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Neuro-linguistic programming ( NLP) is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development and psychotherapy, that first appeared in Richard Bandler and John Grinder's 1975 book The Structure of Magic I. NLP claims that there is a connection between neurological processes ( neuro-), language ( linguistic) and acquired behavioral patterns ( programming), and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life. According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP can treat problems such as phobias, depression, tic disorders, psychosomatic illnesses, near-sightedness, allergy, the common cold, and learning disorders, often in a single session. They also claim that NLP can "model" the skills of exceptional people, allowing anyone to acquire them.

NLP has been adopted by some hypnotherapists, as well as by companies that run seminars marketed as " leadership training" to businesses and government agencies.

There is no scientific evidence supporting the claims made by NLP advocates, and it has been called a pseudoscience. Scientific reviews have shown that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of the brain's inner workings that are inconsistent with current neurological theory, and contain numerous factual errors. Reviews also found that research that favored NLP contained significant methodological flaws, and that there were three times as many studies of a much higher quality that failed to reproduce the "extraordinary claims" made by Bandler, Grinder, and other NLP practitioners.

Early development

According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP comprises a methodology termed modeling, plus a set of techniques that they derived from its initial applications. Of such methods that are considered fundamental, they derived many from the work of Virginia Satir, Milton Erickson and Fritz Perls.

Bandler and Grinder claim that their methodology can codify the structure inherent to the therapeutic "magic" as performed in therapy by Perls, Satir and Erickson, and indeed inherent to any complex human activity, and then from that codification, the structure and its activity can be learned by others. Their 1975 book, The Structure of Magic I: A Book about Language and Therapy, is intended to be a codification of the therapeutic techniques of Perls and Satir.

Bandler and Grinder say that they used their own process of modeling to model Virginia Satir so they could produce what they termed the Meta-Model, a model for gathering information and challenging a client's language and underlying thinking. They claim that by challenging linguistic distortions, specifying generalizations, and recovering deleted information in the client's statements, the transformational grammar concepts of surface structure yield a more complete representation of the underlying deep structure and therefore have therapeutic benefit. Also derived from Satir were anchoring, future pacing and representational systems.

In contrast, the Milton-Model-a model of the purportedly hypnotic language of Milton Erickson-was described by Bandler and Grinder as "artfully vague" and metaphoric. The Milton-Model is used in combination with the Meta-Model as a softener, to induce "trance" and to deliver indirect therapeutic suggestion.

Psychologist Jean Mercer writes that Chomsky's theories "appear to be irrelevant" to NLP. Linguist Karen Stollznow describes Bandler's and Grinder's reference to such experts as namedropping. Other than Satir, the people they cite as influences did not collaborate with Bandler or Grinder. Chomsky himself has no association with NLP whatsoever; his original work was intended as theory, not therapy. Stollznow writes, "[o]ther than borrowing terminology, NLP does not bear authentic resemblance to any of Chomsky's theories or philosophies-linguistic, cognitive or political."

According to André Muller Weitzenhoffer, a researcher in the field of hypnosis, "the major weakness of Bandler and Grinder's linguistic analysis is that so much of it is built upon untested hypotheses and is supported by totally inadequate data." Weitzenhoffer adds that Bandler and Grinder misuse formal logic and mathematics, redefine or misunderstand terms from the linguistics lexicon ( e.g., nominalization), create a scientific façade by needlessly complicating Ericksonian concepts with unfounded claims, make factual errors, and disregard or confuse concepts central to the Ericksonian approach.

More recently (circa 1997), Bandler has claimed, "NLP is based on finding out what works and formalizing it. In order to formalize patterns I utilized everything from linguistics to holography...The models that constitute NLP are all formal models based on mathematical, logical principles such as predicate calculus and the mathematical equations underlying holography." However, there is no mention of the mathematics of holography nor of holography in general in McClendon's, Spitzer's, or Grinder's account of the development of NLP.

On the matter of the development of NLP, Grinder recollects:

My memories about what we thought at the time of discovery (with respect to the classic code we developed-that is, the years 1973 through 1978) are that we were quite explicit that we were out to overthrow a paradigm and that, for example, I, for one, found it very useful to plan this campaign using in part as a guide the excellent work of Thomas Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) in which he detailed some of the conditions which historically have obtained in the midst of paradigm shifts. For example, I believe it was very useful that neither one of us were qualified in the field we first went after-psychology and in particular, its therapeutic application; this being one of the conditions which Kuhn identified in his historical study of paradigm shifts.

The philosopher Robert Todd Carroll responded that Grinder has not understood Kuhn's text on the history and philosophy of science, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Carroll replies: (a) individual scientists never have nor are they ever able to create paradigm shifts volitionally and Kuhn does not suggest otherwise; (b) Kuhn's text does not contain the idea that being unqualified in a field of science is a prerequisite to producing a result that necessitates a paradigm shift in that field and (c) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is foremost a work of history and not an instructive text on creating paradigm shifts and such a text is not possible-extraordinary discovery is not a formulaic procedure. Carroll explains that a paradigm shift is not a planned activity, rather it is an outcome of scientific effort within the current (dominant) paradigm that produces data that can't be adequately accounted for within the current paradigm-hence a paradigm shift, i.e. the adoption of a new paradigm.

In developing NLP, Bandler and Grinder were not responding to a paradigmatic crisis in psychology nor did they produce any data that caused a paradigmatic crisis in psychology. There is no sense in which Bandler and Grinder caused or participated in a paradigm shift. "What did Grinder and Bandler do that makes it impossible to continue doing psychology...without accepting their ideas? Nothing," argues Carroll.

