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Congratulations graduate. You have completed almost two decades of education. With graduation done it might be scary or overwhelming to think about the next chapter in your life. Although daunting, professional life is definitely rewarding and is rife with amazing opportunities for growth. To make the transition a little easier, here are some key tips to remember before entering the workforce.

14. Define your version of success
Success will mean something different to everyone; there is not a one-size-fits-all version. Working out what success means to you is far more worthwhile than chasing after some cookie cutter definition that does not fit. Define success in your terms, and work towards those goals. Don't let society define what you should have and what you should want out of life.

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14 Tips for Graduates Entering Today's Workforce

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Congratulations graduate. You have completed almost two decades of education. With graduation done it might be scary or overwhelming to think about the next chapter in your life. Although daunting, professional life is definitely rewarding and is rife with amazing opportunities for growth.

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Exporting to Nigeria - Market Overview | export.gov

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Do you want to export to Nigeria? Start by using the Country Commercial Guide, a trusted resource for companies at every level of exporting experience. Our guides are produced by trade experts at U.S. embassies and consulates in more than 140 countries.

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There's a mad dash in the professional world to improve diversity. Every high-profile company is working to boost the statistics in hopes of a favorable public profile - one in which people from all backgrounds and ethnicities are welcome. The tech industry, especially, is at the forefront of this diversity movement as it's come under fire more than other business categories. However, diversity statistics are just that - statistics. Without inclusion, diversity just creates another problem. That problem is tokenism.

Tokenism is defined as the following: "the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting a small number of people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of sexual or racial equality within a workforce." There are quite a few definitions floating around out there but this one hits the nail on the head.

Tokenism, and the misguided diversity attempts it stems from, simply gives the appearance of equality without achieving it. Think of the person who tries to prove they aren't a racist by pointing out their one black friend. Or another person who thinks having a lone gay friend makes them a supporter of the LGBTQ community.

Tokenism is an empty movement with no real impact beyond confusion and frustration. It gives companies a false sense of achievement. Okay, we've hired more black engineers. We can check that off our to-do list. But empty movements can't possibly be considered action. Simply checking an item off a list to protect a company's public image isn't enough.

After all, diversity was never meant to focus only on numbers and skin tone or gender. The diversity movement was meant to pull ideas and strengths from a wide variety of workers. Together, these people from different backgrounds could innovate and dream up truly astonishing solutions. It wasn't a statistics project. Diversity was supposed to have an impact.

The ripples of tokenism are being felt in every direction. In a 2014 Huff Post piece, writer Marilyn Nagel took corporate America to task for using female executives as a way to avoid criticism - instead of hiring them for their talents.

In March of this year, Utah Business published a piece about the importance of creating a welcoming environment for both women and minorities. But it strongly discourages tokenism. Each company should look for the best person to fill an open position - first and foremost. But additionally, they should be open to and aware of the vast options they have to do so.

The danger in tokenism is that it masks inactivity. On paper, it looks as though companies are making progress. When 20% of the board is female or 15% of leadership is Hispanic, the numbers are motivational. But the telltale sign of success is what these hires contribute. Are they making presentations? Are they introducing big ideas in important meetings? Are they spearheading major company initiatives? Do they truly have a seat at the table or are they just there as figureheads for "diversity"?

Tokenism isn't solving any problems. It's only making them worse.

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Tokenism: The Result of Diversity Without Inclusion

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There's a mad dash in the professional world to improve diversity. Every high-profile company is working to boost the statistics in hopes of a favorable public profile - one in which people from all backgrounds and ethnicities are welcome. The tech industry, especially, is at the forefront of this diversity movement as it's come under fire more than other business categories.

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Soft skills are the single biggest success indicator of personal and professional success 85% of success is determined by soft skills 35 years of experience providing educational assessment solutions Incredible resource below with 15+ videos and sample soft skills assessment test Learn More

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US President Donald Trump, on the campaign trail, labelled NAFTA "the worst trade deal" ever signed by the US.

Trump blames NAFTA for wiping out US manufacturing jobs because it allowed companies to move factories to Mexico where labour is cheaper.

In April 2017, US President threatened to pull out of the trade agreement. Canada and Mexico insisted to renegotiate it instead, and Trump agreed.

Here is what NAFTA is all about.

What is NAFTA?

NAFTA stands for the North American Free Trade Agreement to lift tariffs (taxes on imports and exports) on virtually all goods traded among the US, Canada, and Mexico.

NAFTA came into effect on January 1, 1994, after it was signed on December 17, 1992 by:

US President George H.W. Bush

Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney

Mexican President Carlos Salinas

What is the purpose of NAFTA?

