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Greece fires: state of emergency declared as deadly blazes rage

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              Causes of weather extremes

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              Causes of weather extremes

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                   2018 Attica wildfires

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                   2018 Attica wildfires

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A series of wildfires in Greece, during the 2018 European heat wave, began in the coastal areas of Attica in July 2018. As of 15 December, 100 people were confirmed dead. The fires were the second-deadliest wildfire event in the 21st century, after the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in Australia that killed 180.
Over 700 residents have been evacuated or rescued, mainly from the seaside settlements located north of the port town of Rafina, namely Kokkino Limanaki and Mati, where rescuers found 26 corpses trapped just metres away from the sea, apparently hugging each other as they died. Boats also recovered corpses from the water, and rescued hundreds of people from beaches and the sea. Ten people drowned when the boat rescuing them from a hotel in Mati capsized. Μore than 4,000 residents were affected by the wildfires.

₍https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Attica_wildfires₎

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In the last report of the International Panel on Climate Change it mentions that the temperature of the Aegean Sea will rise between 1.2 and 2.5 degrees Celsius, which means that ‘October summers’ will be something that Greeks won’t necessarily be feeling particularly proud nor happy about. There are also further consequences of climate change that are already starting to affect the everyday lives of Greeks.

WWW Hellas, with the National Observatory of Athens, forecasts in its research on climate change in Greece from 2021-2050 a bleak future for Greece. They warn that if the objective of keeping the rise in temperature to below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels is not achieved, then the consequences will be serious and multifaceted: people in cities like Thessaloniki, Patra, Lamia and Larissa will feel more discomfort, with an extra 20 days of ‘heatwave’ conditions per year. Also Lamia, Volos, Thessaloniki and Athens will experience fewer rainy days globally but 10% more thunderstorms. This means more danger of floods and forest fires.

₍https://www.euronews.com/2015/10/22/climate-change-in-greece-more-visible-than-we-think---negative-future-ahead₎

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By the middle of the century, the average temperature in our country will increase, and the average rainfall will decrease, while the sea level will rise to a remarkable degree. Climate change is an ongoing, exceedingly important and very well-studied global phenomenon. Detailed models predict its development over the next decades in a quite clear manner. However, its effects are not just environmental. They are not limited to air temperature increase, or to the appearance of extreme weather events. Its consequences affect every aspect of human activity, from the tourism infrastructure and the agricultural production of a country, to the health of its population.

The Impact of Climate Change on Growth (In Greek)
The eight-member research team of diaNEOsis, led by Konstantinos Kartalis, Professor of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and including, among others, Dimitris Oikonomou and Haris Kokkosis, Professors of the University of Thessaly, Manthos Santamouris, Professor of the University of New South Wales, and Elias Agathaggelidis and Anastasios Polydoros, environmental physicists at NKUA, analyzed the available data and arrived at a series of estimates about the impact of climate change on crucial sectors of the Greek economy for the time period 2046-2065.

How will the tourism product of the country be affected? What will the consequences be for its agricultural production? How much will the urban environment be impacted, and how grave will the danger for forests and cultural heritage monuments be? What will happen to the coasts? How severe will the impact on beaches, or ports be? How will public health be affected? The answers are shocking, and reveal a harsh truth. Our country is unprepared for a series of more or less unavoidable changes that will strongly affect its economic structure.

The study moves beyond describing the impact of climate change itself, assessing also the level of preparedness of the institutional framework of our country. The researchers have identified and recorded the government programs, official plans and studies in which climate change is dealt with superficially or even is completely ignored (a not so rare occurrence). The study arrives at a series of specific proposals for a radical revision of the country's institutional framework.

Here we present the basic conclusions of the study. But first, some important points about the consequences of climate change in Greece.

How does the climate change globally and in Greece?

Any changes in the Earth's weather patterns that extend for long periods of time (30 years or more) are collectively called "climate change". The term may seem self-contradictory: The global climate by definition changes constantly, and it has been well documented that it has changed dramatically many times during the long history of the planet. This current "climate change" is defined as the gradual increase of the temperature of the atmosphere that has been recorded over the past 150 years (the period for which there are available data), and which seems to be gradually accelerating over the last decades.

The global warming phenomenon has been extensively studied over the last decades, and remains at the top of the environmental agenda in almost every country of the world. It is monitored by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international scientific committee under the auspices of the United Nations, that coordinates scientist activities all over the world, and prepares reports about the phenomenon and its impact using the most valid and well documented data. The IPCC has published five extensive key reports (in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2014), the so called "Assessment Reports", and a wide range of special reports. One of the special reports (Special Report on Emission Scenarios - SRES), that was published in 2000 and updated in 2014 (Representative Concentration Pathways - RCP), develops scenarios for the simulation of climate change taking into account demographics, economic growth, and technological developments. One of these scenarios (the moderate A1B, and in some cases its corresponding and updated form, RCP 6.0) was selected as the base scenario for the needs of this study.

At this point, it is important to say a few words about the estimates of climate conditions, as there is a fair amount of misplaced debate on the matter. The models created by scientists over the last decades are not meteorological, neither are they aimed at meteorological prediction. On the contrary, they estimate the climate variables over time (temperature, rainfall, sea level, etc.), on the basis of the conditions that will exist in the atmosphere, and more specifically in relation to the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide). We know these models are reliable because it has already been proven that they work: For instance, if we apply them on the conditions prevailing on the planet a few decades back, they predict quite accurately the climate of the planet today.

It is also important to explain briefly what is at stake for our planet regarding climate change: In 1958 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels reached 280 ppm (parts per million). This year for the first time they exceeded 410 ppm. And when we say "For the first time", we do not mean "For the first time since 1958". The rich available geological data show that there has never been such a concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere for millions of years.

What does that mean? The more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more pronounced the greenhouse effect becomes, that is, the more radiation emitted by the earth is trapped in the lower atmosphere, producing an increase in temperature. We can already see the consequences: The planet's temperature increases, heatwave days increase, extreme weather events become more frequent, rainfall in some areas is reduced, ocean water expands and polar ice melts faster, causing sea levels to rise. Of course, this is a simple and broad description of the situation, as the phenomenon is extremely complex and its manifestations multiple and interdependent.

The international community, as you may know, has mobilized to deal with the problem through founding IPCC, mentioned above, as well as through signing the historical Kyoto Agreement (that soon proved inadequate), and more recently the Paris Agreement. The latter has set a target: Planet temperature increase by 2100 should not be higher than 2 degrees Celsius above the average temperature of the planet during the beginning of the industrial revolution. For that to happen, there must be a reduction in the rapid accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - specifically, carbon dioxide must not exceed 600 ppm by 2100. Almost all countries of the world have signed the Agreement, and many of them have taken courageous steps to achieve this goal. European Union (Greece included) is of course a pioneer of that effort, but other large countries, such as China, have also committed themselves to working in this direction. This is very important, since the effects of this phenomenon spread over the whole planet approximately to the same degree. The United States may emit more carbon dioxide than almost any other country, but its concentration in the atmosphere above the USA is approximately equal to that over the other countries of the world.

The IPCC scenario we have chosen to use for the predictions of this study is one of the most "realistic". It predicts that in the future there will be rapid technological developments that will limit the explosive increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. According to this scenario, humankind will fail to meet the Paris goal, but not by much. The group has chosen to study the impact of the phenomenon during the 20-year period 2046-2065, since it is allows for more accurate estimates. Further, it is close enough for us to be able to imagine the impact on our own life - a 12 year-old child will be a 41 year-old adult in 2046.

It is also important to note that these estimates are exactly that: Estimates. They, as well as their potential impact described below, are possible outcomes of climate change during the next decades. They are not the only ones. There are over-optimistic scenarios that predict rapid technological progress that could reduce carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. There are also pessimistic scenarios that see carbon dioxide explode to 1000 ppm, something that would lead to a temperature increase of 4 or 5 degrees Celsius, with indescribable, disastrous consequences for nature and human civilization.

However, some things are clear. Due to the nature of climate change, which evolves at a slow pace, all existing scenarios agree that, irrespective of what will happen in the next decades, temperature increase cannot be avoided. It may be lower or higher, but it is absolutely certain that it will take place. And some of the consequences of temperature increase, which we will examine below, are also unavoidable.

To summarize, then, it is estimated that the changes in Greece's climate will be the following:

1. The temperature is expected to rise by 2.5 degrees Celsius on average in relation to the period 1961-1990. Regionally, the increase may reach up to 3.8 degrees during the summer months. The increase will be higher in northern Greece and smaller in the southern Peloponnese, the south Aegean islands and Crete. This increase is expected to have dramatic consequences mainly in the urban areas, but also at wooded areas (which we will describe below).

2. Heat wave days (with temperatures above 35 degrees Celsius) are expected to increase by 15-20 annually by 2050. By the end of the century, "tropic days" (days with temperatures of more than 35 degrees Celsius during the day and more than 20 degrees Celsius during the night) are expected to number more than 50 annually in most areas of the country.

3. By contrast, the days with night frost will decrease significantly, especially in Northern Greece (by up to 40 days annually).

4. At the same time, it is estimated that rainfall will decrease by 12% on average (20-30% decrease during the summer months, especially in the south, and 10% decrease during the winter months).

5. Additionally, it is estimated that sea levels will rise by 20 to 59 centimeters, according to alternative scenarios.

6. Extreme weather events will be much more frequent.

7. Most regions of the country will be impacted negatively, but not to the same degree. Central Macedonia, Thessaly, Western Peloponnese and Attica will face the greatest problems.

However, why are these changes bad? How will these climate conditions impact the economic activity of the country? Researchers have identified their impact on a series of indicative sectors, and we present briefly some of the results below.