Commercialization and evaluation

By the late 1970s, the human potential movement had developed into an industry and provided a market for some NLP ideas. At the center of this growth was the Esalen Institute at Big Sur, California. Perls had led numerous Gestalt therapy seminars at Esalen. Satir was an early leader and Bateson was a guest teacher. Bandler and Grinder claimed that in addition to being a therapeutic method, NLP was also a study of communication and began marketing it as a business tool, claiming that, "if any human being can do anything, so can you." After 150 students paid $1,000 each for a ten-day workshop in Santa Cruz, California, Bandler and Grinder gave up academic writing and produced popular books from seminar transcripts, such as Frogs into Princes, which sold more than 270,000 copies. According to court documents relating to an intellectual property dispute between Bandler and Grinder, Bandler made more than $800,000 in 1980 from workshop and book sales.

A community of psychotherapists and students began to form around Bandler and Grinder's initial works, leading to the growth and spread of NLP as a theory and practice. For example, Tony Robbins trained with Grinder and utilized a few ideas from NLP as part of his own self-help and motivational speaking programmes. Bandler led several unsuccessful efforts to exclude other parties from using NLP. Meanwhile, the rising number of practitioners and theorists led NLP to become even less uniform than it was at its foundation. Prior to the decline of NLP, scientific researchers began testing its theoretical underpinnings empirically, with research indicating a lack of empirical support for NLP's essential theories. The 1990s were characterized by fewer scientific studies evaluating the methods of NLP than the previous decade. Tomasz Witkowski attributes this to a declining interest in the debate as the result of a lack of empirical support for NLP from its proponents.

Main components and core concepts

NLP can be understood in terms of three broad components and the central concepts pertaining to those:

Subjectivity. According to Bandler and Grinder:

We experience the world subjectively thus we create subjective representations of our experience. These subjective representations of experience are constituted in terms of five senses and language. That is to say our subjective conscious experience is in terms of the traditional senses of vision, audition, tactition, olfaction and gustation such that when we-for example-rehearse an activity "in our heads", recall an event or anticipate the future we will "see" images, "hear" sounds, "taste" flavours, "feel" tactile sensations, "smell" odours and think in some (natural) language. Furthermore it is claimed that these subjective representations of experience have a discernible structure, a pattern. It is in this sense that NLP is sometimes defined as the study of the structure of subjective experience.

Behavior can be described and understood in terms of these sense-based subjective representations. Behavior is broadly conceived to include verbal and non-verbal communication, incompetent, maladaptive or "pathological" behavior as well as effective or skillful behavior.

Consciousness. NLP is predicated on the notion that consciousness is bifurcated into a conscious component and an unconscious component. Those subjective representations that occur outside of an individual's awareness comprise what is referred to as the "unconscious mind".

Learning. NLP utilizes an imitative method of learning-termed modeling-that is claimed to be able to codify and reproduce an exemplar's expertise in any domain of activity. An important part of the codification process is a description of the sequence of the sensory/linguistic representations of the subjective experience of the exemplar during execution of the expertise.

Techniques or set of practices

According to one study by Steinbach, a classic interaction in NLP can be understood in terms of several major stages including establishing rapport, gleaning information about a problem mental state and desired goals, using specific tools and techniques to make interventions, and integrating proposed changes into the client's life. The entire process is guided by the non-verbal responses of the client. The first is the act of establishing and maintaining rapport between the practitioner and the client which is achieved through pacing and leading the verbal ( e.g., sensory predicates and keywords) and non-verbal behavior ( e.g., matching and mirroring non-verbal behavior, or responding to eye movements) of the client.: 8, 15, 24, 30, 45, 52, 149

Once rapport is established, the practitioner may gather information ( e.g., using the Meta-Model questions) about the client's present state as well as help the client define a desired state or goal for the interaction. The practitioner pays particular attention to the verbal and non-verbal responses as the client defines the present state and desired state and any "resources" that may be required to bridge the gap. The client is typically encouraged to consider the consequences of the desired outcome, and how they may affect his or her personal or professional life and relationships, taking into account any positive intentions of any problems that may arise (i.e. ecological check). Fourth, the practitioner assists the client in achieving the desired outcomes by using certain tools and techniques to change internal representations and responses to stimuli in the world. Finally, the changes are "future paced" by helping the client to mentally rehearse and integrate the changes into his or her life. For example, the client may be asked to "step into the future" and represent (mentally see, hear and feel) what it is like having already achieved the outcome.

According to Stollznow, "NLP also involves fringe discourse analysis and "practical" guidelines for "improved" communication. For example, one text asserts "when you adopt the "but" word, people will remember what you said afterwards. With the "and" word, people remember what you said before and after."

Applications

Alternative medicine

NLP has been promoted with claims it can be used to treat a variety of diseases including Parkinson's disease, HIV/AIDS and cancer. Such claims have no supporting medical evidence. People who use NLP as a form of treatment risk serious adverse health consequences as it can delay the provision of effective medical care.

Psychotherapeutic

Early books about NLP had a psychotherapeutic focus given that the early models were psychotherapists. As an approach to psychotherapy, NLP shares similar core assumptions and foundations in common with some contemporary brief and systemic practices, such as solution focused brief therapy. NLP has also been acknowledged as having influenced these practices with its reframing techniques which seeks to achieve behavior change by shifting its context or meaning, for example, by finding the positive connotation of a thought or behavior.

The two main therapeutic uses of NLP are, firstly, as an adjunct by therapists practicing in other therapeutic disciplines and, secondly, as a specific therapy called Neurolinguistic Psychotherapy.

According to Stollznow, "Bandler and Grinder's infamous Frogs into Princes and their other books boast that NLP is a cure-all that treats a broad range of physical and mental conditions and learning difficulties, including epilepsy, myopia and dyslexia. With its promises to cure schizophrenia, depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and its dismissal of psychiatric illnesses as psychosomatic, NLP shares similarities with Scientology and the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR)." A systematic review of experimental studies by Sturt et al (2012) concluded that "there is little evidence that NLP interventions improve health-related outcomes." In his review of NLP, Stephen Briers writes, "NLP is not really a cohesive therapy but a ragbag of different techniques without a particularly clear theoretical basis...[and its] evidence base is virtually non-existent." Eisner writes, "NLP appears to be a superficial and gimmicky approach to dealing with mental health problems. Unfortunately, NLP appears to be the first in a long line of mass marketing seminars that purport to virtually cure any mental disorder...it appears that NLP has no empirical or scientific support as to the underlying tenets of its theory or clinical effectiveness. What remains is a mass-marketed serving of psychopablum."