The aim of NAFTA was to make it easier for companies in the three countries to do business across borders.

The argument for NAFTA was that - by boosting economic integration - there would be increased economic prosperity in all three countries.

Can Trump pull out of NAFTA?

As per the NAFTA agreement, a country can withdraw from it after giving six months notice.

In the US, Trump can set that in motion without congressional approval. In April he requested a renegotiation of the terms of the NAFTA agreement.

Has the US lost jobs because of NAFTA?

Researchers have found mixed effects on the US labour force. Some industries have shrunk, while others have grown.

The Economic Policy Institute said in 2013 that some 700,000 jobs had been lost as production moved to Mexico - with California, Texas, and Michigan among the worst hit states.

A 2014 report from the Peterson Institute for International Economics said that at most 5 percent of dislocated US workers could be traced to imports from Mexico. It said over four million Americans lose their jobs each year by plant shutdowns and mass layoffs, regardless of trade.

A nonpartisan report by congress published in 2015 said, "NAFTA did not cause the huge job losses feared by the critics or the large economic gains predicted by supporters".

Who benefits from NAFTA and who loses?

Since NAFTA, trade quadrupled among the three countries, surpassing $1tn in 2015, reported Reuters news agency.

Economists Shushanik Hakobyan and John McLaren studied NAFTA's effect on the US labour market in 2016. They found a severe impact on income among blue-collar workers in the most affected industries and areas.

College-educated workers were less likely to be affected, they said, and executives saw some benefits.

"The most affected workers were college dropouts working in industries that depended heavily on tariff protections in place prior to NAFTA. These workers saw wage growth drop by as much as 17 percentage points relative to wage growth in unaffected industries," McLaren told UVA Today.

If NAFTA is not to blame for manufacturing job losses, what is?

It is difficult to separate effects of NAFTA from other developments.

Economists note that manufacturing employment was already in decline before NAFTA was signed.

Much of the decline can be attributed to automation in US industry. Companies have been able to increase output with fewer workers.

Also, US tariff cuts on Mexican trade under NAFTA were implemented at roughly the same time as tariff cuts with most other countries as the US entered the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.

Competition from Chinese exports increased during the same time period and boomed as China joined the WTO in 2001. Economists are more united in the view that the US has lost more jobs to China than to Mexico.

What is NAFTA's impact on Mexico and Canada?

According to the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), NAFTA gave a major boost to Mexican farm exports to the US, which have tripled since NAFTA's implementation. Hundreds of thousands of Mexican auto-manufacturing jobs have also been created, and most studies have found that the pact had a positive impact on Mexican productivity and consumer prices.

But there are significant downsides: Mexico's economy grew at an average rate of just 1.3 percent a year between 1993 and 2013 during a period when Latin America was undergoing a major expansion, and poverty remains at similar levels to 1994, while mass unemployment has increased.

Some believe that, instead of fulfilling its promise of providing cheaper food to Mexicans, NAFTA deepened Mexico's dependency on food imports, leaving it unprotected from volatility in international food prices and exchange rates, reported Al Jazeera recently.

On Wednesday, thousands of Mexican farmers and workers took to the streets demanding that NAFTA be abandoned. They argue that the deal has devastated Mexican small farms, which struggle to compete with US imports.

Canada has seen strong gains in cross-border investment in the NAFTA era, according to the CFR: Since 1993, US and Mexican investments in Canada have tripled. Canadian agriculture, in particular, saw a boost, while employment in Canadian manufacturing held steady.

However, the "productivity gap" between the Canadian and US economies remains wide: Canada's labour productivity remains at 72 percent of US levels.

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What is NAFTA and why does Trump want it renegotiated?

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US President Donald Trump, on the campaign trail, labelled NAFTA "the worst trade deal" ever signed by the US. Trump blames NAFTA for wiping out US manufacturing jobs because it allowed companies to move factories to Mexico where labour is cheaper. In April 2017, US President threatened to pull out of the trade agreement.

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BEIJING - Sony will set up two joint ventures to make and market PlayStation consoles and games in China, the company's Chinese partner said on Monday.

One venture will be responsible for the PlayStation's hardware, while the other will be focused on software, Sony's partner in China, the Shanghai Oriental Pearl Group, said in a filing to the Shanghai Stock Exchange. A conglomerate, Shanghai Oriental Pearl has tourism, property, media and investment arms.

Separately on Monday, Sony's chief executive, Kazuo Hirai, said in Tokyo that the company hoped to increase sales of the PlayStation 4 console, turning it into a main driver of the company's fast-growing network and streaming services business, which in turn would spur interest across Sony's product categories.

