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Choose five plants on your PlantArea’s ‘Red Data List for Plants’ and check whether
conservation measures have been put into practice to protect its populations.

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These are the regulations and the monitoring activities that have been  applied, based on laws legislated by governments, European Union's programs, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN- CITES treaty) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

At the reports from Europe is showed that EU's programs have a major role in conservation (protected areas).

The reports from Philippines and Colombia show that governmental laws and restrictions are applied. Also CITES regulations, and collaboration with CBD have an important role.

Since our examples are taken from specific areas (plantareas), they present a narrow view as far as concerns the threatening factors. This could lead to an evaluation of poor quality. So our conclusion is based on the statistics for the threatening factors for plants of each country and not the mentioned plantareas.

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In this topic we research the factors that are threatening to the endangered plants from eight countries, and the conservation measures that have been taken.

The individual reports are from six different countries in different biogeographical areas (Philippines, Colombia, Belgium, Portugal, Greece, Hungary). The ranking for risk status was derived from the Red Lists of each country. But there are references and comparisons to IUCN's (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red list too.

The main threats for all countries are habitat loss and degradation due to conversion of land for agricultural activities and livestock, construction or roads and residencies (urbanization), overgrazing, overexploitation for commercial and industrial use, disturbance from human activities (e.g. recreation, litter, treading) and animals (treading, parasites).

The measures for conservation that have been put into practice in the different countries are described, based on laws legislated by governments, European Union's programs etc.

We noticed that in some cases scientific data is limited or scientific results have not been published yet.

The suggestions are intended to stimulate projects involving several entities: schools and institutions linked to the protection of nature. Cultivation from individuals (as ornamental plant) could also be encouraged.

Other actions could be:

Establishment of local reserve areas and germbanks

Development of propagation protocols

Ex situ propagation in botanical gardens, collections.

In countries outside Europe, strict implementation of the law by the law enforcement officers and concerned agencies is more than ever necessary.

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IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

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The IUCN Red List: Guiding Conservation for 50 years

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The aspects of our topic are:

1. the key characteristics of the endangered plants (such as endemism, level of risk etc.);

2. the factors that are threatening to the endangered plants;

3. the conservation measures that have been taken.

In Europe, the investigated four countries belong to three different biogeographical areas: the Mediterranean (Portugal, Greece), the Pannonian (Hungary) and the Atlantic region (Belgium).
Colombia is located in the Neotropical biogeographic area and its territory is also located in three biodiversity hotspots: Caribbean Islands, Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena and Tropical Andes.
The Philippines is identified as one of the world's biologically richest countries.
This diversity has an impact on the selected and described plants.

Since the individual reports are from such different plantareas in six countries, the ranking for risk status was derived from the red lists of each country. But there are references and comparisons to IUCN's International (Union for Conservation of Nature) Red list too.

The main threats and the measures for conservation that have been put into practice in the different plantareas/countries will be noted.

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Conservation measures are based on EU's programs and laws:

1. the Habitats Directive;

2. Natura 2000 network;

3.  establishment and monitoring of conservation objectives;

4. designation of special areas of conservation (SAC);

5. Bern Convention

Institutes and organizations for nature, and Management Authorities (National Parks) are also responsible for the application of the measures, usually by monitoring, and conducting scientific research, data collection and educational projects.

LIFE is the EU’s financial instrument supporting environmental and nature conservation projects.

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Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

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European Commission. 2018. Red List - Major Threats.
Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/redlist/plants/major_threats.htm, accessed 23 March 2019.

Ministry of Environment, Energy & Climate Change Greece. 2014.  National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan. 132pp.
https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nbsap-01-en.pdf

Phoitos D., Konstantinidis T., Kamari G. (Hellenic Botanical Society). 2009. Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece. Greek version:

http://www.hbs.gr/en/activities/publications/24-1, accessed 25 March  2019.