André Muller Weitzenhoffer-a friend and peer of Milton Erickson-wrote, "Has NLP really abstracted and explicated the essence of successful therapy and provided everyone with the means to be another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson?...[NLP's] failure to do this is evident because today there is no multitude of their equals, not even another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson. Ten years should have been sufficient time for this to happen. In this light, I cannot take NLP seriously...[NLP's] contributions to our understanding and use of Ericksonian techniques are equally dubious. Patterns I and II are poorly written works that were an overambitious, pretentious effort to reduce hypnotism to a magic of words."

Clinical psychologist Stephen Briers questions the value of the NLP maxim-a presupposition in NLP jargon-"there is no failure, only feedback". Briers argues that the denial of the existence of failure diminishes its instructive value. He offers Walt Disney, Isaac Newton and J.K. Rowling as three examples of unambiguous acknowledged personal failure that served as an impetus to great success. According to Briers, it was "the crash-and-burn type of failure, not the sanitised NLP Failure Lite, i.e. the failure-that-isn't really-failure sort of failure" that propelled these individuals to success. Briers contends that adherence to the maxim leads to self-deprecation. According to Briers, personal endeavour is a product of invested values and aspirations and the dismissal of personally significant failure as mere feedback effectively denigrates what one values. Briers writes, "Sometimes we need to accept and mourn the death of our dreams, not just casually dismiss them as inconsequential." Briers also contends that the NLP maxim is narcissistic, self-centered and divorced from notions of moral responsibility.

Although the original core techniques of NLP were therapeutic in orientation their generic nature enabled them to be applied to other fields. These applications include persuasion, sales, negotiation, management training, sports, teaching, coaching, team building, public speaking, and in the process of hiring employees.

Scientific criticism

In the early 1980s, NLP was advertised as an important advance in psychotherapy and counseling, and attracted some interest in counseling research and clinical psychology. However, as controlled trials failed to show any benefit from NLP and its advocates made increasingly dubious claims, scientific interest in NLP faded.

Numerous literature reviews and meta-analyses have failed to show evidence for NLP's assumptions or effectiveness as a therapeutic method. While some NLP practitioners have argued that the lack of empirical support is due to insufficient research which tests NLP, the consensus scientific opinion is that NLP is pseudoscience and that attempts to dismiss the research findings based on these arguments "[constitute]s an admission that NLP does not have an evidence base and that NLP practitioners are seeking a post-hoc credibility."

Surveys in the academic community have shown NLP to be widely discredited among scientists. Among the reasons for considering NLP a pseudoscience are that evidence in favor of it is limited to anecdotes and personal testimony, that it is not informed by scientific understanding of neuroscience and linguistics, and that the name "neuro-linguistic programming" uses jargon words to impress readers and obfuscate ideas, whereas NLP itself does not relate any phenomena to neural structures and has nothing in common with linguistics or programming. In fact, in education, NLP has been used as a key example of pseudoscience.

As a quasi-religion

Sociologists and anthropologists-amongst others-have categorized NLP as a quasi-religion belonging to the New Age and/or Human Potential Movements. Medical anthropologist Jean M. Langford categorizes NLP as a form of folk magic; that is to say, a practice with symbolic efficacy-as opposed to physical efficacy-that is able to effect change through nonspecific effects ( e.g., placebo). To Langford, NLP is akin to a syncretic folk religion "that attempts to wed the magic of folk practice to the science of professional medicine". Bandler and Grinder were and continue to be) influenced by the shamanism described in the books of Carlos Castaneda. Several ideas and techniques have been borrowed from Castaneda and incorporated into NLP including so-called "double induction" and the notion of "stopping the world" which is central to NLP modeling. Tye (1994) characterizes NLP as a type of "psycho shamanism". Fanthorpe and Fanthorpe (2008) see a similarity between the mimetic procedure and intent of NLP modeling and aspects of ritual in some syncretic religions. Hunt (2003) draws a comparison between the concern with lineage from an NLP guru -which is evident amongst some NLP proponents-and the concern with guru lineage in some Eastern religions.

In Aupers and Houtman (2010) Bovbjerg identifies NLP as a New Age "psycho-religion" and uses NLP as a case-study to demonstrate the thesis that the New Age psycho-religions such as NLP are predicated on an intrinsically religious idea, namely concern with a transcendent "other". In the world's monotheistic faiths, argues Bovbjerg, the purpose of religious practice is communion and fellowship with a transcendent "other", i.e. a God. With the New Age psycho-religions, argues Bovbjerg, this orientation towards a transcendent "other" persists, but the "other" has become "the other in ourselves", the so-called "unconscious": "The individual's inner life becomes the intangible focus of [psycho-]religious practices and the subconscious becomes a constituent part of modern individuals' understanding of the Self." Bovbjerg adds, "Courses in personal development would make no sense without an unconscious that contains hidden resources and hidden knowledge of the self."[citation needed ] Thus psycho-religious practice revolves around ideas of the conscious and unconscious self and communicating with and accessing the hidden resources of the unconscious self-the transcendent "other". According to Bovbjerg, the notion that we have an unconscious self underlies many NLP techniques either explicitly or implicitly. Bovbjerg argues, "Through particular practices, the [NLP practitioner qua] psycho-religious practitioner expects to achieve self-perfection in a never-ending transformation of the self."[citation needed ]