The impact

1. Agricultural production will be severely affected

The climate of Greece will become drier due to the decrease in rainfall by 20-30% in the summer and by 10% in the winter. Periods of no rainfall whatsoever will be getting longer, the moisture deficit will increase by up to 12%, and an increased tendency of soil conversion to dryland in 60% of arable land will appear. This does not mean that there will be no more agricultural production in the country -it just means that the quantities produced and the sort of crops that the ground can support will be affected. According to most scenarios, the areas of Thessaly and Central Macedonia will suffer a decline in agricultural production, while some scenarios project a positive impact for more temperate areas such as Crete.

Researchers have studied in more detail the impact on viniculture, and found that the wine producing areas that will face problems during the 20-year period of 2046-2065 are mainly located in Central and Southern Greece (because they will have the highest reduction of rainfall and a significant increase in moisture deficit).

By contrast, viniculture will temporarily be favored by the conditions in the wine-producing areas located at the mountainous areas of the country, on the west as well as the north of Thessaly. Specific varieties that until now grew only farther south will now be able to grow there. However, in the long term the increase in the number of hot days, along with the decrease of rainfall, will cancel out any favorable conditions since vineyards will need increased irrigation. It should also be noted that, according to the international literature, temperature increase may affect the quality of the wine produced in the whole country because the harvest will be coming up earlier over the years.

2. Tourism will be strongly affected

The news for tourism are not all negative. Since there will be more heatwaves in the summer, hotels - as well as all other buildings - will consume more energy for cooling, and many areas (mainly islands) will face water supply problems, but in many areas of the country temperature increase will probably lead to a lengthening of the tourist season. Also, the decrease in the number of days that will need energy for heating will reduce the costs for tourist facilities in winter destinations.

However, the remaining phenomena mentioned above will have a negative impact: There will be more heatwave days, rising sea levels, coastal erosion (more details on that below), increase of forest fires and extreme weather events. According to the European research project PESETA, it is estimated that, in case of an average temperature increase of 2.5 degrees Celsius, as is approximately assumed in the context of this study, there will be a 1% reduction of overnight stays in the country, and a €825 million revenue loss for the tourist industry annually.

Furthermore, some specific forms of tourism will be severely affected. All ski resorts of the country will face greater pressure, mainly those located at low altitudes and especially in the south (Mainalo and Helmos).

Of course, this is something that has already started happening internationally. In the Parnassus Ski Resort steps are already been taken to deal with the decrease of snow days. In Central Europe there are ski resorts - mainly those at lower altitudes - that have not opened at all over the past few years. It is estimated that a temperature increase of 2 degrees Celsius over the next decades will put 33% of European ski resorts out of business.

There will also be very significant problems in archeological sites exposed to the elements, especially those located in forest areas or on steep slopes that are vulnerable to erosion. Temperature increase and rainfall decrease will make forest areas of the country drier, and therefore more vulnerable to forest fires. It seems that for the 20-year period under discussion specific destinations protected by UNESCO, such as the Temple of Epicurian Apollo and Ancient Olympia will be in immediate danger.

Additionally, forest fires will pose significant danger for the natural environment of the country, its infrastructure, as well as its economy. During the decade of 2000-2010 there were 111,642 fires in Greece, that burned down 611,706 hectares. By 2050, high risk days each year are expected to increase by 15% to 70%, depending on the area, while the high risk season will be extended from 2 to 6 weeks per year.

3. The coasts

According to the predictions of IPCC (2007), by the end of the century sea levels are expected to rise by 20 to 59 centimeters. However, some researchers consider these estimates too conservative, and believe that existing models underestimate the threat for the Antarctic glaciers. On the basis of these scenarios, by the end of the century it is more probable for sea levels to rise by somehere between 80 centimeters to 2 meters. These quantities may sound small or negligible, but they are not. We have recorded the consequences of a possible sea level rise for various areas of the country in a series of easy to read maps. Below we see the effects on the coasts of Laimos in Vouliagmeni and Ornou in Mykonos. The main report (it is available in Greek here) contains more examples.

Greece has a 16,000 km coastline. One third of all Greeks live at a distance of up to 2 km from the coast. Ninety percent of the country's tourism infrastructure are on coastal areas, and the same holds true for the 35% of productive arable land, all ports -by definition-, and most large cities.

The impact, as shown in the maps, is dramatic. If measures are not taken, the Laimos peninsula may become an island. Popular Greek beaches are in danger of disappearing. For instance, the south Ornos beach in Mykonos will be fully covered by the sea, and the waters will invade the land to a distance of 150 meters from the present coast, inundating roads and buildings. The buildings of "Small Venice" in the same island will face safety problems in case of a 0.5m rise, and will certainly be flooded in case of a 2m. rise. The estuaries of large rivers - such as Axios - will be transformed into sea bays. Ports and marinas will face serious problems, unless improvement and protection works are undertaken over the next decades.

Overall, according to an estimate (Sauter, 2013), there is a danger that rising sea levels may lead to the loss of 3.5% of the country's land. It is estimated that this may have a cost equivalent to 2% of the country's GDP.

However, apart for its economic and environmental impact, climate change will also have unavoidable consequences on public health. This is not a projection or a hypothesis -the effect of high temperatures on public health is a well-known and well-studied phenomenon. Already today, the temperature in the center of Athens is usually 6-10 degrees Celsius higher than the temperature in the northern suburbs. A further temperature increase will have dramatic consequences on the cost and quality of life in the city, as well as several known consequences on the health of vulnerable groups.

One need only think of this: The deadly heatwave that hit Central Europe in 2003 was at the time considered a once-in-a-1000-years phenomenon. According to the current estimates of the European Environmental Agency, average climate conditions in the 2040's will be approximately equivalent to the conditions of 2003.

The approximately 5.5 million Greeks who live in the 25 largest cities of the country, will face adverse thermal conditions due to the rising temperature.

In the municipality of Athens alone, 75% of the buildings are vulnerable to heat stress, since most of them were constructed before 1980. The cost of the energy consumed for cooling in the center of Athens during the summer months is already double the corresponding cost in Marousi. And it is expected to increase rapidly.

For illustration purposes, we should mention that if the average temperature rises by just 1 degree Celsius, the cost of the energy consumed by the country will increase by 600,000 euros per day. Studies and investment for covering these needs, mainly with renewable energy sources, are absolutely essential.

However, the impact on public health is estimated to be even more dramatic.

Studies have shown that for every 1 degree Celsius temperature increase above 34 degrees, daily mortality increases by about 3%. Recall that after 2046 Greece will have 15-20 more days like these in relation to the present. In heatwaves with daily temperatures higher than 42 degrees, daily mortality due to respiratory and heart conditions increases by 10% and 18% respectively. diaNEOsis' demographic study recently showed that, by 2050, 1 in 3 Greeks will be over the age of 65 - and therefore will belong to the vulnerable groups.

The health of millions of Greeks will be in danger because of the rapid increase in the number of days with very high temperatures.

What can be done?

Climate change is a huge problem of global proportions. The ways we can tackle it - or even the question of whether it can be tackled by now - is an enormous issue, perhaps the greatest challenge of this generation. As we have noted, the aim of the Paris Accord, which has been signed by almost all countries of the world (except for Syria, Nicaragua, and now the United States), is, by the end of this century, to limit the average temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius above the temperature of the planet in the beginning of the industrial revolution. It is considered a very ambitious target, and even if it is achieved, climate change impact will be very severe in many places, and to a certain extent will be very similar to what we have described above.

What is certain is that right now our country is completely unprepared to face even that optimistic scenario. It needs infrastructure and a series of adjustments at the state apparatus level, as well as extensive training of its personnel. But it also needs something else, which is highlighted in the last part of the diaNEOsis study. It must take into account climate change in the formulation of its production model through long term planning. This has not been done.

The study puts forward a series of 26 general and 16 more specific proposals. Here we can only mention very briefly seven of the most important ones:

1. Transition to a low carbon economy by 2050. This means achieving a gradual independence from fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources, and emphasizing energy saving actions in transportation and housing (2030 being an important intermediate point: 27% of the energy consumed should come from RES, and use of primary energy should be reduced by 27% through an improvement of energy efficiency).

2. Amendment of the country's institutional framework so that all relative government programs and plans will incorporate the reality of climate change. Our first priority should be to change the Water Division Management Plans, especially for Thessaly, Western Greece, and Peloponnese.

3. Preparation of special plans for the areas and sectors that will mostly be affected by climate change (agricultural sector, tourism, etc.) within the next five years.

4. Establishment of some form of metropolitan administration in Athens and Thessaloniki that will develop and implement integrated plans for adapting to climate change. This is a problem that fragmented municipalities cannot tackle on their own.

5. Gradual improvement of the built environment in the cities, giving priority to the heat stressed areas, which usually are the poorest ones.

6. Amendment of the institutional framework on private investments, to support local productive activities that assist adapting to climate change (improvement of port infrastructure, renewable energy sources, construction materials, etc.).

7. Adaptation of the National Health System to the new challenges of worsening temperature conditions and the demographic composition of the population.

All proposed measures aim on the one hand to limit the damage from the future impact of climate change, and on the other to capitalize on the possible benefits that may exist in each case. These measures cannot be the same for the whole country - they have to be different in each area and sector. Attica's needs are very different from those of Thessaly, and completely different from those of Crete.

Another important fact is that the geographic placement of the administrative institutions of the country is not very useful for tackling such a phenomenon. The areas that face common threats are rarely located within the boundaries of one geographical region. Neighboring municipalities of Athens that face similar problems should not try to deal with them independently.