Van Landuyt W., Gyselings R.,  T’jollyn F., Vanden Broeck A. 2014. Groenknolorchis (Liparis loeselii)
in Vlaanderen. Ecologie, populatiedynamica en potenties. Instituut voor Natuur- en Bosonderzoek (INBO), 63pp.
https://pureportal.inbo.be/portal/files/6049673/INBO_R_2014_2942320web.pdf

Hamilton A, Hamilton P.
Plant Conservation: An Ecosystem Approach. 2006. Routledge.

Pereira A.J., Porto M., Carapeto A., Gomes C.T., Chozas S.,  Marabuto E.. 2019. Linaria ricardoi Cout. - distribution map. Flora-On: Flora of Interactive Portugal, Portuguese Society of Botany.
http://www.flora-on.pt/#wLinaria+ricardoi. accessed 21 March 2019.

Király, G. 2007. Vörös Lista. A magyarországi edényes flóra veszélyeztetett fajai [Red list of the vascular flora of Hungary]. Sopron: Private edition.

Greek flora, amateur's blog, Orphys Argolica status in Greece. https://www.greekflora.gr/el/flowers/1469/Ophrys-argolica, accessed 28 March 2019.

Flora Hellenica, amateur's blog, Fritillaria Obliqua. http://florahellenica.blogspot.com/2011/10/fritillaria-obliqua.html, accessed 28 March 2019.

Cárdenas, D., & Salinas, N. 2007. Libro rojo de plantas de Colombia. Volumen 4. Especies maderables amenazadas: Primera parte (Vol. 4). Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas "SINCHI".

Calderón Sáenz, E. 2017. Libro rojo de plantas de Colombia. Vol. 6. Orquídeas, primera parte.

Calderón, E., Galeano, G., & García, N. 2005. Libro rojo de plantas de Colombia. Volumen 2: Palmas, frailejones y zamias.

Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau. Philippine Teak (Tectona philippinensis Benth. & Hook. f.). 2017.
http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/2017/11/07/volume-29-no-1-philippine-teak-tectona-philippinensis-benth-hook-f/, accessed 23 March 2019.

Biodiversity Information System for Europe (BISE). Green infrastructure.

https://biodiversity.europa.eu/topics/green-, accessed 23 March 2019.

Biodiversity Information System for Europe (BISE). LIFE+ Nature and Biodiversity Projects.

https://biodiversity.europa.eu/topics/life-nature-and-biodiversity-, accessed 23 March 2019.

Biodiversity Information System for Europe (BISE). Protected areas.

https://biodiversity.europa.eu/topics/protected-areas, , accessed 23 March 2019.

What is The IUCN Red List?

https://www.iucnredlist.org/, accessed 23 March 2019.

What is CITES?
https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/, accessed 23 March 2019.

https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/medio-ambiente/se-disparo-la-tasa-de-deforestacion-en-colombia-articulo-701754, accessed 28 March 2019.

Colombia se enfrenta a grandes retos para no seguir perdiendo su biodiversidad.
http://www.wwf.org.co/?221935/Colombia-se-enfrenta-a-grandes-retos-para-no-seguir-perdiendo-su-biodiversidad,

accessed 28 March 2019.

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Greece: Asperulla Baenitzi Heldr. ex Boiss.

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Greece: Asperulla Baenitzi Heldr. ex Boiss.

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Endemic of Attica region, included on the Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece
Location: Mt Parnitha, Mt Pateras, Mt Aigaleo.

Main threats are: Military infrastructure, antennas , roads, wildfires.

The measures for conservation:
Presidential Decree 67/198,
Natura 2000. The legal framework of Natura 2000 network is applied: only activities of scientific research, recreation and environmental education are allowed.
http://floraattica.blogspot.com/2018/02/asperula-baenitzi.html

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Natura 2000 is a network of core breeding and resting sites for rare and threatened species, and some rare natural habitat types.

Plant Micro-Reserves (PMR) constitute areas of small extent (less than 20ha) that have been selected because they are hosts of rare and threatened plants.