Bovbjerg's secular critique of NLP is echoed in the conservative Christian perspective of the New Age as represented by Jeremiah (1995) who argues, "The 'transformation' recommended by the founders and leaders of these business seminars [such as NLP] has spiritual implications that a non-Christian or new believer may not recognise. The belief that human beings can change themselves by calling upon the power (or god) within or their own infinite human potential is a contradiction of the Christian view. The Bible says man is a sinner and is saved by God's grace alone.[citation needed ]

Intellectual property disputes

By the end of 1980, the collaboration between Bandler and Grinder ended. On 25 September 1981, Bandler instituted a civil action against Grinder and his company, seeking injunctive relief and damages for Grinder's commercial activity in relation to NLP. On 29 October 1981, judgement was made in favor of Bandler. As part of a settlement agreement Bandler granted to Grinder a limited 10-year license to conduct NLP seminars, offer certification in NLP and use the NLP name on the condition that royalties from the earnings of the seminars be paid to Bandler. In July 1996 and January 1997, Bandler instituted a further two civil actions against Grinder and his company, numerous other prominent figures in NLP and 200 further initially unnamed persons. Bandler alleged that Grinder had violated the terms of the settlement agreement reached in the initial case and had suffered commercial damage as a result of the allegedly illegal commercial activities of the defendants. Bandler sought from each defendant damages no less than US$10,000,000.00. In February 2000, the Court found against Bandler, stating that "Bandler has misrepresented to the public, through his licensing agreement and promotional materials, that he is the exclusive owner of all intellectual property rights associated with NLP, and maintains the exclusive authority to determine membership in and certification in the Society of NLP."

On this matter Stollznow commented in 2010, "ironically, Bandler and Grinder feuded in the 1980s over trademark and theory disputes. Tellingly, none of their myriad of NLP models, pillars, and principles helped these founders to resolve their personal and professional conflicts."

In December 1997, Tony Clarkson instituted civil proceedings against Bandler to have Bandler's UK trademark of NLP revoked. The Court found in favor of Clarkson; Bandler's trademark was subsequently revoked.

By the end of 2000, Bandler and Grinder entered a release where they agreed, amongst other things, that "they are the co-creators and co-founders of the technology of Neuro-linguistic Programming" and "mutually agree to refrain from disparaging each other's efforts, in any fashion, concerning their respective involvement in the field of Neurolinguistic Programming."

As a consequence of these disputes and settlements, the names NLP and Neuro-linguistic Programming are not owned by any party and there is no restriction on any party offering NLP certification.

Associations, certification, and practitioner standards

The names NLP and Neuro-linguistic Programming are not owned by any person or organisation, they are not trademarked intellectual property and there is no central regulating authority for NLP instruction and certification. There is no restriction on who can describe themselves as an NLP Master Practitioner or NLP Master Trainer and there are a multitude of certifying associations; this has led Devilly (2005) to describe such training and certifying associations as granfalloons, i.e. proud and meaningless associations of human beings.

There is great variation in the depth and breadth of training and standards of practitioners, and some disagreement between those in the field about which patterns are, or are not, actual NLP. NLP is an open field of training with no "official" best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as NLP, the training standards and quality differ greatly. In 2009, a British television presenter was able to register his pet cat as a member of the British Board of Neuro Linguistic Programming (BBNLP), which subsequently claimed that it existed only to provide benefits to its members and not to certify credentials.

Notable practitioners

1. ^ Note that, in a seminar, Bandler & Grinder (1981, p. 166) claimed that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis could eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia and cure the common cold (op.cit., p. 174)...(Also, op.cit., p. 169) Bandler and Grinder believed that, by combining NLP with hypnotic regression, one not only cured a problem, but became amnesic for the fact that it even existed at all. Thus, after a session of "therapy," a smoker denied smoking before, even when family and friends insisted otherwise, becoming unable to account for such evidence as nicotine stains.

2. ^ For a description of the social influence tactics used by NLP and similar pseudoscientific therapies, see Devilly, 2005

3. In 2006, Norcross and colleagues found NLP to be given similar ratings as ^ dolphin-assisted therapy, equine therapy, psychosynthesis, scared straight programmes, and emotional freedom technique. In 2010, Norcross and colleagues listed it as seventh out of their list of ten most discredited drug and alcohol interventions. Glasner-Edwards and colleagues also identified it as discredited in 2010.

4. ^ For more information on the use of neuroscience terms to lend the appearance of credibility to arguments, see Weisburg et al., 2008

References

1. ^ Tosey, Paul; Mathison, Jane. "Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming" (PDF). Centre for Management Learning & Development, School of Management, University of Surrey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2019.

2. ^ Pickersgill, Gina. "Dr Richard Bandler on Healing - A Special Interview - by Gina Pickersgill". NLP Life Training. The Best You Corporation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012.
GINA: I have seen you demonstrate a technique that some people refer to as Dr. Bandler's Beauty treatment? Please tell us about that.
RICHARD [BANDLER]: Basically what happened is that I noticed that when I hypnotically regress people repeatedly they looked younger. So I started first thinking, well isn't there a way to maintain that. I noticed when I hypnotically regressed people to before the age of 5, who currently wore glasses, didn't need them to see. So I started leaving people's eyes young and growing the rest of them up to the present and it would change the prescription of their glasses radically to the point where they could see better. And done enough times, some of them could see without glasses. So I went a little step further, and did a DHE (Design Human Engineering™) treatment where we set up a mechanism in the back of their mind that repeatedly age regresses them hypnotically; when they sleep, when they blink, all kinds of things and in a state of time distortion. And it can take years off the way people look, it also ups their energy level and in some cases the bi product [sic] has been they recovered spontaneously from very serious diseases. Because they were aged regressed to where before the disease started. Now I cannot prove that but I've seen it enough times that I'm impressed with it.