Finally, we must stress again that this diaNEOsis study describes a scenario that is generally considered moderate and "realistic", or even optimistic by some accounts. The impacts we describe above for the next decades are to a certain degree unavoidable. However, if things do not improve, they may be much worse. If efforts to curb emissions fail and other, more pessimistic scenarios turn out to be accurate, the average temperature increase of the planet will be significantly greater. Many scientists believe that human civilization is in no way prepared to deal with a temperature increase of 4 or 5 degrees Celsius by the end of the century.

Still, we have to start somewhere. The Greek government needs to acknowledge the seriousness of the problem and adapt its institutional framework and the country's entire economic model to accommodate the well studied, widely accepted and practically unavoidable realities of our near future.

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The Impact of Climate Change on the Greek Economy - Dianeosis

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What will the consequences be for the country's agricultural production? How will tourism be affected? How much will the urban environment be impacted, and how grave will the danger for forests and cultural heritage monuments be? What will happen to the coasts? How severe will the impact on beaches or ports be?

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The Paris Agreement of December 2015 aims to maintain the global average warming well below 2°C above the preindustrial level. Ecosystem variability during the past 10,000 years was reconstructed from pollen analysis. Only a 1.5°C warming scenario permits Mediterranean land ecosystems to remain within this Holocene variability. At or above 2°C of warming, climatic change will generate land ecosystem changes that are unmatched in the Holocene.

In fact, regional temperatures in the Mediterranean basin are now ~1.3°C higher than during 1880-1920, compared with an increase of ~0.85°C worldwide. Climate model projections indicate that the projected warming in the Mediterranean basin this century continues to exceed the global trend. Without ambitious mitigation policies anthropogenic climate change will likely alter ecosystems in the Mediterranean this century in a way that is without precedent during the past 10,000 years. The highly ambitious low-end scenario of climate change (the so-called RCP2.6 scenario) seems to be the only possible pathway toward more limited impacts. Under a high-end scenario of climate change (the RCP8.5 scenario), all of southern Spain turns into desert, deciduous forests invade most of the mountains, and Mediterranean vegetation replaces most of the deciduous forests in a large part of the Mediterranean basin.
In addition to climate change, other human impacts affect ecosystems, such as land-use change, urbanization, and soil degradation. Many of these effects are likely to become even stronger in the future because of the expanding human population and economic activity. Without ambitious climate targets, the potential for future managed or unmanaged ecosystems to host biodiversity or deliver services to society is likely to be greatly reduced by climate change and direct local effects.

Various ecosystems in the Mediterranean are close to the environmental limits, for example with respect to their ability to cope with drought stress.

A 3.6°C global warming could lead to a loss of over 50% of plant species in the northern Mediterranean and the Mediterranean mountain region, while species loss is likely to exceed 80% in north central Spain and the Cevennes and Massif Central in France.
₍https://www.climatechangepost.com/greece/biodiversity/₎

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Example of  alien species in Greece-Euphorbia esula

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Example of  alien species in Greece-Euphorbia esula

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Native to Europe and temperate Asia, Euphorbia esula (leafy spurge) is found throughout the world, with the exception of Australia. This aggressive invader is one of the first plants to emerge in the spring and displaces native vegetation by shading and out-competing them for available water and nutrients. Leafy spurge contains a highly irritating substance called ingenol that, when consumed by livestock, is an irritant, emetic and purgative.
http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Euphorbia+esula

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IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

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The Mediterranean Hotspot: from knowledge to action to preserve its biodiversity

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100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species

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100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species

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Overfishing

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The Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries at Risk from Overexploitation

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Athanassios C. Tsikliras,

Anny Dinouli,

Vasileios-Zikos Tsiros,

Eleni Tsalkou

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Abstract

The status of the Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries was evaluated for the period 1970-2010 on a subarea basis, using various indicators including the temporal variability of total landings, the number of recorded stocks, the mean trophic level of the catch, the fishing-in-balance index and the catch-based method of stock classification. All indicators confirmed that the fisheries resources of the Mediterranean and Black Sea are at risk from overexploitation. The pattern of exploitation and the state of stocks differed among the western (W), central (C) and eastern (E) Mediterranean subareas and the Black Sea (BS), with the E Mediterranean and BS fisheries being in a worst shape. Indeed, in the E Mediterranean and the BS, total landings, mean trophic level of the catch and fishing-in-balance index were declining, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks was higher, and the percentage of developing stocks was lower, compared to the W and C Mediterranean. Our results confirm the need for detailed and extensive stock assessments across species that will eventually lead to stocks recovering through conservation and management measures.

Citation: Tsikliras AC, Dinouli A, Tsiros V-Z, Tsalkou E (2015) The Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries at Risk from Overexploitation. PLoS ONE 10(3): e0121188. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121188

Academic Editor: Caroline Durif, Institute of Marine Research, NORWAY

Received: September 24, 2014; Accepted: January 28, 2015; Published: March 20, 2015

Copyright: © 2015 Tsikliras et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited

Data Availability: All data are publicly available at the Food and Agricultural Organization through FishStat J software (Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit GFCM capture production 1970-2010. FISHSTAT J - Universal software for fishery statistical time series).

Funding: These authors have no support or funding to report.

Competing interests: Co-author Athanassios Tsikliras is a PLOS ONE Editorial Board member. This does not alter the authors' adherence to PLOS ONE Editorial policies and criteria.

Introduction

Overexploitation of marine fisheries resources is either known or suspected for almost all the commercial fish stocks of the world [ 1]. This is the general rule, which holds globally. There are, however, a few exceptions of healthy fisheries, as a result of good management practices [ 2], that are justifying the rule. The issue of fisheries overexploitation at a global scale has been realized at least since 2001 [ 3], although there have been some earlier stock depletions that received extended news coverage, such as that of cod Gadus morhua in Canada in 1992 [ 4]. In the Mediterranean and the Black Seas (FAO Major Fishing Area 37), overexploitation has been recently shown to occur for the entire area [ 5, 6] and for specific regions (e.g. Greek Seas [ 7]). Several Mediterranean stocks have been reported overexploited based on data from landings [ 5, 7], scientific surveys [ 8], or stock assessments [ 9]. As European fisheries are no exception to the rule, much of the EU fisheries legislation actually aims to tackle with the problem of overexploitation (e.g. Council Regulations 1967/2006, 643/2007, 1224/2009, 404/2011), including the relatively recent Marine Strategy Framework Directive through its Descriptor 3 (Commission Decision 2010/477/EU) [ 10]. However, in parallel with global economy, management regulations are not really implemented by all parties involved, especially by those who profit for not respecting the commons; this situation may lead to ecosystem crises [ 11].

Long-term worries about the state of stocks explain why fishery-independent stock assessments have been carried out for the past twenty years over the northern part of the Mediterranean basin [ 9, 12], in parallel with extended monitoring of the landings that is anticipated through the EU Fisheries Data Collection Framework (Council Regulation 1999/2008). In the Mediterranean, regular scientific stock assessments are mainly carried out within two international bodies, the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), which is an inter-governmental fishery organization responsible for the conservation of tunas and tuna-like species in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The Scientific Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) of the EU [ 12] also conducts assessments for the stocks exploited by the EU countries of the northern Mediterranean coastline. Thus, data collection, stock assessment and management of Mediterranean fisheries are gradually improving, even though there are still areas with no or inadequate fisheries information (e.g. eastern Mediterranean). Management information and guidelines resulting from stock assessments and scientific surveys, can now be delivered to the involved parties and the public at a finer geographical scale and more timely [ 9].

Trophodynamic indicators have been widely used in marine ecology [ 13] and trophic level based indicators are valuable for identifying the expansion or contraction of fisheries [ 14], as well as for quantifying the effects of fishing on the trophic structure of food webs [ 8] and the function of marine ecosystems [ 15], including loss of biodiversity [ 14]. Among the several indicators that have been used, the trophic level of the catch and the fishing-in-balance index have been extensively tested [ 13] and have been proven robust in tracking fishing effects [ 16], and assessing ecosystem changes [ 17]. Therefore, they are considered promising indicators for ecosystem management [ 13].

Mediterranean fisheries are multispecies and generally lack large monospecific stocks compared to the open ocean [ 18]. Consequently, the acknowledged disadvantages of stock assessments and scientific surveys, i.e., that they include a limited number of stocks compared to the total (around 25% in terms of landed biomass, less than 10% in terms of stock numbers) and are conducted at irregular basis [ 19], are valid for the area. Indeed, the larger proportion of landed biomass in the Mediterranean comes from data-deficient fisheries [ 20], i.e., stocks that have never been properly assessed, a proportion that has been estimated at around 80% [ 21].

The official data on fisheries catches (equivalent to landings for the purposes of this work) has been widely used to examine the state of the exploited marine resources and to test large-scale ecological hypotheses. In particular, the catch-based method of stock classification to exploitation categories has been extensively used to assess the status of fisheries globally or on ecosystem basis [ 5, 7, 22- 26]. After the taxonomic, quantitative and spatial improvements through the completion of the global reconstruction of catches [ 27], the validity of catches will no longer be questioned. However, since there is a global debate on whether data from catches or from surveys and stock assessments are more suitable for examining the exploitation status of marine fish stocks [ 19], data from scientific surveys and stock assessments, when available, could be used complementary to catch data.

