of proficient reading. TextProject provides free resources to support students in automaticity in recognizing and understanding the core vocabulary.

The Core Vocabulary: The Foundation of Proficient Comprehension

Core Vocabulary: Word Zones

The core vocabulary consists of 5,586 words. When root words that share endings (-ed, -ing, -s, -es) are grouped together, the number falls to 4,000. When words that share prefixes and suffixes (e.g., un-, -ful) are included, the number is even smaller: 2,500. The core vocabulary can be grouped into five word zones of frequency. ( Remember that this list is intended for use by teachers, not for students to memorize.)

Core Vocabulary Word Maps

A word map is a graphic organizer that supports connections among vocabulary and ideas. TextProject provides Word Maps for the Core Vocabulary-the most important words in written English. Three types of words maps are available for the core vocabulary: synonyms, morphology, and multiple meaning of words.

Core Vocabulary Word Maps by grade level and subject

Core Vocabulary Word Pictures

The core vocabulary consists of the 4,000 simple word families which account for 90% of the words in written English. Function words (e.g., the, of) and general academic words (e.g., compare, relate) are prominent in the core vocabulary but there are also many concept words which can be pictured.
Core Vocabulary Word Pictures by concept group.
Academic Vocabulary

Academic vocabulary words are important in school and scholarly texts. Words such as connection, composition, and system are unique to school texts and are not used frequently in common conversations or simple text. Academic words are used to describe and explain ideas in content-area texts but are not the words that communicate the substance of a content area. For example, system might be used to describe weather but is not a word specific to the topic of weather.

The Academic Word List (AWL) has been used in numerous studies. Of the 570 words on the AWL, 343 are in the Core Vocabulary Word Zones.

Literary Vocabulary

Literary words are the verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs that authors use to make their stories come alive. High-quality stories are distinguished in their authors' use of expressive words- gambol rather than run or cavort rather than jump. TextProject has two programs of free, comprehensive lessons that help students use knowledge of familiar words (e.g., stop) to learn the Tier 2 words of texts (e.g., flee, abscond).

Growing Capacity with the Vocabulary of English Language Arts Programs: Vocabulary Megaclusters

E4: Exceptional Expressions for Everyday Events

Word maps of Tier 2 words are provided for familiar and frequent words in students' lives: quiet, think, and want. In all, E4 provides 32 free lessons that include English-Spanish cognates, morphological family members of root words, and synonyms.
Complete Exceptional Expressions Edition or individual lessons
S4: Super Synonym Sets for Stories

Tier 2 words are used by authors to create the details and mood that engage readers in a story. Free lessons are provided for 20 of the most important ideas in stories-Tier 2 words representing emotions, traits, movement, and communication.
Complete Super Synonym Sets Edition or indivdual lessons
Content Area Vocabulary

The Content-Area Word Pictures depict imageable concepts that are essential to specific content areas.

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