3. Grinder, John; Bandler, Richard (1981). Connirae Andreas (ed.). Trance-formations: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Structure of Hypnosis. Moab: Real People Press.

4. Archived at ^ Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Bandler, Richard (2008). What is NLP? (Promotional video). NLP Life. We can reliably get rid of a phobia in ten minutes - every single time.

5. ^ Bandler, Richard (1993). . Meta Pubns. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-916990-28-2. In single sessions, they can accelerate learning, neutralize phobias, enhance creativity, improve relationships, eliminate allergies, and lead firewalks without roasting toes. NLP achieves the goal of its inception. We have ways to do what only a genius could have done a decade ago.

6. ^ Thyer, Bruce A.; Pignotti, Monica G. (15 May 2015). Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice. Springer Publishing Company. pp. 56-57, 165-67. ISBN 978-0-8261-7769-8. As NLP became more popular, some research was conducted and reviews of such research have concluded that there is no scientific basis for its theories about representational systems and eye movements.

7. Witkowski, Tomasz (1 January 2010). "Thirty-Five Years of Research on Neuro-Linguistic Programming. NLP Research Data Base. State of the Art or Pseudoscientific Decoration?". Polish Psychological Bulletin. 41 (2). doi:10.2478/v10059-010-0008-0. All of this leaves me with an overwhelming impression that the analyzed base of scientific articles is treated just as theater decoration, being the background for the pseudoscientific farce which NLP appears to be. Using "scientific" attributes, which is so characteristic of pseudoscience, is manifested also in other aspects of NLP activities... My analysis leads undeniably to the statement that NLP represents pseudoscientific rubbish

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9. ^ Bandler, Richard; Grinder, John (1979). Andreas, Steve (ed.). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming (1st ed.). Utah: Real People Press. ISBN 978-0-911226-19-5.

10. John Grinder, Suzette Elgin (1973). "A Guide to Transformational Grammar: History, Theory, Practice." Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ^ ISBN 0-03-080126-5. Reviewed by Frank H. Nuessel, Jr. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 58, No. 5/6 (September-October 1974), pp. 282-83

11. Spitzer, Robert (1992). "Virginia Satir & Origins of NLP" (PDF). Anchor Point Magazine (July): ?.

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27. ^ Tosey P. & Mathison, J., "Fabulous Creatures of HRD: A Critical Natural History of Neuro-Linguistic Programming", University of Surrey Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Human Resource Development Research & Practice across Europe, Oxford Brookes Business School, 26-28 June 2007

28. Ingalls, Joan S. (1988) "Cognition and athletic behavior: An investigation of the NLP principle of congruence." ^ Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol 48(7-B), p. 2090. OCLC 42614014

29. ^ Gelso, C J; Fassinger, R E (1 January 1990). "Counseling Psychology: Theory and Research on Interventions". Annual Review of Psychology. 41 (1): 355-86. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002035. PMID 2407174. Neurolinguistic programming, focused on such variables as sensory mode preference and use (e.g., Graunke & Roberts 1985) and predicate matching (e.g., Elich et al 1985; Mercier & Johnson 1984) had shown promise at the beginning of the decade, but after several years of conflicting and confusing results, Sharpley (1984, 1987) reviewed the research and concluded that there was little support for the assumptions of NLP. This research is now clearly on the decline, underscoring the value of thoughtful reviews and the publication of nonsupportive results in guiding empirical efforts.

30. Heap. M., (1988) ^ Neurolinguistic programming: An interim verdict Archived 15 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm, pp. 268-80.

31. ^ Murray, Laura L. (30 May 2013). "Limited evidence that neurolinguistic programming improves health-related outcomes". Evidence-Based Mental Health. 16 (3): 79. doi:10.1136/eb-2013-101355. PMID 23723409. S2CID 150295.

32. ^ Tosey, P.; Mathison, J. (2010). "Exploring inner landscapes through psychophenomenology: The contribution of neuro-linguistic programming to innovations in researching first person experience" (PDF). Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management. 5: 63-82. doi:10.1108/17465641011042035. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2018.

33. ^ Corballis, Michael C. (2012). "Chapter 13 Educational double-think". In Della Sala, Sergio; Anderson, Mike (eds.). Neuroscience in Education: The good, the bad, and the ugly (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 225-26. ISBN 978-0-19-960049-6. The notion of hemisphericity is also incorporated into such cult activities as Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP).... In any event, NLP is a movement that is still going strong, but has little scientific credibility.

34. ^ Singer, Margaret & Lalich, Janja (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work? Jossey Bass, pp. 167-95 (169). ISBN 0-7879-0278-0.

35. (Eds.) Lilienfeld, S., Lynn, S., & Lohr, J. (2004). ^ Science and Pseudo-science in Clinical Psychology. The Guilford Press.

36. ^ Della Sala, Sergio (2007). "Introduction: The myth of 10% and other Tall Tales about the mind and brain". Tall Tales About the Mind and Brain: Separating Fact from Fiction (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xx. ISBN 978-0-19-856876-6.

37. William F. Williams, ed. (2000), ^ Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, ISBN 978-1-57958-207-4 p. 235

38. Lum.C (2001). Scientific Thinking in Speech and Language Therapy. Psychology Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8058-4029-2.

39. Dunn D, Halonen J, Smith R (2008). Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-4051-7402-2.

40. ^ Harris, Lauren Julius (1988). "Chapter 8 Right-Brain Training: Some Reflections on the Application of Research on Cerebral Hemispheric Specialization to Education". In Molfese, Dennis L.; Segalowitz, Sidney J. (eds.). Brain Lateralization in Children: Developmental Implications (1st ed.). New York: Guilford Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-89862-719-0. NLP began in 1975 and has quickly achieved cult status.

41. ^ Norcross, John C.; Koocher, Gerald P.; Garofalo, Ariele (1 January 2006). "Discredited psychological treatments and tests: A Delphi poll". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 37 (5): 515-22. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.37.5.515. S2CID 35414392.