Earlier research on the Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries report that 78% of the stocks are fully exploited in the Mediterranean, and 85% of the stocks are overexploited in the Black Sea [ 28, 29]. Overexploitation was evident since the 1950s, when about 60% of the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks were reported as being fully exploited and 40% as overexploited [ 30]. When the catch-based method was applied on the combined landings of Mediterranean and Black Sea, over 80% of the Mediterranean stocks were described as fully exploited [ 31] and around 90% of the Black Sea stocks as collapsed, in 2004 [ 32]. Recently, using the same method on the same area, the cumulative percentage of collapsed and overexploited stocks exceeded 60% [ 5]. Based on scientific stocks assessments, 85% of the assessed stocks have been reported as being overfished compared to their maximum sustainable yield value [ 9]. According to the most recent work, the exploitation rate in the Mediterranean has been steadily increasing and selectivity deteriorating; thus leading to shrinkage of fish stocks [ 6]. Finally, a low rate decline in the mean trophic level of the catches has been reported for the Mediterranean and Black Seas [ 33].

In our previous work on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea fisheries [ 5], the stocks of the two seas were combined (as the FAO Area 37), for comparability purposes with previously published items. However, because of the different environmental and fishing properties of the two seas [ 28, 34], their subareas and subdivisions [ 35, 36], a further investigation of their fisheries status was necessary at a finer geographical scale, i.e., on a subarea basis.

The aim of the present work was to assess the exploitation status of the Mediterranean and Black Sea stocks for the period 1970-2010, using various indicators including the temporal variability of total landings, the number of recorded stocks, the mean trophic level of the catch, the fishing-in-balance index and the catch-based method of stock classification. These indicators were separately applied to the western, central and eastern Mediterranean Sea, thus including areas where primary data, such as fisheries independent data and stock assessment information, are lacking. Contrary to recent studies on the Mediterranean fisheries [ 5, 9], which considered only the stocks that had been previously assessed and form a minor proportion of the commercially exploited stocks, in the present work, we considered all stocks for which landings data were available.

Materials and Methods

The annual catches of the Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries stocks have been recorded since 1970 by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) [ 37]. The GFCM dataset differs from that of the FAO in terms of area and species aggregation. As opposed to the FAO grouping of the entire Mediterranean and the Black Seas into a single area (FAO Major Fishing Area 37), in the GFCM dataset, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea are being further divided into 4 fishing subareas (Mediterranean Sea: western, W; central, C; eastern, E; and Black Sea: BS) and 10 fishing subdivisions ( Fig. 1). The GFCM data refer to the legal and reported large- and small-scale fisheries catches (excluding discarded catch, illegal, unreported, recreational, subsistence and sport fishing) expressed as live weight equivalent of landings. For the present analysis, catch statistics were extracted from the GFCM dataset, which is available as a regional package in FishStat J, for the period 1970-2010, for 2636 records (= stocks, defined here as species-area-country combinations) [ 37].

Underlying map was created using Ocean Data View Software.

Two trophodynamic indicators, the mean weighted trophic level of the catch (mTLc) and the fishing-in-balance (FiB) index, that have been widely used to assess the effect of fisheries on ecosystems [ 38], were explored. The mean weighted trophic level of the catch (mTLc) for each year (k), was calculated annually per area according to the formula [ 33]: (1) where Y i refers to the catches of a species (or group of species) i, and TL is the corresponding trophic level. The trophic levels of each species were taken from FishBase [ 39] and SeaLifeBase [ 40].

The fishing-in-balance index (FiB) of the catch for each year (k) was calculated annually per area as [ 41]: (2) where Y refers to the total catches in year k, mTLc is the mean weighted trophic level of the catch, TE is the mean energy-transfer efficiency between trophic levels that is assumed to be 0.1 [ 14, 41], and 0 refers to the first year in a time-series that is used as a baseline. In the present dataset, the first year of the time-series, 1970, was set as a baseline. FiB equals to 0 for the first year of the series and remains rather stable when trophic level and catches change in opposite directions. Increasing FiB values indicate geographic or bathymetric expansion of fisheries, while decreasing FiB values indicate contraction [ 41].

The exploitation status of fisheries (1970-2010) was classified into one of the following five categories, according to the catch-based stock classification method [ 26, 30]: developing, fully exploited, overexploited, collapsed, and recovering of a previously collapsed stock ( Table 1). The "undeveloped" category was incorporated in "developing". The classification is based on the relationship between the catches (C Y) of a given year (Y C) compared to the year (Y Cmax) of historical maximum catch (C MAX) ( Table 1). Stocks with maximum catches appearing in the most recent year of the time series were designated as "developing" [ 26].

The method was applied on an annual basis to the stocks of each subarea (n = 2207 for the last year of the time series, 2010) and to the stocks of each subdivision (n = 1707 for the last year of the time series, 2010). The method was then separately applied to those stocks whose catches are available for 40 consecutive years (n = 802 for the last year of the time series, 2010). The latter analysis was included because it has been shown that the addition of new records (either because of disaggregation of higher taxonomic groups or because of exploitation of new species/stocks) in the dataset, may introduce biases in favour of developing stocks [ 5, 7]. The number of records varies among analyses because several records were only available for non-consecutive years, some were collected from unknown or unspecified subareas and some from the entire Mediterranean Sea, such as the highly migratory bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus [ 37].

Finally, the results and recommendations of the stock assessments routinely performed by the STECF and GFCM were retrieved from the published reports [ 42- 46] that refer only to the Mediterranean Sea. Overall, 189 records were accessed (STECF: 18 species, 78 stocks; GFCM: 25 species, 111 stocks) from which information on current fishing mortality (F) and fishing mortality level able to provide maximum sustainable yield (F MSY) was extracted (for details on stock assessment methodology, assumptions, limitations and approximations see [ 9]). MSY is defined as the highest yield (= catch) that can be taken from a stock under existing environmental conditions, and F MSY is the fishing mortality that allows stock exploitation at MSY [ 47, 48]. The F/F MSY ratio, which indicates sustainable exploitation when lower or close to 1 and unsustainable when diverging to high values [ 47, 49], was then compared with the ratio Y ₂₀₁₀/Y MAX (where Y ₂₀₁₀ is the latest catch and Y MAX is the highest catch in the catch time series), which shows the exploitation status of the corresponding stocks according to the catch-based method. A paired match was possible for 97 stocks, either because of multiple assessments of the same stock (when multiple assessments were available for a stock, the most recent one was used) or because of unavailability of Y ₂₀₁₀/Y MAX records.

Results

Number of records

The number of recorded fish stocks in the W and C Mediterranean increased linearly (r ²>0.88 in both areas) from around 200 in 1970 to around 600 in 2010 ( Fig. 2). A linear increase was also apparent for the E Mediterranean (r ² = 0.90) and the Black Sea (r ² = 0.89), but with fewer records (from around 150 in 1970 to around 350 in 2010 in E Mediterranean and from around 100 in 1970 to around 200 in 2010 in the Black Sea) ( Fig. 2). The rate of increase for the entire study period was around 80 records per decade (i.e., the catches of 80 new stocks were added or separately recorded) for the W and C Mediterranean and lower for the E Mediterranean (44 records per decade) and the Black Sea (26 records per decade).

Total catches

Total catches in the W Mediterranean fluctuated around 350 000 t with 304 000 t landed in 2010 (minimum catch was 295 000 t in 2007 and maximum catch was 433 467 t in 2006) and, overall, do not show any increasing or declining trend ( Fig. 3). In C Mediterranean, total catches increased rapidly from 228 400 t in 1970 to 466 218 t in 1984, then declined and fluctuate around 350 000 t for the last two decades (the catch of 2010 was 342 083 t) ( Fig. 3). A similar trend was observed for the E Mediterranean but total catches were lower, the increase was smoother and lasted longer (from 66 318 t in 1970 to 295 870 t in 1994). Since 1994, total catches in E Mediterranean fluctuate around 200 000 t, with catches of 216 804 t reported in 2010 ( Fig. 3). The Black Sea total catches peaked between 1980 and 1988, with values exceeding 800 000 t per year. For the periods before (1970-1979) and after that peak (1989 onwards), total catches in the Black Sea fluctuated around 450 000 t, with 501 241 t reported in 2010 ( Fig. 3).

Mean trophic level of the catch (mTLc) and fishing-in-balance (FiB) index

There was a clear and steady decline of mTLc in the W Mediterranean for the period 1970-2004, from around 3.30 (1970-1985) to around 3.20 (1986-2004), at a rate of 0.03 per decade. Since 2005, mTLc increased again to around 3.35, with an irregular high peak in 2007 ( Fig. 4). In the C Mediterranean, mTLc fluctuated around 3.20 for the entire period, with a five year exception (1999-2004) of lower mTLc values at around 3.10 ( Fig. 4). The declining trend of mTLc in the E Mediterranean is clear and consistent throughout the study period. The rate of mTLc decline is 0.03 per decade, from 3.38 in 1970 to 3.25 in 2010 ( Fig. 4). A quicker declining trend of the mTLc is also observed in the Black Sea since 1988, following an initial increase from 1970 to 1987. The rate of mTLc decline (1988-2010) is 0.09 per decade, from 3.42 in 1988 to 3.22 in 2010 ( Fig. 4).

Given the rather stable catches, the FiB index in the W Mediterranean followed a similar pattern with the mTLc, with elevated values since 2005 ( Fig. 5). Similarly, in the C Mediterranean, where mTLc was rather stable, the fluctuation of FiB was determined by the catches. It was initially increasing from 1970 to 1985, then declined until the mid 2000s before rising up again ( Fig. 5). In the E Mediterranean, FiB rapidly increased from 1970 to its highest value in 1994 (FiB = 0.59 in 1994) and then declined to around 0.38 in 2010 ( Fig. 5). In the Black Sea, an initial increase of FiB from 1970 to its highest value in 1988 (FiB = 0.43 in 1988) was followed by a rapid decline and stabilization to values around 0 ( Fig. 5).