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The main threat to the threatened plant species in the European countries as a whole (not in the individual PlantAreas) of this group is intensified livestock farming, and especially overgrazing. The conversion of grasslands into agricultural land for livestock, arable farming or forestry is a serious threat leading to habitat loss or at least degradation. This is the case in the plantareas of the Southern part of Europe (Portugal, Greece, Hungary). On the other hand, many species are in need of moderate disturbance and were thriving well in areas under traditional agricultural use such as moderate grazing. When the habitat is no longer managed that way, the ecosystem will modify, some plants can become extinct (Belgium). Intensified livestock will also lead to eutrophication of the habitat which result in habitat degradation.

Recreational activities such as hiking, mountaineering or walking are the second biggest factor causing species to be directly or indirectly threatened. Ecosystems frequented by humans often notice a decrease in quality and the plants are in danger of being trampled.

Wild plant collection of threatened plant species is a mayor threat in the Southern part of Europe.

Urban and tourism development as well as transport infrastructure are mentioned in every country as a serous threat.

Some of the 40 species studied are found in rocky areas, on cliffs, in scree or instable substrate and are vulnerable to geological events such as landslides and avalanches (Portugal). Fires can have devastating effects on plant populations (Greece).

Ref.: EC: European red list – Major threats.

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The main threat to threatened plant species in Colombia (not only for the 5 plants analyzed in the plantarea) is deforestation and habitat loss. The main causes of these are the expansion of the agricultural and livestock border, illicit crops, colonization and population displacement, infrastructure projects, mining, extraction of legal and illegal timber and forest fires.

Other factors that threaten plant species in the country are the drying of wetlands and the traffic of ornamental plants (wild collection plant), especially orchids, heliconeas and zamias. Colombia does not have good legislation or control over this extraction activity.

Despite the government's commitment to reduce the net rate of deforestation in the Amazon to zero by 2020 in 2015, during the Climate Change Summit in Paris, deforestation increased by 44% in the following year.

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There are legal instruments that contribute to the protection of plant species but biodiversity remains threatened and has regressed at a steep pace. Strict implementation of the law by the law enforcement officers and concerned agencies is necessary.
Climate change makes actions necessary that minimize species depletion and rule out threat factors.  Protection should be promoted through the implementation of measures that involve each and every one in the defense and conservation of nature.

The suggestions are intended to stimulate projects involving several entities: schools and institutions linked to the protection of nature, in order to implement the following actions:

1. Continue to recognize the population nuclei existing in the plantarea of each one.

2. Disseminate existing legal guidelines at international, European, national, regional and local level.

3. List the threatened taxa (RE, CR, EN, VU and NT or DD) in each plantarea.

4. Promote the dissemination of knowledge of the main threats to plant species.

5. Monitor the evolution of existing population centers, carrying out cleaning and maintenance campaigns.

6. Raise the awareness of local populations about the danger of extinction and biodiversity.

7. Alert to the evidence and consequences of climate change.

8. Contribute to the conservation of nature, creating information appealing to the participation of the population in the application of measures of preservation of nature.

9. Replicate and / or disseminate projects and measures in force in other countries.

10. Encourage literacy and civic education in order to think globally and act locally.

11. Reinforce of in depth comprehensive environmental studies on a regular basis.

12. Establish local reserve areas and germbanks.

13. Develop propagation protocols.

14. Promote ex situ propagation in botanical gardens, collections.

15. Encourage for cultivation from individuals (as ornamental plant).

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By comparing the presentations from the plantareas of Belgium (2 reports), Portugal (2 reports), Philippines, Colombia, Greece and Hungary, we found out that there are some similarities as far as concerns the major threats and conservation measures.

Similar major threats found on the individual reports (Plantareas):

Colοmbia, Philippines:

1. habitat loss due to the conversion of land for agricultural use and livestock

2. overexploitation for industrial use (deforestation: timber, sawdust etc.)

3. overexploitation for commercial and therapeutic use (ornamental plants, herbs etc.)