42. ^ Norcross, John C.; Koocher, Gerald P.; Fala, Natalie C.; Wexler, Harry K. (1 September 2010). "What Does Not Work? Expert Consensus on Discredited Treatments in the Addictions". Journal of Addiction Medicine. 4 (3): 174-180. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181c5f9db. PMID 21769032. S2CID 41494642.

43. ^ Glasner-Edwards, Suzette; Rawson, Richard (1 October 2010). "Evidence-based practices in addiction treatment: Review and recommendations for public policy". Health Policy. 97 (2-3): 93-104. doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2010.05.013. PMC . PMID 20557970.

44. ^ Drenth, Pieter J.D (2003). "Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science" (PDF). Studia Psychologica. 45: 5-13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2011.

45. ^ Weisberg, D. S.; Keil, F. C.; Goodstein, J.; Rawson, E.; Gray, J. R. (2008). "The Seductive Allure of Neuroscience Explanations". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 20 (3): 470-77. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20040. PMC . PMID 18004955.

46. Aupers, Stef; Houtman, Dick, eds. (2010). Religions of Modernity: Relocating the Sacred to the Self and the Digital. International Studies in Religion and Society (1st ed.). Leiden: Brill. pp. 115-32. ISBN 9789004184510. ISSN 1573-4293.

47. ^ Edwards, Linda (2001). A Brief Guide to Beliefs: Ideas, Theologies, Mysteries, and Movements (1st ed.). Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 573. ISBN 978-0-664-22259-8.

48. ^ Walker, James K. (2007). The Concise Guide to Today's Religions and Spirituality (1st ed.). Oregon: Harvest House Pubslishers. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-7369-2011-7.

49. ^ Langford, Jean M. (February 1999). "Medical Mimesis: Healing Signs of a Cosmopolitan "Quack"". American Ethnologist. 26 (1): 24-46. doi:10.1525/ae.1999.26.1.24. JSTOR 647497.

50. ^ Grinder, John; DeLozier, Judith (1987). Turtles All The Way Down: Prerequisites To Personal Genius (1st ed.). California: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 978-1-55552-022-9.

51. ^ Grinder, John; Bostic St. Clair (2001). "Chapter 3: The New Code". Whispering in the Wind. J & C Enterprises. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-9717223-0-9. Triple Description also owes much to Castaneda's definition of a warrior as a person who collects multiple descriptions of the world (without any movement to resolve the question of which of these descriptions represents reality).

52. ^ Bovbjerg, Kirsten Marie (1 May 2011). "Personal Development under Market Conditions: NLP and the Emergence of an Ethics of Sensitivity Based on the Idea of the Hidden Potential of the Individual". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 26 (2): 189-205. doi:10.1080/13537903.2011.573333. ISSN 1353-7903. S2CID 145148234.

53. ^ Richard W Bandler et al v. Quantum Leap Inc. et al (Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County, 2000, No. 132495) (Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County 10 February 2000).Text

54. "75351747". Trademark Status and Document Retrieval. United States Patent and Trademark Office. 13 June 2013.

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56. ^ Irish National Center for Guidance in Education's "Guidance Counsellor's Handbook

Bibliography

Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981), Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning, Real People Press. ISBN 0-911226-25-7

Further reading

Online articles

Books

Andreas, Steve; Charles Faulkner, eds. (1996). NLP: the new technology of achievement. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-688-14619-1.

Austin, A. (2007). The Rainbow Machine: Tales from a Neurolinguist's Journal. UK: Real People Press. ISBN 978-0-911226-44-7.

Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed.) and Andreas, C. (ed.) (1985), Using Your Brain-for a Change. ISBN 0-911226-27-3.

Bradbury, A (2008). "Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Time for an Informed Review". Skeptical Intelligencer. 11.

Burn, Gillian (2005). NLP Pocketbook. Alresford, United Kingdom: Management Pocketbooks Ltd. ISBN 978-1-903776-31-5.

Dilts, R., Hallbom, Tim, Smith, Suzi (1990), Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being, Crown House Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84590-802-7.

Dilts, R. (1990), Changing Belief Systems with NLP, Meta Publications. ISBN 978-0-916990-24-4.

Ellerton, Roger (2005). Live Your Dreams, Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Ottawa, Canada: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-4709-8.

Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976), Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume I. ISBN 0-916990-01-X.

Grinder, M., Lori Stephens (ed.) (1991), Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt. ISBN 1-55552-036-7

Genie Z. Laborde, PhD (1987), Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation.

O'Connor, Joseph (2007), Not Pulling Strings: Application of Neuro-Linguistic Programming to Teaching and Learning Music. Kahn & Averill, London ISBN 1-871082-90-0

Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976), Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human, Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0051-X

Journal articles

Platt, Garry (2001). "NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible?". Training Journal. May. 2001: 10-15.

Morgan, Dylan A (1993). "Scientific Assessment of NLP". Journal of the National Council for Psychotherapy & Hypnotherapy Register. Spring. 1993.

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Neuro-linguistic programming ( NLP) is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development and psychotherapy, that first appeared in Richard Bandler and John Grinder's 1975 book The Structure of Magic I. NLP claims that there is a connection between neurological processes ( neuro-), language ( linguistic) and acquired behavioral patterns ( programming), and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life.

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Rational emotive behavior therapy, also known as REBT, is a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed by psychologist Albert Ellis. REBT is focused on helping clients change irrational beliefs.

Let's take a closer look at how rational emotive behavior was developed and how it works.

History of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

As a young man, Ellis found himself longing for companionship yet experienced a severe fear of talking to women.

In order to tackle his fear, Ellis decided to perform an experiment. For a month, his visited a nearby park and forced himself to talk to 100 different women. Over time, Ellis found that his fear of speaking to women had diminished considerably. Ellis later explained that this experience served as a basis for developing his approach to therapy, combining behavioral strategies with assessing underlying thoughts and emotions.