Exploitation status according to the catch-based method

Based on the year and quantity of the historically maximum catch, which varied among the stocks included in the analysis, in 2010, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks was 60% for the Black Sea, 56% for the W, 48% for the E, and 44% for the C Mediterranean ( Fig. 6). In contrast, the cumulative percentage of developing and recovering stocks was higher in the C Mediterranean (28%) and the Black Sea (26%) compared to the W (24%) and E Mediterranean (21%) ( Fig. 6).

The percentage of developing stocks declined linearly with time across subareas, while, at the same time, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks increased linearly ( Fig. 7). The higher decline in developing stocks was observed in the E Mediterranean and the lower decline in the W and C parts of the sea. Indeed, the rate of decline in developing stocks was 21, 20, 54 stocks per decade in the W, C, E Mediterranean, respectively, and 30 stocks per decade in the Black Sea. The higher increase in the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks was observed in the W and C Mediterranean and the lower increase in the Black Sea ( Fig. 7). The rate of increase in overexploited and collapsed combined stocks was 86, 76, 62 stocks per decade for the W, C, E Mediterranean, respectively, and 46 stocks per decade for the Black Sea.

When only stocks with more than 40 consecutive records were considered, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks in 2010 increased across subareas. It was 72% for the Black Sea, 65% for the W Mediterranean, 62% for the C Mediterranean and 61% for the E Mediterranean ( Fig. 8). The cumulative percentage of developing and recovering stocks was rather stable among subareas: 22% for the Black Sea, 18% for the W Mediterranean, 19% for the C Mediterranean and 18% for the E Mediterranean ( Fig. 8). Developing stocks were declining at a rate of 25, 36, 44 stocks per decade for the W, C, E Mediterranean, respectively, and 21 stocks per decade for the Black Sea. Overexploited and collapsed stocks were increasing at a rate of 44, 33, 38 stocks per decade for the W, C, E Mediterranean, respectively, and 13 stocks per decade for the Black Sea.

The exploitation pattern differed among the subdivisions of each subarea of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea ( Table 2). In 2010, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks exceeded 50% in all fishing subdivisions, except subdivisions 2.1 (Adriatic) and 3.2 (Levantine), which presented the lowest cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks ( Table 2). The degree of exploitation also varied among subdivisions. Subdivisions 1.2 (Lions Gulf), 3.1 (Aegean Sea), 4.1 (Marmara Sea) and 4.2 (main Black Sea) were the most heavily exploited ones with the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks exceeding 55% ( Table 2). The highest percentage of developing fisheries stocks were recorded in subdivision 2.1 (Adriatic) and the highest percentage of recovering stocks in subdivisions 4.2 (main Black Sea), 4.1 (Marmara) and 3.2 (Levantine) ( Table 2).

Comparison of the catch-based method with stock assessment data

The relationship between the F/F MSY ratio and the Y ₂₀₁₀/Y MAX ratio was expressed by an inverse power function ( Fig. 9), which shows that high fishing mortality rates may lead to low yields and stock collapses. According to the theoretical plot of this relationship ( Fig. 10, sensu [ 50, 51]), out of the 97 stocks from the entire Mediterranean Sea that were analyzed ( Fig. 9), 44 stocks (45%) were fully exploited, 48 (49%) were overexploited, and 5 stocks (6%) were collapsed. No undeveloped/developing stocks were recorded (data not shown).

Discussion

The results of the present work confirm, through the use of various indicators, that the fisheries resources of the Mediterranean and Black Sea are at risk from overexploitation. Similar conclusions on the overexploitation of these areas have been recently reported based on various datasets and approaches [ 5, 6, 19, 52]. According to all indicators that were explored here, as summarized in Table 3, the pattern of exploitation and the state of stocks differs among subareas. All indicators confirmed the worst shape of the E Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries compared to the W and C Mediterranean ones, none of which is underexploited. Indeed, in the E Mediterranean and the Black Sea, total catches, mTLc and FiB are declining, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks exceeded 50% and developing stocks were less than 10%. In contrast, in the W Mediterranean, total catches are rather stable, mTLc and FiB are increasing following a long decline, and developing stocks exceed 10%. Finally, in the C Mediterranean, mTLc and FiB are also increasing following a long decline, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks do not exceed 50% and developing stocks are 20%.

The number of records increased in all subareas as a result of the disaggregation and the finer taxonomic resolution in catch records, partly because of the EU Fisheries Data Collection Framework that is applied to the European countries of the northern Mediterranean coastline. The higher number of records in the W and C Mediterranean compared to the E one ( Fig. 2) agrees with the general biodiversity pattern in the Mediterranean Sea and reflects the number of species, which declines from northwestern to southeastern regions following the primary production gradient [ 35]. Specifically, the number of fish species that form the majority of catches decreases from western to eastern regions and is generally higher along the Mediterranean coastline [ 35].

Given that global fishing effort remains the same or increases with time, as it also does in the Mediterranean Sea [ 53], a decline in total catches, which is actually a decline in catch per unit of effort (CPUE), can be considered as a suspicion or indication of overfishing. There are a few well-documented examples where CPUE successfully tracks the stock size [ 54] but this is not always the case. In cases where fishing mortality follows predictable dynamics over time, catch data can be used to reconstruct biomass and potentially used for conducting data-poor assessments [ 55]. Declines in CPUE have been reported for the vast majority of FAO areas, including the Mediterranean Sea, where a drastic CPUE decline is apparent since the late 1990s [ 1]. The more or less stable total catches of the W Mediterranean, but with a declining trend during the last decade, is probably the result of exploiting new species, as revealed by the number of added records per year ( Fig. 2), and to improving management practices as revealed by the larger number of stocks that are regularly assessed [ 9]. The declining trend of C Mediterranean total catches after mid 1980s and of the E Mediterranean ones after mid 1990s ( Fig. 3), is a clear effect of excessive fishing mortality applied on these stocks [ 42] and the alteration and simplification of the food web structure over time as a result of fishing [ 35, 56]. Overfishing and its side effects on ecosystem have been blamed for the collapse of Black Sea fisheries in early 1990s and the decline in total catches [ 28]. Some catch fluctuations, however, especially those of the small and medium pelagic fishes that are highly represented in the catches, could be the result of climatic effects [ 57] or modifications in the planktonic production [ 58].

The trends of mTLc were declining for all subareas until about 2005, when they started to increase again for the W and C Mediterranean ( Fig. 4). The abrupt increase in the mTLc in the W Mediterranean after 2005 ( Fig. 4) may be attributed to either a decline in the catches of low trophic level species, or an increase in the catches of high trophic level species. In any case, this is a clear situation of fishing-up the marine food webs [ 8]. This mTLc increase, together with a simultaneous decline in catches, produced a rather stable FiB trend with a slight increasing tendency during the last decade ( Fig. 5). Since 2007, it seems that at least one ecosystem of the W Mediterranean (Gulf of Lions) has shifted to a different regime, which is characterized by low sardine and anchovy catches [ 58]. According to the same work [ 58], the landings of sardine and anchovy declined by 50% and 70%, respectively, which confirms the fishing-up effect of the last lustrum. Similarly, a decline in top predators and large sized fish, as well as an increase of lower trophic level species has been reported for another ecosystem of the W Mediterranean, the Catalan Sea [ 56]. The higher exploitation rate of demersal and large pelagic stocks in the Adriatic Sea since 1990 has lead to mTLc decline until about 2005, when mTLc started to increase again ( Fig. 4). The exact same pattern was apparent in FiB ( Fig. 5), which is a function of the mTLc, when catches are stable or follow the same trend. Similarly to the W Mediterranean, a long-term decline in large-sized, high trophic level species has been reported to occur during the same period for the Adriatic Sea [ 59], together with an increase in species positioned lower in the food web [ 60]. After 2005, the situation seems reversed, a pattern that was apparent in the FiB values as well. In the E Mediterranean Sea, the decline in mTLc ( Fig. 4), albeit at low rates compared to other areas, was continuous. Because of the low rate of mTLc decrease, FiB followed the fluctuation of catches [ 38]. A decline in mTLc for species with trophic level greater than 3.75 has been shown to occur for the Greek Seas [ 61], whereas stable mTLc values for all species have been recently reported for the same area [ 7]. Based on the latter, the decline in mTLc is more likely to occur because the Aegean Sea is being exploited both by the Greek and Turkish fishing fleets. Indeed, the trawling and dredging disturbance as well as the exploitation pattern is very high along the Aegean coastline and lower in the Levantine Sea [ 62], where the stocks are generally in a better shape ( Table 2). The collapse of the Black Sea fisheries in 1990 and the decline in the mTLc since then, is apparent in the FiB values that declined accordingly (Figs. 4 and 5). Indeed, a decrease in abundance of high trophic level species and an increase of low trophic level species has been reported to occur after 1990 for the Black Sea [ 63]. One of the reasons for the collapse of fisheries in the Black Sea was the invasion of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi, which preys upon the eggs and larvae of pelagic fish and may cause population declines [ 64].

Regarding the status of exploitation according to the catch-based method (Figs. 6 and 7), a few points can be considered encouraging compared to the current global pattern. Firstly, the percentage of developing stocks, and hence developing fisheries, is generally higher in all Mediterranean subareas and, secondly, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed ones is lower, when compared to an analysis on global fisheries [ 65] and the northeast Atlantic [ 51]. Developing stocks indicate the exploration of new fisheries and exploitation of new stocks or increasing stock biomass that is reflected upon catches, whereas recovering stocks indicate good or improving management practices applied on fisheries that had been previously depleted or collapsed [ 26]; but see also [ 66]. In the Adriatic Sea (C Mediterranean) the vast majority of demersal and large pelagic stocks had been classified as overfished since 2000, with the small and medium pelagic ones being in a better state [ 60]. In the Aegean Sea (E Mediterranean), about 65% of the Greek stocks were characterised as overexploited and 32% as fully exploited in 2007 [ 7], whereas the 85% of the Black Sea stocks are overexploited [ 29].