Portugal, Greece, Hungary:

1. recreational activities (including tourists, visitors)

2. disturbance from animals and humans (treading)

3. overgrazing

Portugal, Greece, Philippines:
disturbance by humans (tourism)

Portugal, Greece:

1. recreational activities (including tourists, visitors)

2. urban sprawl

3. potential land use changes

4. vehicular traffic

Greece, Hungary:

1. illegal herb collection

2. illegal waste deposition

3. road constructions

Portugal, Hungary :
genetic factors (reproductive factors intrinsic to the species, genetic hybridization)

Portugal, Belgium :
habitat degradation (debris deposition, changes on the level and/or composition of groundwater)
Colombia, Belgium:
the threat of a disease that manifests itself with a gradual drying of the leaves until the death of the plant (Ceroxylon quindiuense), causing leaf loss (Fraxinus excelsior)

There are no similarities between countries for these threats:

Hungary:

1. illegal burning of grasslands

2. planned mining

Greece : wildfires (major threat for areas of Attica region-Athens)

Philippines:

1. illegal logging

2. conversion of grasslands into settlement areas

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Cariniana pyriformis is critically endangered (CR) according to the red book of plants of Colombia. However for the IUCN the category is near threatened (NT).
In addition, many other plants consulted have less important categories of threat when compared with the red books of Colombia.

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Cariniana pyriformis on March 24, 2008 by Mateo Hernandez Schmidt

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Pulsatilla grandis is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).

The species is protected in Hungary but not listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List (LC).

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Greater Pasque Flower (Pulsatilla grandis)

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Pulsatilla grandis, or the greater pasque flower, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Pulsatilla of the family Ranunculaceae. It is a perennial plant that grows on calcium-rich soil in dry grasslands, in rocky outcrops, and in pine and oak forests.

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The reports from Philippines and Colombia show that laws established by the government and restrictions are applied. Also CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) regulations, and collaboration with the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD) have an important role. However, in the case of Colombia there is no serious establishment of conservation measures for all species, only actions have been suggested (it is not certain that they are applied) to reduce threats and conserve the populations.

Conservation measures
1. In-situ and ex-situ conservation (in botanical gardens etc)
2. Plant propagation (propagation in vivarium and reintroduction in farms and reserves, mass propagation was also introduced using stem cuttings instead of seeds)
3. Botanical gardens contribute in ex- situ propagation.

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Philippines: Tectona philippinensis Benth. & Hook.f.

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Philippines: Tectona philippinensis Benth. & Hook.f.

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Forest endemic tree found only the municipalities of  Lobo and San Juan.
IUCN: critically endangered

Threat: Philippine teak produces valuable timber due to its highdensity and high-strength wood. The area of occupancy also declines because of conversion of forest land to agricultural land.

To help conserve the remaining population of Philippine teak, the Philippine government supports the in-situ and ex-situ conservation. Mass propagation was also introduced using stem cuttings instead of seeds. There is also an on-going study on the micropropagation.

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Endemic in Portugal, evaluated critically endangered. IUCN: near threatened

Threat: the small distribution area and the isolation of the populations make the species particularly sensitive to the various threat factors of natural or anthropic origin. Intensive grazing has proven to be a significant reduction in some population centers, as well as the passage of crops from rainfed to irrigated. Botanic collecting is a relevant threat.

Conservation depends essentially on protecting the habitat by maintaining and increasing traditional agricultural activities, in particular by granting incentives to farmers, further exploration and characterization of the

species' ecological requirements, maintenance of occurrence, especially with low use of herbicides. Raising the

awareness of farmers and landowners for this type of management is key to conserving the species. Such as the

implementation of repopulation actions in areas less subject to the use of herbicides, such as roadsides, olive groves, or

biological crops.

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IUCN: near threatened (NT),
Flanders, Belgium: threatened with extinction
Habitat: short sward grassland and very wet (for at least part of the year) ground containing high levels of calcium. Present in the portal area of Antwerp with a population size of about 3000 individuals and in one alkaline fen in the Campine region, where maximum 10 individuals persist.

Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat.

Protected by the European Habitats Directive and populations in Flanders are been monitored; reintroduction projects.

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Liparis loeselii, common names fen orchid, yellow widelip orchid, or bog twayblade, is a species of orchid. It is native to Europe, northern Asia, the eastern United States and eastern Canada. It grows in fens, bogs and dune slacks. It is a yellow flowering plant with glossy yellow-green leaves. (Source: Wikipedia.