Ellis had trained as a clinical psychologist. As he treated patients, he became increasingly dissatisfied with the results offered by the traditional psychoanalytic approach to therapy that he was using at the time. He noted that while his patients were able to become aware of their underlying problems, their behavior did not necessarily change as a result. Simply becoming conscious of the problem was not enough to lead to actual changes in behavior, he concluded.

By the 1950s, Ellis had started experimenting with other types of psychotherapy and was heavily influenced by philosophers and psychologists including Karen Horney and Alfred Adler as well as the work of behavioral therapists.

Ellis's goal was to develop what he viewed as an action-oriented approach to psychotherapy designed to produce results by helping clients manage their emotions, cognitions, and behaviors.

According to Ellis, "people are not disturbed by things but rather by their view of things." The fundamental assertion of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is that the way people feel is largely influenced by how they think.

When people hold irrational beliefs about themselves or the world, problems can result. Because of this, the goal of REBT is to help people alter illogical beliefs and negative thinking patterns in order to overcome psychological problems and mental distress.

Rational emotive behavior therapy was one of the very first types of cognitive therapies. Ellis first began developing REBT during the early 1950s and initially called his approach rational therapy. In 1959, the technique was redubbed rational emotive therapy and later rechristened rational emotive behavior therapy in 1992. Ellis continued to work on REBT until his death in 2007.

The ABC Model

Ellis suggested that people mistakenly blame external events for unhappiness. He argued, however, that it is our interpretation of these events that truly lies at the heart of our psychological distress. To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC Model:

A - Activating Event: Something happens in the environment around you.

B - Beliefs: You hold a belief about the event or situation.

C - Consequence: You have an emotional response to your belief.

The events and situations that people encounter throughout life are only one piece of the puzzle.

In order to understand the impact of such events, it is also essential to look at the beliefs people hold about these experiences as well as the emotions that arise as a result of those beliefs.

The Basic Steps in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

In order to better understand how REBT looks, it is important to take a closer look at how the therapeutic process itself.

1. Identify the Underlying Irrational Thought Patterns and Beliefs

The very first step in the process is to identify the irrational thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that lead to psychological distress. In many cases, these irrational beliefs are reflected as absolutes, as in "I must," "I should," or "I cannot." According to Ellis, some of the most common irrational beliefs include:

Feeling excessively upset over other people's mistakes or misconduct.

Believing that you must be 100 percent competent and successful in everything to be valued and worthwhile.

Believing that you will be happier if you avoid life's difficulties or challenges.

Feeling that you have no control over your own happiness; that your contentment and joy are dependent upon external forces.

By holding such unyielding beliefs, it becomes almost impossible to respond to situations in a psychologically healthy way. Possessing such rigid expectations of ourselves and others only leads to disappointment, recrimination, regret, and anxiety.

2. Challenge the Irrational Beliefs

Once these underlying feelings have been identified, the next step is to challenge these mistaken beliefs. In order to do this, the therapist must dispute these beliefs using very direct and even confrontational methods. Ellis suggested that rather than simply being warm and supportive, the therapist needs to be blunt, honest, and logical in order to push people toward changing their thoughts and behaviors.

3. Gain Insight and Recognize Irrational Thought Patterns

As you might imagine, REBT can be a daunting process for the client. Facing irrational thought patterns can be difficult, especially because accepting these beliefs as unhealthy is far from easy. Once the client has identified the problematic beliefs, the process of actually changing these thoughts can be even more challenging.

While it is perfectly normal to feel upset when you make a mistake, the goal of rational emotive behavior therapy is to help people respond rationally to such situations. When faced with this type of situation in the future, the emotionally healthy response would be to realize that while it would be wonderful to be perfect and never make mistakes, it is not realistic to expect success in every endeavor. You made a mistake, but that's okay because everyone makes mistakes sometimes. All you can do is learn from the situation and move on.

It is also important to recognize that while rational emotive behavior therapy utilizes cognitive strategies to help clients, it also focuses on emotions and behaviors as well. In addition to identifying and disputing irrational beliefs, therapists and clients also work together to target the emotional responses that accompany problematic thoughts. Clients are also encouraged to change unwanted behaviors using such things as meditation, journaling, and guided imagery.

A Word From Verywell

REBT can be effective in the treatment of a range of psychological disorders including anxiety and phobias as well as specific behaviors such as severe shyness and excessive approval-seeking.

Sources:
Ellis, A. Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Carol; 1991. Ellis, A. Reflections on Rational-Emotive Therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 199-201; 1993. Ellis, A & Dryden, W. The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.; 1997.

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How Does Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Work?

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Rational emotive behavior therapy, also known as REBT, is a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed by psychologist Albert Ellis. REBT is focused on helping clients change irrational beliefs. Let's take a closer look at how rational emotive behavior was developed and how it works.

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UNDERSTAND THE DIMENSIONS ...

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Anderson & Krathwohl's 2-Dimensional Taxonomy

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READ THIS AFTER THE ONE BELOW

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EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES THAT ARE DOMAIN SPECIFIC 

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EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES THAT ARE DOMAIN SPECIFIC 

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COGNITIVE - QUIZ
AFFECTIVE- ROLE PLAY
PSYCHOMOTOR- MODEL MAKING

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-AWARENESS OF THE DOMAINS
-USE DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
-BE AWARE OF THE LEARNING STYLES OF STUDENTS
-USE MULTI SENSORIAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES

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Dave's Psychomotor Domain (and others) 10'30"

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MORE ABOUT AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

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This summary was compiled by Karin Kirk, SERC.

Background

The affective domain is part of a system that was published in 1965 for identifying, understanding and addressing how people learn. Part of Bloom's Taxonomy, this classification of educational objectives includes the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain.