The use of stocks with consecutive records may limit the number of stocks included in the analysis but shows the fate of the catches of the same community through time and it is far less biased by the number of new records added each year [ 5]. When new species are added separately in the analysis (after disaggregation), they are by definition developing. Therefore, the percentage of developing stocks is being artificially increased and, at the same time, the percentage of the remaining categories proportionally decreased [ 7]. This bias is eliminated only when stocks with non-consecutive records are excluded and for that reason we re-analyzed the dataset including only stocks with consecutive records ( Fig. 8). Once this effect was removed, the cumulative percentage of overexploited and collapsed stocks increased across subareas and that of the developing ones decreased ( Fig. 8). The effect was more intense in W and C Mediterranean, where the number of stocks added each year was higher. This clearly indicates that the addition of new records may mask the true condition of stocks by increasing the percentage of developing ones [ 5]. The rate of increase of overexploited and collapsed consecutive stocks in the Black Sea was lower compared to other subareas because the actual number of stocks with consecutive records was very low (n = 78) compared to the non-consecutive ones (n = 283).

Finally, when the data from stock assessments was assembled and compared to the catch-based method ( Fig. 9), the pattern of the relationship between the F/F MSY and the Y ₂₀₁₀/Y MAX was similar to the F/F MSY against B/B MSY that has been recently published [ 50]. A comparison of Y ₂₀₁₀/Y MAX with B/B MSY would have been preferable because catch-based status predictions refer to biomass and not fishing mortality. However, B/B MSY values are not as commonly used in the Mediterranean stock assessments and are more biased compared to F/F MSY estimates. The results of this relationship (according to Fig. 10), i.e., that the majority of recently assessed stocks are either fully exploited or overexploited, imply that assessments are applied to stocks for which there is suspicion or indication for overexploitation. When not routinely performed, as it is the case for most Mediterranean species, stock assessments can be considered as snapshots of the stock state that may not necessarily reflect its true condition. The catch-based method may have some disadvantages related to the quality of data [ 50], but it provides a time series of the condition of all stocks in one area and can be used as a first indicator of ecosystem health or its response to fishing [ 26]. It should be noted here that, in general, trophodynamic indicators are considered rather conservative indicators of ecosystem health because they tend to respond slowly to structural ecosystem changes [ 38].

The findings of the present work, through the use of various indicators, clearly show that the Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries resources are at risk from overexploitation and that the degree of exploitation varies among subareas. They also sound the alarm bell for the remaining stocks and warn that cases of mismanagement should be abandoned [ 67]. Detailed and extensive stock assessments are required in relation to stock status and fishing mortality reference points, that will eventually lead to conservation policy through management measures.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Academic Editor of PLOS ONE Caroline Durif and two anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments that really improved our work.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: ACT. Performed the experiments: ACT AD VZT ET. Analyzed the data: ACT AD VZT ET. Wrote the paper: ACT.

References

1. 4. Hutchings JA, Myers RA. What can be learned from the collapse of a renewable resource? Atlantic Cod, Gadus morhua, of Newfoundland and Labrador. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 1994;51: 2126-2146

2. 39. Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase. In: Froese R. and Pauly D. (Editors). 2014. World Wide Web electronic publication. Available: http://www.fishbase.org.

3. 40. Palomares MLD, Pauly D. SeaLifeBase. In: Palomares MLD, Pauly D, editors. World Wide Web electronic publication. Available: http://www.sealifebase.org. 2013

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries at Risk from Overexploitation

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The status of the Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries was evaluated for the period 1970-2010 on a subarea basis, using various indicators including the temporal variability of total landings, the number of recorded stocks, the mean trophic level of the catch, the fishing-in-balance index and the catch-based method of stock classification.

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Example of species that is characterized Endangered (EN) according to the IUCN Red List is  Macrovipera schweizeri. 

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Example of species that is characterized Endangered (EN) according to the IUCN Red List is  Macrovipera schweizeri. 

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Species of Greece that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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Species of Greece that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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Established in 1964, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become the world's most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.

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   Habitat loss, fragmentation or degradation 

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   Habitat loss, fragmentation or degradation 

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The forests of Greece, as well as of the rest of the Mediterranean region, have been exposed to human activity. As a result, coastal forests and forests located in low altitude have been degraded due to their urbanisation and conversion into agricultural land. In Greece, the edges of the mountainous ecosystems (tree line) have been heavily influenced by human activities, especially through overgrazing and the exploitation of forests. These pressures have dropped a great deal and natural regeneration has reclaimed forest areas. Within 40 years (1925-1965) approximately 67% of the surface area of Greek wetlands has been drained, due to demand for housing and agricultural land. This has resulted mainly in the loss of marshes and a few lakes and rivers. Wetlands are the most threatened ecosystems in the Aegean archipelago and should be treated as such. 5 Climate change is expected to further intensify the loss and degradation of wetlands and their ability to provide man with goods and services.
The expansion of intensive farming in the lowlands and certain semimountainous/mountainous areas; the abandonment of traditional, extensive mountain agriculture and livestock farming; and the substitution of lush traditional agricultural landscapes by monocultures have spoiled the traditional agricultural landscapes, degraded agricultural ecosystems, and, lastly, have reduced biodiversity. Varieties of agricultural crops and species of bred animals that were perfectly adapted to local conditions no longer exist due to the above factors.

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THEME 3.-Threats to biodiversity in a changing climate

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THEME 3.-Threats to biodiversity in a changing climate

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Trophic pyramids depicting examples of ecological relations between species in Greece

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Trophic pyramids depicting examples of ecological relations between species in Greece

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Ecological niche of two characteristic animals

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Ecological niche of two characteristic animals

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Deer and Roe deer- Species with overlapping ecological niche and niche partitioning (share the same food).

Deers are distributed in almost all of Europe, Northern Africa, most of the mountain ranges of Southern Asia, Siberia, the Far East and Northern America. During the winter, they prefer to live in the forests, whereas during the summer they reach areas with higher altitude where the food is bountiful. In Greece, its numbers used to be high throughout the country; unfortunately, today it can only be found in the mountain of Parnis and in Rhodopi and Epirus in small concentrations.

Roe deer is the smallest species of deers. During the winter it can be seen in lower altitudes, while in the summer it moves higher depending on the availability of and the quantity of food. It can live in various forest habitats (deciduous or mixed conifer forests) and occurs in big numbers in central and northern Europe. In Greece, only small populations of roe deer have been left at the mountainous regions of the mainland. The species is now characterized as 'vulnerable', meaning that if it continues being exterminated it will soon face extinction.

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Example 2.                       Parasitic organisms

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Example 2.                       Parasitic organisms

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Fleas are small flightless insects that form the order Siphonaptera. As external parasites of mammals and birds, they live by consuming the blood of their hosts. Adults are up to about 3 mm (0.12 in) long and usually brown. Bodies flattened sideways enable them to move through their host's fur or feathers; strong claws prevent them from being dislodged. They lack wings, and have mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood and hind legs adapted for jumping. The latter enable them to leap a distance of some 50 times their body length, a feat second only to jumps made by froghoppers. Larvae are worm-like with no limbs; they have chewing mouthparts and feed on organic debris.

Over 2,500 species of fleas have been described worldwide. The Siphonaptera are most closely related to the snow scorpionflies (Boreidae), placing them within the endopterygote insect order Mecoptera.

(source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flea,https://www.thoughtco.com/can-fleas-live-on-people-1968296₎

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Example 1.                       Parasitic organisms

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Example 1.                       Parasitic organisms

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Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) is an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis.

The Varroa mite can only reproduce in a honey bee colony. It attaches to the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking fat bodies [1]. In this process, RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus (DWV) spread to bees. A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the late autumn through early spring. The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry. Varroa is considered to be one of multiple stress factors contributing to the higher levels of bee losses around the world.

(source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varroa_destructor,https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/01/16/tackling-bees-greatest-threat-lithium-chloride-kill-varroa-destructor-mites-without-harming-bees/₎

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ARCHELON Τhe Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece

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Despite the pandemic’s difficulties and uncertainty this past year, we managed to continue all sea turtle protection activities. We owe a big THANK YOU to the 421 volunteers, from afar and near, who arrived on the nesting beaches of Peloponnese, Zakynthos, Crete, and the Rescue Center in Glyfad…

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Εxample 2.                                                            Αnimals with a predator-prey relation

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Εxample 2.                                                            Αnimals with a predator-prey relation

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The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), or loggerhead, is an oceanic turtle distributed throughout the world. It is a marine reptile, belonging to the family Cheloniidae. The average loggerhead measures around 90 cm (35 in) long when fully grown, although larger specimens of up to 280 cm (110 in) have been discovered.
The loggerhead sea turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Its large and powerful jaws serve as an effective tool for dismantling its prey. Young loggerheads are exploited by numerous predators; the eggs are especially vulnerable to terrestrial organisms. Once the turtles reach adulthood, their formidable size limits predation to large marine animals, such as sharks.
Loggerhead turtles are common in Greece, mainly in Zakynthos, Peloponnese, and Crete, as these locales are home to important nesting areas for the turtles. While they are awkward on land, these little animals become agile creatures once in the water. The country has several care centers where volunteers and visitors from around the world can come and help and learn more about these fragile animals.

Kingdom: | Animalia
Phylum: | Chordata
Class: | Reptilia
Order: | Testudines
Suborder: | Cryptodira
Family: | Cheloniidae
Subfamily: | Carettinae
Genus: | Caretta
Rafinesque, 1814
Species: | C. caretta

(source: https://theculturetrip.com/europe/greece/articles/16-photos-of-wonderful-animals-youll-find-in-greece/,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggerhead_sea_turtle₎

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Εxample 1.                                                            Αnimals with a predator-prey relation

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Εxample 1.                                                            Αnimals with a predator-prey relation

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Brown Bears are found in many parts of North America and Eurasia, where the bears inhabit wooded and mountainous areas. The brown bear is also the national animal for a number of states in North America, Europe and Asia.
Brown bears tend to feed on vegetation, fish and small land mammals, but the bears will only occasionally hunt bigger mammals like deer. Brown bears don't seem to be a great threat towards humans, although the mother brown bears will protect their young bear cubs.

In Greece there are an estimated 450 bears living in two independent populations, which are not geographically linked. The largest population lives in the Pindos Mountains, and the other in the Rhodope Mountains. In recent years there has been consistent evidence of the presence of bears in the mountain axis of Vora-Olympos and Central Greece, even down to the mountainous Nafpaktia, an area where there have been no sightings in the last 70 years.

Brown Bear Facts

Kingdom: | Animalia
Phylum: | Chordata
Class: | Mammalia
Order: | Carnivora
Family: | Ursidae
Genus: | Ursus

Scientific Name: | Ursus Arctos
Type: | Mammal
Diet: | Omnivore
Size (H): | 1.5m - 2.8m (5ft - 9.2ft)
Weight: | 136kg - 390kg (300lbs - 860lbs)
Top Speed: | 56km/h (35mph)
Lifespan: | 20 - 30 years
Lifestyle: | Solitary
Conservation Status: | Endangered

Colour: | Brown, Black, Tan
Skin Type: | Fur
Favourite Food: | Fish
Habitat: | Forest and mountainous regions
Average Litter Size: | 3
Main Prey: | Fish, Fruit, Insects
Predators: | Human, Wolf, Cougar
Distinctive Features: | Powerful forearms and hibernate in the winter

(source: http://www.arcturos.gr/en, https://a-z-animals.com/animals/location/europe/greece/₎

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 Yellowstone National Park-Grey Wolf (Canis lupus)

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 Yellowstone National Park-Grey Wolf (Canis lupus)

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Why were grey wolves reintroduced in the Yellowstone National Park?
Answer
3.     The wolves were brought in because the increased elk population was overgrazing the deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood.

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Location: Greece is a country in Southern Europe, bordered to the north by Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria; to the east by Turkey, and is surrounded to the east by the Aegean Sea, to the south by the Cretan and the Libyan Seas, and to the west by the Ionian Sea which separates Greece from Italy.

Geology:  It is primarily a mountainous country, with 2/3 of its land being covered by medium-height mountains presenting strong relief features. It is also defined by its extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km) and the many island clusters in the Aegean and Ionian seas. It has a noted topographic diversity, with large number of islands, abrupt change from sea landscape to alpine landscape within a stretch of a few kilometres, extensive natural fragmentation of the land by numerous rivers, streams, gorges, valleys, peninsulas. It has complex geological history with volcanic activity and a wide variety of geological formations, large number of caves and other underground environments and rocks.

Climate:  Mediterranean with mild winters and dry summers, with 29 distinct climate zones described according to the Thornthwaite climate classification system, which the sea.

Main points:

It is a peninsular country

With an archipelago of about 3,000 islands of various sizes, with the largest being Crete

80% of Greece is mountainous

The climate can range from semi-desert to cold climate mountain forests
(sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Greece , https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf₎

A geographical map of Greece and its offshore territories.

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Volcano of Santorini : The volcano of Santorini is the most famous volcano in Greece. It has the largest caldera (crater) in the world with a height of 300m and a diameter of 11km. The special thing about this caldera is that it is actually sunken and filled with sea water. On the cliffs of the caldera, white sugar houses have been constructed offering breathtaking view. Boat tours depart from the old port of Fira in Santorini to the volcano, which is actually the island of Nea Kameni, formed by volcanic eruptions in the 16th century. The last eruption of the Santorini volcano was small and happened in 1950 and the volcanic is still active.

Volcano of Nisyros : The second most famous volcano in Greece is located on the small island of Nisyros, Dodecanese. This is the youngest of the large volcanic centres in Greece, only 160,000 years old. In 1872, a large eruption happened and created a crater of about 6 to 7 meters. In 1888, another eruption happened forming a crater of 25m diameter. In 1956, schisms emitting smoke were observed. Today the volcano of Nisyros is dormant. The largest crater that most tourists visit is Agios Stefanos, with a diameter and depth of 30m.

Volcano of Methana: The peninsula of Methana, on the north eastern side of Peloponnese, actually has 32 volcanoes that are mostly andesitic and dacitic lava domes. The volcanic activity in the peninsula started about one million years ago and in fact a large eruption took place in 230 BC. The last eruption of the Methana volcano happened in 1700. Today the volcano is dormant and many hiking and climbing tours are organized in the peninsula. Due to the volcanic activity, Methana also has famous thermal springs.

Volcano of Milos: The volcano of Milos island is also considered dormant. It is located in the centre of the island and has given to Milos its richness in minerals and its strange geological formation. The last volcanic eruption on Milos took place in 90,000 BC. Other smaller volcanoes in Greece are found in Kos island and on the islet of Gyali, between Kos and Nisyros. In places were volcanoes exist, there are also thermal springs, such as Thermes Beach in Kos, the Thermals of Methana and the Hot Springs in Santorini.
(source: www.greeka.com)

More informations about Santorini's Volocano

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Santorini (Thera) Volcano - Images and Information: Geology, Eruptive History incl. Minoan Eruption, Current Status

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Mount Olympus is formed of sedimentary rock laid down 200 million years ago in a shallow sea. Various geological events that followed caused the emergence of the whole region and the sea. Around one million years ago glaciers covered Olympus and created its plateaus and depressions. With the temperature rise that followed, the ice melted and the streams that were created swept away large quantities of crushed rock in the lowest places, forming the alluvial fans, that spread out all over the region from the foothills of the mountain to the sea.[1] The Geological Museum of Mount Olympus, located in Leptokarya, provides detailed information about the geological structure of the mountain.
(source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Olympus₎

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The Olympic Mountains were born in the sea. The basalts and sedimentary rocks that form the mass of these peaks were laid down 18 to 57 million years ago offshore, then uplifted, bent, folded and...

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Popular Mountains In Greece

1. Olympus: The highest mountain in Greece. There’s a reason it was thought by the ancients to be the home of the gods and Zeus’s throne. A grand mountain rich in flora and fauna, its highest peak Mytikas at 2,917m can be reached with a six to sevenhour hike, which you will find truly unforgettable. The great archaeological park of Dion is in  the foothills of the mountain.

2. Parnassus: The park encompasses  the famous sanctuary of Apollo, the oracle and archaeological site of Delphi, as well as  the popular mountain resort town of Arahova, which has excellent hotels and services for the large number of skiers who head towards the ski centres on the mountain.

3. Taygetos: The tallest peak of this mountain and the entire Peloponnese, which looks down on Sparta and Kalamata on either side, is Profitis Ilias at 2,404m. The mountain’s nickname is Pentadaktylos (five fingers), due to its resemblance to a closed human hand. Dozens of kilometres of marked trails await you.

4. Pelion: This mountain is known as the kingdom of the half-human, half-horse Centaurs in mythology. Pelion’s famous green slopes rise out of the sea. It is known for its fertility, running water, vast network of paths and scores of stone villages whose architecture and vigour attract visitors from around the world.

(source: ttps://www.discovergreece.com/en/mainland/mountains)

Picture of Mt Olympus

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The forests of Greece, as well as of the rest of the Mediterranean region, have been exposed to human activity. As a result, coastal forests and forests located in low altitude have been degraded due to their urbanisation and conversion into agricultural land. In Greece, the edges of the mountainous ecosystems (tree line) have been heavily influenced by human activities, especially through overgrazing and the exploitation of forests. These pressures have dropped a great deal and natural regeneration has reclaimed forest areas. Within 40 years (1925-1965) approximately 67% of the surface area of Greek wetlands has been drained, due to demand for housing and agricultural land. This has resulted mainly in the loss of marshes and a few lakes and rivers. Wetlands are the most threatened ecosystems in the Aegean archipelago and should be treated as such.

(source :https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf₎

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Greenpeace- Greece

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HELLENIC SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY AND PROTECTION OF THE MONK SEAL

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MOm / The Hellenic Society for the Study and Protection of the Monk seal is a Greek non-governmental environmental organization with the legal status of a Non-p

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ARCTUROS is a non profit, non governmental, environmental organization (NGO) founded in 1992, focusing on the protection of wildlife fauna and natural habitat, in Greece and abroad.

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Enter the only sanctuary of wild life...

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WWF-Greece

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περιβαλλοντική εκπαίδευση

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Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES)-related developments in Greece

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Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES)-related developments in Greece

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MAES-related developments in Greece

Technical-Methodological guide on the determination and assessment of the Ecosystem Types in Greece and their Ecosystem Services at national, regional and local scale (Deliverable of Life IP 4 Natura project)

The first glossary in Greek for MAES related studies [translation from the paper of Potschin-Young, M.; Burkhard, B.; Czúcz, B. and F. Santos-Martín (2018): Glossary of ecosystem services mapping and assessment terminology. One Ecosystem 3: e27110. https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.3.e27110], was delivered in the frame of the Life IP 4 Natura project.

Preparation of the National Set of Ecosystem Services (ES) Indicators: To be delivered in the end of October 2018 (in the frame of the Life IP 4 Natura project).

Preparation and submission for presentation at the ESP Regional Conference of the study entitled: "A multidisciplinary critical review of ecosystem services studies in Greece: approaches, shortcomings and the pathway to implementation", by Dimopoulos et al. (2018).
The present study aims to (i) synthesize the ecosystem services literature relevant to the ES implementation in Greece, (ii) validate and classify each literature source to the relevant ecosystem services categories, (iii) identify shortcomings in terms of ES assessed and data available, and (iv) critically review the variety of approaches to ES assessments that are followed. The outcomes of this study will facilitate the efficient implementation of ecosystem services assessments in Greece.

Preparation and submission for presentation at the ESP Regional Conference of the study entitled: "Ecosystem services as a tool for policy support and decision making: an exploratory assessment in a protected mountainous lake (Stymfalia, Greece)", by Kokkoris et al. (2018).
This is a large-scale study in a Natura 2000 protected area (Special Area for Conservation), which includes biophysical and social assessment as well as economic valuation for future scenarios, to support decision and policy making. This is the first study in Greece which uses all available datasets from EU funded Projects (e.g. Monitoring projects for Habitats, Water resources etc.), in a Natura 2000 site, develops future scenarios and provides economic valuation for key ecosystem services.

Preparation and submission for presentation at the ESP Regional Conference of the study entitled: "Insights from an exploratory assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Greece", by Vlami et al. (2018).
In this research we screen for and identify several CES indicators within the Natura 2000 Network of Greece, as well as outside the Network where data was available. This assessment resulted in the compilation of a set of indicators ranging from specialized outdoor recreation interests (such as nature-viewing infrastructure, rafting areas, sacred natural sites, etc.) to site characterization proxies (such as blue-flag beach designations, traditional agriculture, "mythical landscapes" etc.). The analysis revealed that some types of indicators show redundancy or/and are complementary, while others are extremely specialized (e.g. birdwatching hotspots). GIS analysis produced heat maps and hotspots complementing a prioritization scheme that assists in highlighting the cultural ecosystem services both at the protected area scale and broader regional scale. A key outcome of the study is that uncertainties are defined and major gaps in progress are expressed. Thus, the analyses provide a kaleidoscope effect that may be helpful in expressing screening-level state-wide CES evaluations.

Publication of the scientific paper entitled: "National scale ecosystem condition assessment with emphasis on forest types in Greece", by Kokkoris et al. (2018). https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.3.e25434
This is an online tool for the spatial distribution of plant taxa in the phytogeographical areas of Greece. It provides useful information on spatial patterns and biodiversity hot-spots in Greece. We use this large database of plant taxa for functional trait assignment to each plant taxon, especially the ones of high importance (endemic at different scales-national, regional, local, range-restricted, single-mountain and single-island endemics). The project "Floristic Diversity and Ecosystem Services in Greece" is related to the outputs of the Flora of Greece database and is currently in progress. With the aim to investigate the role of biodiversity in the provision and maintenance of multiple ecosystem services, the patterns of floristic diversity in Greece (total taxonomic- and endemic- diversity, exclusive total-, range-restricted- and endemic- diversity per phytogeographical region), as well as of the functional diversity for the exclusive endemics of the Peloponnesian mountains (regional scale) have been examined. Preliminary results include: (I) Assessment and mapping of "hot spot" areas considering a) their plant diversity, b) the quantitative representation of taxon richness in different habitat/ecosystem categories, c) the actual- and the potential- supply of ecosystem services. (II) Correlation of taxonomic indices with supplied ecosystem services per phytogeographical region. The synthesis of the examined diversity indices, their correlation and spatial congruence with ecosystems per phytogeographical region document the importance of each region for ecosystem services supply (actual and potential).

In the frame of the LIFE project Natura2000ValueCrete (The ecological services, social benefits and economic value of the Ecosystem Services in Natura 2000 sites in Crete), a workshop under the title: "Management of the NATURA 2000 sites: New challenges, good practices and consultation with society" was organized recently (8th October 2018) in the island of Crete.
A presentation by Prof. P. Dimopoulos gave emphasis on "the Ecosystem Services as a tool for sustainable management in the protected areas". Other participants/invited speakers discussed "the integration of the role of the protected areas in the sustainable development" (Prof. Ifigenia Kagalou). Representatives of the Ministry of the Environment and Energy presented the "framework for the Management Plans of the protected areas" (Melina Koutsogianni), as well as "the role of the Management Bodies to the implementation of Management actions within the protected areas" (Dr. Anastasia Dalaka).

Participation as a full partner in the Horizon 2020 Project "Mapping and Assessment for Integrated ecosystem Accounting (MAIA)".
Our contribution refers to biodiversity assessment and analyses, to the assessment of freshwater-related services (water quality and provision), as well as on economic valuation methods to fulfil the objectives of the project. This is the first approach to implement MAES -mapping, assessment and valuation- at regional scale in Greece.
Date: 11/10/2018

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Technical-Methodological guide on the determination and assessment of the Ecosystem Types in Greece and their Ecosystem Services at national, regional and local scale (Deliverable of Life IP 4 Natura project) The first glossary in Greek for MAES related studies [translation from the paper of Potschin-Young, M.; Burkhard, B.; Czúcz, B.

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Greece is host to an estimated 36,000 species of animals and plants. This number represents 23% of the total species described for Europe and could represent more than 2% of the species in the world. Αpproximately 32% of the species assessed by the European Red List of Species are present in Greece. For some of the taxonomic groups, the percentages of European species that occur in Greece are particularly high; such as dragonflies, butterflies and saproxylic beetles. Of the 1,883 species assessed that occur in Greece, the groups comprising the highest number of species are vascular plants, terrestrial molluscs, and butterflies. Of the total number of species assessed in the country 14%* are considered threatened and 8% are Near Threatened at the European level, and one species is already Extinct. Many of these species are endemic to Europe and are found nowhere else in the world. Species that are considered threatened at the European level and occur in Greece are found mostly in wetlands, rocky areas, forest and shrublands. These ecosystems require particular attention in order to ensure the habitats of these sensitive species remain.

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The direct causes of the loss of biodiversity in Greece: Loss, modification, degradation and fragmentation of natural and semi-natural habitats; Unsustainable practices used in several types of production activities; Climate change; Soil, water and air pollution; Biological Invasions; Forest fires.

The main underlying causes of biodiversity loss that need to be tackled: Lack of knowledge for the state and trends of various biodiversity components; Lack of vision and poor application of sustainability measures in the different economic sectors; Administrative delays in the implementation of physical planning; Poorly enforced existing legal and institutional provisions; Underfinancing of actions related to conservation of genetic resources; Lack of stable management of protected areas

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Diversity of ecosystems: It is similarly mirrored in the diversity of the landscape, which changes in several parts of Greece from a marine to an alpine landscape within a stretch of only a few kilometres. The semi-arid landscapes of eastern Crete, the northern parts of Rhodope, and the alpine regions of Olympus, Smolikas, Tymphe, Voras and other mountain ranges in Northern Greece are only a few of the uniquely beautiful landscapes in the country.

Diversity of species: Greece is characterised by a rich fauna and flora, a high number of fungi species, and a wide array of ecosystems and landscapes. Also, a high proportion of the country’s species are unique worldwide, i.e. there is high endemism.

(source: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf₎

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Category:Endemic fauna of Greece - Wikipedia

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This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.

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This category includes the endemic and native plants of .

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Regarding Greece’s fauna, until now 23130 animal species have been recorded in the country’s terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, of which 3956 are characterised as Greek endemics. Furthermore, 3500 animal species have been recorded in the Greek marine environment. Approximately 14% of all vertebrate species are considered endangered.

Exaple of endemic fauna: Hellenolacerta graeca
The Greek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca) is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae. Endemic to Greece, its natural habitats are temperate forests, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, rocky areas, and pastureland. It is threatened by habitat loss.

(sources: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_rock_lizard)

Picture of Greek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca).

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According to the most recent surveys, Greek flora includes 5752 species and 1893 subspecies of vascular plants, which cumulatively represent 6600 taxa that belong to 1072 genera and 185 families. Greece is also one of the world’s hotspots for endemic plants, with 1278 endemic species (22.2% of all species present) and 452 endemic subspecies, which cumulatively represent 1461 taxa (22.1% of all taxa present in Greece).
Exaple of endemic plant: Lilium rhodopeum
A European species of plants in the ily family. It is endemic to the Rhodopi Mountains of Bulgaria and Greece, where it is found in alpine meadows and on mountain slopes. It is as critically endangered and listed as a IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) red list threatened species. This Balkan endemic can be found in Bulgaria and Greece where it is native to the Rhodopi mountains from which it takes it name.
(sourses: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_rhodopeum₎

Flower of L. rhodopeum

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Endemism/Species richness: The topografy and the climate of the country have contributed to the greatbiological wealth of the country, which consists of a particularly abundant flora andfauna that includes a large number of endemic plant and animal species, and a widevariety of ecosystems and landscapes. Many endemic species have a very limitedspread (e.g. on a single island). Due to its high level of endemism and seeing as it isone of the last refuges for many endangered and rare – to the rest of Europe – species,Greece is of great importance to European and Mediterranean flora and fauna. This isalso confirmed by the large number of habitat types and species of European interest(EU Habitats Directive).

(source: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf₎

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Several terrestrial and marine areas of Greece are considered as hot spots for biodiversity conservation at a regional and global scale. Conservation of endangered species and the establishment of protected areas both on land and at sea are by far the most recognisable targets of biodiversity related policies and several species such as wetland birds, birds of prey, sea turtles, monk seals have become emblematic for a number of habitats and protected areas.

NATURA 2000 network and protected areas in Greece

(sourse: http://geodata.gov.gr/dataset/to-diktuo-natura-2000-kai-prostateuomenes-periokhes₎