Mr. Hirai said its game business was the one area in which Sony would try to sell more products even as it emphasized profitability over sales volume across the rest of its electronics division.

Mainland China is likely to be a difficult market for game consoles, which were banned from 2000 until this past January. Piracy and smuggling of consoles is rife, and the Chinese market for games is very different from traditional console markets like Japan, Europe and the United States, because Chinese gamers predominantly play computer and mobile games.

Chinese game developers and publishers have also adopted a "free to play" model in which games are initially free but can make money by selling in-game upgrades like extra lives and special weapons. Console makers traditionally generate their money from the sale of the console and games alone.

Sony and Shanghai Oriental Pearl are collaborating in response to the suspension of the ban on game consoles within Shanghai's free trade zone, according to Sony Computer Entertainment, which is the unit responsible for the PlayStation.

One of the ventures will have registered capital of 10 million renminbi, or $1.6 million, and will be 51 percent owned by Shanghai Oriental Pearl Culture Development, a subsidiary of the group, and 49 percent owned by Sony's China operation, Shanghai Oriental Pearl said in the filing.

The other venture will have registered capital of 43.8 million renminbi and will be 30 percent owned by Shanghai Oriental Pearl Culture Development and 70 percent owned by Sony's China arm.

Sony's move comes one month after Microsoft and its joint-venture partner, BesTV New Media, announced they would introduce Microsoft's Xbox One game console in China in September.

In April, the Shanghai government said console makers would be able to manufacture and sell consoles in mainland China through "foreign-invested enterprises" in the city's free trade zone, after temporarily lifting the ban on consoles in January.

Mainland China's ban on game consoles had cited their negative effect on the mental health of its youth.

A version of this article appears in print on , on Page B2 of the New York edition with the headline: Sony Forms Joint Ventures for PlayStation in China. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

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Sony Forms Joint Ventures in China for PlayStation

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BEIJING - Sony will set up two joint ventures to make and market PlayStation consoles and games in China, the company's Chinese partner said on Monday. One venture will be responsible for the PlayStation's hardware, while the other will be focused on software, Sony's partner in China, the Shanghai Oriental Pearl Group, said in a filing to the Shanghai Stock Exchange.

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The bandwagon effect is also described as one of the effects or results of cognitive bias. The term cognitive bias is used in reference with deviation from a path which would lead to a correct decision. Herd effect is a derogatory term used to describe the bandwagon effect. Herd effect or herd mentality cuts across all age groups, and is one of the common traits found in varying degrees in people around the world. However, adolescents are more vulnerable to developing this instinct.

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Did You Know the Amazing Psychology Behind the Bandwagon Effect?

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The bandwagon effect is also described as one of the effects or results of cognitive bias. The term cognitive bias is used in reference with deviation from a path which would lead to a correct decision. Herd effect is a derogatory term used to describe the bandwagon effect.

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The clan-culture philosophy is that happy employees are creative, productive employees.

Ciaran Griffin/Lifesize/Getty Images

In their 1999 book, "Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture," Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn listed four basic types of business cultures: the Hierarchy, the Market, the Adhocracy, and the Clan cultures -- with the "clan" culture being the most laid-back one on the list. This type of business focuses on its employees; it operates like an extended family with common goals and shared values. Leaders believe that success comes from a long-range plan and collaborative "family" effort rather than a short-term focus and internal competition. The clan culture values flexibility, employee autonomy and teamwork rather than competition or conformity. While this business culture has many positive features, there are also some potential disadvantages.

Lack of Diversity

A business with a clan culture tends to be a homogeneous organization. While employees with common beliefs, goals or even demographic characteristics may make united effort easier, it also robs the organization of the benefits of diversity. A different pair of eyes is sometimes all that is needed to solve a business problem, but if all the eyes are looking at the problem in the same way, a solution may be less likely or discovered more slowly.

Lack of Dissent

Since a clan-culture business puts a premium on teamwork, its employees may be hesitant to voice dissenting opinions or to fight for an unpopular idea even if they believe it's the best plan. If the group has a blind spot -- such as a prejudice or a shared wrong assumption -- it may also be implemented, with unhappy results, because no one wanted to challenge the group wisdom. Cameron and Quinn's "clan" culture is also known as the "collaborative" culture because of its emphasis on reaching common agreement on important decisions.

Potential for Abuse

A clan culture is open, friendly and arguably more appreciative of its employees than any other. However, this comfortable culture is vulnerable to abuse if employees use its tolerance as an opportunity to relax rather than an opportunity to contribute. Employees are given freedom and autonomy, and while many respond with gratitude and diligence, others may use the freedom to loaf or to conduct their own business on company time.

Lack of Authority

Clan-culture leaders assume a mentoring role toward employees -- some even compare it to the role of a parent inside a family. The lines of authority are not clearly defined inside a clan-culture business, since decisions are often made independently by employees or by common agreement. This lack of a clearly-defined chain of command can be a disadvantage in situations where a crucial decision must be made quickly, and there is no time for group deliberation. It may also be problematic if there is an even split between employees on an important issue. Without a strong authority figure, good ideas that need a champion may also be abandoned simply because they couldn't get a majority vote.

About the Author

Mary Strain's first byline appeared in "Scholastic Scope Magazine" in 1978. She has written continually since then and has been a professional editor since 1994. Her work has appeared in "Seventeen Magazine," "The War Cry," "Young Salvationist," "Fireside Companion," "Leaders for Today" and "Creation Illustrated." She earned her Bachelor of Arts in English from Oglethorpe University in Atlanta.

Photo Credits

Ciaran Griffin/Lifesize/Getty Images

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The Disadvantages of Clan Culture in Business

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In their 1999 book, "Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture," Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn listed four basic types of business cultures: the Hierarchy, the Market, the Adhocracy, and the Clan cultures -- with the "clan" culture being the most laid-back one on the list.

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Essays, Research Papers and Articles on Business Management

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After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Span of Management 2. Factors Affecting Span of Management 3. Graicunas Theory.
Meaning of Span of Management:

Depending upon the complexity of organisational activities and relationships amongst superiors and subordinates, it becomes important the superiors manage an optimum number of subordinates that result in optimum organisational output. All the subordinates cannot be managed by one superior. There has to be a limit on the number of subordinates who can be effectively managed by one superior.

The number of subordinates that a superior can effectively supervise is known as span of management or span of control. In the 19th and middle of 20th century, management writers determined 5 or 6 as the optimum number that a manager could effectively manage at the upper level.
Beyond this number, managers faced problems like:
1. Overburdened with work.

2. Difficulty in coordinating the activities of large number of people.

3. Difficulty in controlling.

Thus, optimum number of subordinates that a manager could supervise was determinable but today, it is not so. Exact number of employees that managers can effectively supervise cannot be defined. Span of management is situational in nature.
Depending on the number of employees that can be supervised or controlled by managers, there can be two kinds of structures in the organisation:
I. Tall structures, and

II. Flat structures.
I. Tall structures:
These structures are found in classical bureaucratic organisations. In this structure, a manager can supervise less number of subordinates. He can, therefore, exercise tight control over their activities. This creates large number of levels in the organisation. This is also known as narrow span of control. A tall structure or a narrow span of control appears like this.

Merits of a Tall Structure:

1. Managers can closely supervise activities of the subordinates.

2. There can be better communication amongst superiors and subordinates.

3. It promotes personal relationships amongst superiors and subordinates.
Limitations of a Tall Structure:
4. Control on subordinates can be tightened in a narrow span.

1. It creates many levels in the organisation structure which complicates co-ordination amongst levels.

2. More managers are needed to supervise the subordinates. This increases the overhead expenditure (salary etc.). It is, thus, a costly form of structure.

3. Increasing gap between top managers and workers slows the communication process.

4. Decision-making becomes difficult because of too many levels.

5. Superiors perform routine jobs of supervising the subordinates and have less time for strategic matters.

6. Employees work under strict control of superiors. Decision-making is primarily centralised. This restricts employees' creative and innovative abilities.

7. Strict control leads to low morale and job satisfaction. This can affect productivity in the long-run.

To overcome the limitations of a tall structure, many organisations reduce the number of levels in the hierarchy by downsizing the organisation. Downsizing is "the process of significantly reducing the layers of middle management, expanding spans of control and shrinking the size of the work force."
II. Flat Structures:
Many companies downsize their work force through the process of restructuring. Restructuring is "the process of making a major change in organisation structure that often involves reducing management levels and also possibly changing some major components of the organisations through divestiture and/or acquisition."

"The most common and most serious symptom of mal-organisation is multiplication of the number of management levels. A basic rule of organisation is to build the least possible number of management levels and forge the shortest possible chains of command." - Peter F. Drucker
The levels in case of organisation B(5) where span of control is 4 appears as follows:
These structures have a wide span of control. When superior supervises a larger number of subordinates, flat structure is created with lesser number of hierarchical levels. A departure was made from tall structures to flat structures by James C. Worthy who was a consultant in the L. Sears, Roebuck and company.

A structure where span of control for each managerial position is 4 appears as follows:

To illustrate, if organisations A and B, both have 256 workers and the span of control for each managerial position is 2 for company A and 4 for company B, there will be 9 levels in company A (requiring 128 supervisors at the lowest level, 64 at the next higher level and so on) and 5 levels in company B. A narrow span of control creates more levels in the organisational hierarchy than the wide span of control.

(The span of 4 prevails for each functional area at each level). For the sake of simplicity, the figure represents the span for only one functional area and one level.

Merits of a Flat Structure:

1. There is low cost as less number of managers can supervise organisational activities.

2. The decision-making process is effective as superiors delegate authority to subordinates. They are relieved of routine matters and concentrate on strategic matters. The decision-making is decentralised.
Limitations of a Flat Structure:
3. Subordinates perform the work efficiently since they are considered worthy of doing so by the superiors.

4. There is effective communication as the number of levels is less.

5. It promotes innovative abilities of the top management.

1. Superiors cannot closely supervise the activities of employees.

2. Managers may find it difficult to co-ordinate the activities of subordinates.

3. Subordinates have to be trained so that dilution of control does not affect organisational productivity.
The following factors help in determining the suitable span of management: 1. Competence of managers: 2. Nature of work:
Both tall and flat structures have positive and negative features and it is difficult to find the exact number of subordinates that a manager can effectively manage. Some management theorists like David D. Van Fleet and Arthur G. Bedeian assert that span of control and organisational efficiency are not related and many empirical studies have proved that span of control is situational and depends on a variety of factors.
3. Assistance to managers: 4. Competence of subordinates: 5. Plans and policies:
Some studies proved that flat structures produce better results as decentralised decision making has less control from the top, promotes initiative and satisfaction at work. Large number of members in a group can better solve the complex problems as group decision making is based on greater skill variety.
6. Organisational level: 7. Authority-responsibility structure: 8. System of control: 9. Financial factors:
Other studies proved that people working in tall structures produce better results as less number of members in a group can come to consensus of opinion and evaluate their decisions more thoroughly. Group cohesiveness is high and, thus, commitment to decisions is also high. Members feel satisfied with their decisions and conflicts are reduced.

Factors Affecting Span of Management:

If managers are competent in their jobs, they can have a wide span of management. Competence of managers is judged by their ability to make decisions related to motivational plans, leadership styles, communication channels and chains, techniques of control etc. Managers who rank high on these parameters can effectively supervise larger number of subordinates.
The kind of relationships and the formulae for arriving at the number of relationships is as follows: Graicunas identified three types of relationships:
If employees perform similar and repetitive work, managers can supervise large number of subordinates and, thus, have a wide span of control. Non-repetitive and challenging work requires narrow span of control. Changes in the nature of work also affects the span of management.

Frequent changes as a result of dynamic environment support a narrow span as superiors frequently have to direct the activities of subordinates. Stability in the nature of work supports a wide span of management as superiors' directions are not frequently required to carry out the work processes.

If managers have access to technical or secretarial assistance, a larger group of subordinates can be managed. Span of control can, therefore, be wide. Staff assistance can be useful for collecting and processing information related to various decisions and issuing orders to the subordinates. Managers save time in communicating with subordinates, direct the activities of larger number of subordinates and focus on other strategic organisational matters.
1. Direct single relationship:
If subordinates are competent to manage their jobs without much assistance from the superiors, span of control can be wide. Competent subordinates do not require frequent directions from the superiors with respect to various organisational activities. Superiors can thus, manage a larger group of subordinates.
2. Direct group relationships:
If plans clearly define the organisational/individual goals and policies, superiors can supervise a larger group of subordinates and have a wide span of control. Clearly defined plans include well-formulated policies procedures, methods etc. Particularly, if standing plans are well defined, subordinates know the broad guidelines within which they have to make decisions in similar and repetitive situations.
For one superior (X) and three subordinates (A, B, C), there will be 9 direct group relationships as follows:
They do not approach the superiors every time they face a similar problem-solving situations. Superiors can, thus, manage a larger group of subordinates. However, if most of the decisions are made by resorting to single use plans (programmes, budgets, projects etc.), managers have to be frequently approached and the span can, thus, be narrow.

The top executives look after important and specialised activities and, therefore, the span is narrow at the top level but at lower levels the span can be wide, since supervisors are mainly concerned with routine jobs. According to J.C. Worthy, a manager can supervise as many as 20 subordinates at the lower levels.

If authority-responsibility structure is well-defined and understood, superiors can supervise larger number of subordinates. People work within the confines of their responsibility and take directions from superiors only when required. Lack of clarity in authority-responsibility structure will create confusion in the organisation. Jobs and who will perform which job, who is accountable to whom will not be clear. In such a situation, managers cannot supervise a large group of subordinates. The span of management will, thus, be narrow.

Effective techniques of control can enable the manager to supervise larger number of subordinates. Effective system of control promotes decentralisation. Superiors do not actively involve in the decision-making processes as decisions are taken at the levels where they are required. There is extensive delegation, clarity of jobs, authority-responsibility relationships and freedom to take decisions. The span of control can, thus, be wide.

Both narrow and wide structures have financial constraints. A narrow span requires more managers and is, thus, a costly form of structure. Wide span, on the other hand, may result into organisational inefficiencies. Proper balance has to be maintained between the costs and benefits of the span that a manager can effectively supervise.

These factors are situational in nature and the span of management is also, thus, situational. Sometimes it can be narrow and sometimes wide. For the same organisation, it can be different for different functional areas and different levels. The span is usually narrow in the finance department and wide in the marketing department for the same level. It may be different in different organisations for the same functional areas and levels.

Graicunas Theory on Span of Management:

A French management consultant, V.A. Graicunas, introduced a theory on span of management which explains three kinds of relationships that a superior can have with subordinates. He formulated a theory and suggested the number of subordinates under one superior based on mathematical calculations. Superior-subordinate relationships are based on mathematical formulae.

1. Direct single relationships,
The number of relationship (9) is represented by the formula: 3. Cross relationships:
2. Direct group relationships, and
These are between:
3. Cross relationships.

This is the relationship between the superior and his immediate subordinates. It represents direct contact of the superior with his subordinates. If there are 3 subordinates (A, B and C) under one superior (X), there will be three direct single relationships, represented by the formula n. These are relationships between X and A, X and B, and X and C.

This is the relationship of superior with subordinates in the presence of other subordinates. All possible combinations of superior and subordinate relationship-exist in group relationships. It represents contact of the superior with one or more subordinates while others (one or more) assist the relationships.

1. X and A with B providing assistance

2. X and A with C providing assistance

3. X and B with C providing assistance

4. X and A with BC providing assistance

5. X and B with AC providing assistance

6. X and C with AB providing assistance

7. X and AB with C providing assistance

8. X and AC with B providing assistance

9. X and BC with A providing assistance

While the subordinates work under the same superior, they also interact amongst themselves. These are the relationships amongst subordinates. As interaction with B and B's interaction with A will be different as viewed by the managers and, therefore, this relationship will also be different. Based on the formula n (n -1), with 3 subordinates, 6 such relationships will be formed.

A and B

Band A

A and C

C and A

B and C

C and B

With every increase in the number of subordinates by one, increase in the number of relationships is by more than one. While, with 2 subordinates, the total number of relationships is 6, with 3 subordinates, it is 18.

The theory does not seem to have any practical application as it emphasises on the number of relationships and not on the importance of relationships. Based on Gaicunas' theory, many other management thinkers also suggested numerical limits on the span of management, ranging from 3 to 9 for top managerial positions and 8 to 30 for supervisory management. More than the number of subordinates that can affect the ability to manage the subordinates, managerial effectiveness is judged by the situational factors that can affect the span of management.

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Span of Management: Meaning, Factors and Theory

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After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Span of Management 2. Factors Affecting Span of Management 3. Graicunas Theory. Meaning of Span of Management: Depending upon the complexity of organisational activities and relationships amongst superiors and subordinates, it becomes important the superiors manage an optimum number of subordinates that result in ...

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Module 5

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Your team members need direction, and that's where detailed job descriptions come in. Job descriptions help ensure employees know what tasks they're responsible for, allowing them to take ownership of their systems and contribute to practice success.

Some dentists, however, overlap job duties in these job descriptions-leading to confusion, inefficiencies, frustration and, ultimately, higher overhead costs. When you do this, you end up giving your employees tasks rather than responsibilities. They won't take ownership of their systems because they won't feel like they can. Sure, tasks will still get done but that doesn't mean they'll get done right.

Let's say you make multiple team members responsible for scheduling. The problem is, they all have a different way of updating the schedule, leading to a mess of inaccurate appointment times, double bookings and utter confusion. And because no one is truly accountable for the system, cleaning up the schedule won't be easy.

When creating job descriptions, make sure you hold one person accountable for each system. Resist the urge to overlap. Outline exactly what you expect from each employee, and include performance measurements as well as individual goals that complement practice goals.

Now you're probably wondering what happens when an employee is out sick or takes vacation. I suggest you cross train your team. This will help ensure team members can cover for each other when necessary, while one person is still ultimately accountable for each system.

Clearly defining each team member's role not only eliminates confusion about who's responsible for what, it will make your team more efficient. And that, doctor, leads to more production and more manageable overhead.

Tags: Efficiency, increasing production, Job Descriptions, Overhead

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How Overlapping Job Duties Leads to Increased Overhead Costs - Sally McKenzie Blog

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Your team members need direction, and that's where detailed job descriptions come in. Job descriptions help ensure employees know what tasks they're responsible for, allowing them to take ownership of their systems and contribute to practice success. Some dentists, however, overlap job duties in these job descriptions-leading to confusion, inefficiencies, frustration and, ultimately, higher overhead costs.

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The goal of Metrix Staffing is to provide an alternative to traditional staffing agencies in Jacksonville, FL for our clients within the distribution industry. How? By supplying proven staff, flexible solutions, and measurable results.

Warehouse Staffing by a Warehousing Company in Jacksonville, Florida

As a division of Grimes Logistics Services in Jacksonville, at Metrix Staffing we realize how important it is to have staff properly trained for distribution and warehousing services. Because of this, we go above and beyond what most Jacksonville staffing agencies do. We interview and test all of our candidates (including performing drug and background checks) but we also make sure that our candidates have the skills needed to excel in a warehouse environment prior to job placement. Temps and employees available through Metrix Staffing work for us at the Grimes warehouse first so we can train them and assess their overall skills and experience. Not only do our candidates have supply chain experience and training, but we've also had the opportunity to see how successful they can be in a fast-paced warehouse environment, as well.

The primary goal of our Jacksonville warehouse staffing agency is to provide you with the support you need to optimize and improve your warehouse and supply chain. To ensure of that, we thoroughly analyze each employee's skills, including dexterity, production, and safety. Since these values are critical in the operation of any distribution company, our staff are much more prepared and experienced to meet the challenges of your supply chain.

Want Metrix to help you with your warehouse staffing? Call us today at 904-783-2646 or contact us.

Metrix Staffing Agency: a Division of Grimes Logistics Services in Jacksonville

The Grimes Companies' history dates back to 1920. Serving the Southeast United States, the logistics company has maintained the lead in the continually evolving supply chain industry through progressive management, innovation, cutting-edge technology and dedicated service. The Grimes Companies today offers discerning manufacturers and warehouse distributors a superior combination of warehousing, trucking, supply chain and packaging services that provides every advantage in an increasingly competitive marketplace.

Learn more about Grimes' 3PL logistics services below.

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Metrix Staffing: Alternative to Traditional Employment Agencies

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The goal of Metrix Staffing is to provide an alternative to traditional staffing agencies in Jacksonville, FL for our clients within the distribution industry. How? By supplying proven staff, flexible solutions, and measurable results. As a division of Grimes Logistics Services in Jacksonville, at Metrix Staffing we realize how important it is to have staff properly trained for distribution and warehousing services.

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Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing: Bruce Tuckman's Team Stages Model Explained

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Free Aptitude Tests Online - Aptitude-Test.com

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Free practice Aptitude Tests giving you the best preparation for your employment aptitude test or school entrance exam.

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Home | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

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For more than 20 years, Deloitte has recognized the fastest growing public and private technology companies in North America. These tech companies are on the cutting edge and are transforming the way we do business.

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I'm sure many of us working in PPC (or across the wider digital spectrum) have been asked at least a handful of times in recent months, "Should we be worried about automation?"

I've heard it from clients, and even prospective job candidates. And I can see why the question is commonly asked; it is a very interesting subject with a lot of possible responses, ranging from, "Yes, we're all doomed. Let's head to the hills!" to "No way, machines could never do what I do!"

In this article, I want to look at some of the main arguments against fearing the rise of automation and machine learning to try to dispel some of the confusion and uncertainty around this topic.

I've split this into three key areas: Campaign structure, bidding and scripting.

Campaign structure

Automation will continue to change the way we manage campaign, ad group and even ad-level structure. Long gone are the days of unmanageable-sized accounts with incredibly granular RLSA vs. non-RLSA structures and thousands of ad groups for individual keywords and their match types.

Google recently announced the ability to use IF functions within ad copy, allowing us to alter the messaging for users depending on the device used or which audience list they fall within. By having ads that dynamically change for each individual searcher, we can ensure a tailored and relevant message appears.

For example, you could show a particular offer code to anyone who has visited your site before but not purchased, while you could show brand-new visitors different messaging that showcases your main USP. For users searching on a mobile device, perhaps a message highlighting that they can purchase in "one tap" will help to engage those looking for a quick buy. You can even use your Customer Match lists here, e.g., showing VIP offers to those with a loyalty card.

With the launch of adaptive Shopping campaigns in DoubleClick Search, you no longer need to monitor performance of each individual product ID, as your campaigns can be sub-divided automatically depending on performance goals (set up in a conversion goal or within a bid strategy). By automating this process, you can allow algorithmic bid strategies to adjust bids based on revenue or conversion metrics in a much more fluid way than managing this manually. You can therefore:

increase revenue by bidding higher on top-performing products.

decrease the amount of money wasted on products that perform poorly.

Google recently released an adaptive Geo option within DoubleClick, too, following the same principle as adaptive Shopping campaigns. Once you've selected a country or state to target within your campaign settings, you can let DoubleClick Search add in more tightly focused location targets (but remaining within your overall country or state target) to apply automatic performance-based bid adjustments.

For example, if you've targeted London within your campaign settings, DoubleClick Search may target particular boroughs like Camden and Westminster with more aggressive bid adjustments if they perform much better than other areas. Areas will be added and removed based on performance, much like what happens within adaptive Shopping campaigns, allowing for a flexible structure that is always looking at recent and relevant data.

Bidding

If you haven't tested any algorithmic bid strategies and are still using manual bidding, I would get testing now! Automated bid strategies through AdWords calculate a new bid for each and every auction, based on your performance goals (clicks, impressions or conversions). AdWords also factors in signals that we don't have access to within the interface or in third-party platforms (e.g., search partner data).

Without automation, it would be impossible for a human to both have access to this data and to make enough changes to replicate the changes made via automation. The machine learning aspect means that over time, the bid strategy performance should continue to improve and update, depending on targets set. By combining bidding strategies with a flexible account structure (using the adaptive campaigns and personalized ads discussed above), you should have the perfect combination of strategy, data and tech at your disposal.

Scripting

AdWords Scripts are an easy way to use the AdWords API to automate certain processes within accounts. They're an extremely powerful account management tool and can be used for a wide range of processes, most importantly:

building and customizing automated reports.

managing campaigns, ad groups and keywords.

The possibilities here are (almost) endless. At Merkle | Periscopix, we use scripts across all accounts, from basic budget pacing reports all the way up to automated account changes, competitor analysis and regular reporting dashboards. If you find yourself doing the same manual tasks over and over again, take the time to do some online research and see if there is a possible scripted alternative, saving you hours of time and allowing you to focus on higher-impact changes.

For one client within the recruitment sector, each team member spent two hours each week reporting on performance for a number of campaign types. Through AdWords Scripts, we were able to pull the data automatically into Google Sheets each morning so the client could dip in and out when they fancied, freeing up the team's time to spend making meaningful changes in the account. The client was happy, as they could access up-to-date data whenever they wanted, and the team felt that they were having more of an impact through optimization and testing.

Final thoughts

There shouldn't be anything for us to fear when it comes to PPC and automation. The very concept of automation and machine learning often conjures up all sorts of images of robots replacing humans, but when it comes to the world of PPC, automation leads to more effective and efficient processes, benefiting the advertisers themselves, as well as those of us working in the industry.

Over time, I expect that account management time spent on a lot of manual tasks will decrease with the ever-growing opportunities to automate day-to-day processes like bid adjustments and personalized ad copy. However, more free time shouldn't mean we have more time to watch cat videos on YouTube but should enable those of us working in PPC to focus on strategic direction.

One thing I do envisage is the need for those managing PPC campaigns or those involved in driving strategy forward to improve their own awareness and knowledge around the subject. If you look at the dramatic shift in PPC from a keyword-based model of five to 10 years ago toward an audience-based approach, we're now seeing the the shift toward automation as a process that can tie these together. For these reasons, I am confident about the future of machine learning and automation for those working in agencies. It opens up many more opportunities for those working in the industry through the growth of more specialized job roles and the need for an increased knowledge in this area from all, all the way from Account Director to Analyst level. This will obviously benefit our clients, too, with agencies being able to spend more time on the strategy and future growth of their accounts.

Therefore, the only thing of which PPC agencies should be fearful is slipping behind the curve and missing out on the huge opportunities in this area for the development and retention of their staff and their clients.
Opinions expressed in this article are those of the guest author and not necessarily MarTech Today. Staff authors are listed here.
About The Author

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Should PPC agencies be scared of automation? - MarTech Today

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I'm sure many of us working in PPC (or across the wider digital spectrum) have been asked at least a handful of times in recent months, "Should we be worried about automation?" I've heard it from clients, and even prospective job candidates.

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Module 8

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A budget is a plan that shows you how you can spend your money every month. Making a budget can help you make sure you do not run out of money each month. A budget also will help you save money for your goals or for emergencies.