The cognitive domain is organized in a hierarchy that begins with the straightforward acquisition of knowledge, followed by the more sophisticated cognitive tasks of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

The psychomotor domain relates to the learning of physical movements. The members of the original committee did not write a book on about the psychomotor domain.

More information

Definitions of the affective domain

The affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of character and conscience. We found a large number of such objectives in the literature expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotional sets or biases. [from Krathwohl et al, 1964 ]

Here are descriptions of each step in the taxonomy, starting at the most basic level. (From [link https://sites.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/Best%20of%20Bilash/krathwol.html'Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Affective Domain'])

Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to.

Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim.

Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate.

Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.

Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve.

What is the relevance of the affective domain in education?

If we are striving to apply the continuum of Krathwohl et al. to our teaching, then we are encouraging students to not just receive information at the bottom of the affective hierarchy. We'd like for them to respond to what they learn, to value it, to organize it and maybe even to characterize themselves as science students, science majors or scientists.

We are also interested in students' attitudes toward science, scientists, learning science and specific science topics. We want to find teaching methods that encourage students and draw them in. Affective topics in educational literature include attitudes, motivation, communication styles, classroom management styles, learning styles, use of technology in the classroom and nonverbal communication. It is also important not to turn students off by subtle actions or communications that go straight to the affective domain and prevent students from becoming engaged.

In the educational literature, nearly every author introduces their paper by stating that the affective domain is essential for learning, but it is the least studied, most often overlooked, the most nebulous and the hardest to evaluate of Bloom's three domains. In formal classroom teaching, the majority of the teacher's efforts typically go into the cognitive aspects of the teaching and learning and most of the classroom time is designed for cognitive outcomes. Similarly, evaluating cognitive learning is straightforward but assessing affective outcomes is difficult. Thus, there is significant value in realizing the potential to increase student learning by tapping into the affective domain. Similarly, students may experience affective roadblocks to learning that can neither be recognized nor solved when using a purely cognitive approach.

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teach the earth:enhancing your teaching:affective domain

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This summary was compiled by Karin Kirk, SERC. The affective domain is part of a system that was published in 1965 for identifying, understanding and addressing how people learn. Part of Bloom's Taxonomy, this classification of educational objectives includes the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain.

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Read the document to understand the difference

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Read the document to understand the difference

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Vygotskys theory of cognitive development

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Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships

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Refer to Piaget's theory of cognitive development

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Many refer to Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's.

Examples:

Bloom describes several categories of cognitive learning:

Mountain created by Starder, original at https://freedesignfile.com/author/starder/ . All other parts created by the author.

Bloom's Original 1956 Hierarchy

Starting with basic factual knowledge, the categories progress through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Knowledge - Remembering or recalling information.

Comprehension - The ability to obtain meaning from information.

Application - The ability to use information.

Analysis - The ability to break information into parts to understand it better.

Synthesis - The ability to put materials together to create something new.

Evaluation - The ability to check, judge, and critique materials.

In the 1990's, Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, along with David Krathwohl, one of Boom's original partners, worked to revise the original taxonomy. The Anderson and Krathwohl Taxonomy was published in 2001 in the book "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."

Image created by the author, covered under this site's CC License.

Bloom's Original and Revised Hierarchy

Note that in the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are switched. Also, verbs are used in place of nouns to imply the action one takes in each level.

Remember - Using memory to recall facts and definitions.

Understand - Constructing meaning from information.

Apply - Using procedures to carry out a task.

Analyze - Breaking materials into parts to determine structures and relationships.

Evaluate - Making jugements based on checking against given criteria.

Create - Putting materials together to form a unique product.

Whether you like the original or revised taxonomy, there are key verbs for each level you can use when writing cognitive objectives.

Examples for Questions for Each Level

Remember

Understand

Re-tell X.

What is the main idea of X?

What differences exist between X AND Y?

Write a brief outline.

Apply

How is X an example of Y?

How is X related to Y?

Why is X significant?

Describe an example of when X happens.

Analyze

What are the parts of X?

Classify this according to X.

Create an outline/concept map of X.

Provide evidence that X is correct.

Evaluate

Compare and contrast X to Y.

Select the best product.

Critique the play.

Judge the following in these merits: X, Y, Z.

Create

Organize the following: X,A,Q.

Predict what will happen next.

What solutions would you suggest for X?

How would you design a new X?

Additional Links

Offline References

Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.

Bloom, B.S. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. NY, NY: Longmans, Green.

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Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Many refer to Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's. Examples: Bloom describes several categories of cognitive learning: Mountain created by Starder, original at https://freedesignfile.com/author/starder/ . All other parts created by the author.

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Psychomotor Domain Taxonomy

This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviors from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist.

Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:

Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity.

Set - Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain way to a situation.

Guided Response - First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice lead to better performance.

Mechanism - The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual with a medium level of assurance and proficiency.

Complex Overt Response - Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful.

Adaptation - Movements can be modified for special situations.

Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.

Simpson, E. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain: The psychomotor domain. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy:

Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.

Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill.

Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the presence of the original source.

Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.

Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.

Based upon R. H. Dave, as reported in R. J. Armstrong et al., Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives (Tucson, AZ: Educational Innovators Press, 1970).

Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:

Reflex movements - Automatic reactions.

Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more complex sets of movements.

Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.

Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.

Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.

Non-discursive communication - Body language.

Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co.

The following list is a combination of the above taxonomies:

1. Observing

Active mental attending of a physical event.

The learner watches a more experienced person. Other mental activity, such as reading may be a pert of the observation process.

2. Imitating
Attempted copying of a physical behavior.

The first steps in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction and feedback on performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.

3. Practicing

Trying a specific physical activity over and over.

The skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly. Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.

4. Adapting

Fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in order to perfect it.

The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation.

BEHAVIORAL VERBS APPROPRIATE FOR THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

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Psychomotor Domain Taxonomy This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviors from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist. Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others: Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity.

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Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching