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Requires the translation of thoughts into the written word.
Involves 2 distinct processes:
- Text generation: transfer of ideas into representations in language; commonly referred to written expression.
- Transcription: translation of such language, mostly common through handwriting or spelling.

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Pre-writing

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D'Nealian handwriting program:
Purpose- to reduce teaching r learning time by establishing the letter formations, rhythm, size, slant and spacing that will be used for cursive writing.
- Continuous skill progression with transition fro manuscript to cursive.
Handwriting without Tears (HWT):
Program pays specific attention to the developmental progression of fine motor skills, & provides teacher guidance in facilitating posture and pencil grasp.
- uses a multi-sensory approach

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Mixed Script:
- use simplified script that combines elements of both manuscript and cursive writing
Keyboarding:
- beneficial for students who have significant problems with fine motor coordination
Voice-recognition software:
- for students who have motoric difficulties with handwriting and keyboarding (some students with cerebral palsy)

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Handwriting Assessment:
Limited diagnostic options available on handwriting.
Most common assessment tools are teacher observations & informal techniques
Spelling Assessment:
There are a plethora of achievement tests.
Stages of spelling proficiency:
- Precommunicative spelling:
Spellers strings letters together without regarding letter-sound correspondence.
- Semiphonetic spelling:
Letters represent sound, but only some of the letters are represented.
- Phonetic spelling:
Words are spelled as they sound as the speller represents all the phonemes in a word
- Transitional spelling:
Visual spelling patterns are apparent o spellings ex-hibit conventions of english orthography such as vowels in every syllable, vowel digraph patterns...
Written expression assessment:
Formal writing instruments
-TEWL-3
-TOWE
-TOWL-4
-OWLS-II

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-builds on all other language domains
-narrative, informative, and persuasive purposes
Writing Strategies:
-writing models (3 stages...Pre writing(planning or organizing), writing (drafting of ideas into sentences or paragraphs), and post-writing (re-visions and editing).

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-improves decoding performance
-students with & without problems benefit from basic skills instruction
General teaching strategies:
-Mnemonic strategies
-Invented spellings

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-Setting the purpose
-need of time to write
-classroom environment
-motivation

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Stages in writing development:
(students through 1st grade)
-learning how to hold a pencil
-recognizing upper- and lowercase
-writing names & common words
(as students progress):
-forming upper- and lower case manuscript
-learning to read cursive
-developing personal style
-joining letters

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-incorporates craft & content aspects
-Vocabulary usage, sentence form, paragraph sense, and overall sequence of ideas.

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Capitalization- Have I capitalized first word and proper nouns?
Overall appearance- Have I made handwriting, margin, messy, or spacing errors?
Punctuation- Have I used end punctuation, commas, and semicolons correctly?
Spelling- Do the words appear to be spelled correctly?

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-students cannot see letters adequately
-difference in physical orientation. right-handed students pull arms toward their bodies as they write, whereas left-handed students move their left hand across what they have written.