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online course for teachers - also resources. Useful to look at how they have structured the course

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Intel Teach Elements: Inquiry in the Science Classroom

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"Challenges in STEM learning in Australian schools" by Michael J. Timms, Kathryn Moyle et al.

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"Challenges in STEM learning in Australian schools" by Michael J. Timms, Kathryn Moyle et al.

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"Challenges in STEM learning in Australian schools" by Michael J. Timms, Kathryn Moyle et al.

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Australian STEM education seems caught in a whirlpool of problems that are contributing to one another. Student engagement and performance in STEM are declining, but we do not have the supply of qualified teachers we need to improve learning. The STEM curriculum is unbalanced and fragmented, leading to less interest among students.

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BSCS Science Learning is an independent nonprofit offering science education research & leadership programs & curriculum across the US.

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About | Conceptual Resources | Practical Resources

This book serves teaching students from elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and colleges.

The book and website are an extension of the ongoing work to improve education by giving voice to all students.

You may access resources and references related to the book through these links: Resources - References

Differentiation is an essential lens and tool-set for effective instructional practices. Differentiation is not some abstract concept, strategies for an "ideal classroom", or can only be accomplished if given enough resources.

So All Can Learn provides practical steps, tied to pedagogy, for how every teacher does differentiation, and how they can elevate their practice. Differentiation has many layers from simple practices to complex structures of implementation. Similar to a gamer who levels up or a martial artist earning belts, dedication to practice and reflection on efforts is how mastery of Differentiation happens.

The target age groups is ALL students. Learners needs are important from young children to adults. While the stories exemplified in the book ranges from young children to teens, the practical steps and pedagogy addressed are applicable for all ages of learners. Making connections, using assessments, providing personalized experiences is a need for any teacher who has students under their care.

Read the book, reflect and discuss the concepts and skills with yourself, others, and on this site: Reflection on Practice. Review the resources as referenced in the chapters of So All Can Learn. Collaborative learning helps us grow and models the experiences that will empower your students.

Contact me and share passages from the book that have led to new ideas, affirmations, and/or questions. I look forward to learning with you, and supporting your journey of supporting students so all can learn.

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Order Book @ R&L | Amazon | Amazon Kindle | Barnes & Noble| Amazon UK Google Play | Review some reviews So All Can Learn: A Practical Guide to Differentiation About | Conceptual Resources |...

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Teaching Outside the Classroom | Center for Teaching | Vanderbilt University

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Teaching Outside the Classroom | Center for Teaching | Vanderbilt University

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by Lily Claiborne, John Morrell, Joe Bandy and Derek Bruff
Updated in 2020 by Gregory Smith and Heather Fedesco1 Print Version

Cite this guide: Claiborne, L., Morrell, J., Bandy, J., Bruff, D., Smith, G. & Fedesco, H. (2020). Teaching Outside the Classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/teaching-outside-the-classroom/.

Teaching and learning experiences that take place outside of the confines of the classroom walls have a range of benefits for both students and instructors. When students are asked to put into practice "in the real world" what they have theorized about from behind a desk, the result is a student-centric learning experience that enhances learning and fosters personal and social development (Larsen, Walsh, Almond, & Myers, 2017). Further, students that engage in learning experiences outside of the classroom report having higher levels of motivation, recall the course material more vividly, and have improved academic performance in the class (Takeuchi et al., 2016; Ryan and Deci, 2017). Moreover, field experiences early in a student's career can be formative and can inspire students to continue in a field (e.g., Hutson, Cooper, & Talbert, 2011).

Learning experiences outside the classroom are forms of experiential learning (Dewey, 1897). These experiences are rooted in the simple principle that "experience is the best teacher." Under this framework, learning outside of the classroom is an active process, wherein students encounter authentic problems, construct novel hypotheses, test for real solutions, and interact with others to make sense of the world around them. When we do this, we encounter the world as a whole and are forced to engage multiple modalities, no matter which pair of disciplinary "lenses" we intended to wear. Because experiential learning is inherently interdisciplinary, scientists and humanists alike would do well to consider the ways in which other disciplines might enrich their own disciplinary approach to their field.

There are many ways to make learning extend outside the classroom:

Field Trips and Field-Based Learning

Field trips may be defined as "any journey taken under the auspices of the school for educational purposes" (Sorrentino & Bell, 1970, p. 223). Along with the engagement of concepts that is required by these experiences, the student bonding that occurs on field trips enhances the learning experience and creates a learning community as students continue onward in a discipline. Teaching in the field also gives instructors the opportunity to get to know their students in greater depth in terms of how the students see the world differently than the instructor. This insight into student world-views can help the instructor to better communicate the concepts of the course.

Field trips can take a variety of forms that meet a diverse set of needs and can enhance deep, active learning. The intended educational outcomes of field trips focus on the following five areas (Behrendt & Franklin, 2014; Larsen et al., 2017; Tal & Morag, 2009):

1. Developing social and personal skills

2. Developing observation and perception skills

3. Adding relevance and meaning to learning

4. Providing first-hand real-world experiences

5. Enhancing intrinsic motivation and interest in the subject

Field trips are a common component of many K-12 classrooms, with a wealth of reviews in the primary literature summarizing their benefits and best practices (e.g., Behrendt & Franklin, 2014; DeWitt & Storksdieck, 2008; Wilson, 2011). In the college classroom, field trips (or field-based learning) can be an effective tool that satisfies many of the above goals. For some disciplines (e.g., geology, ecology) it is relatively easy to imagine what a field-based learning experience can look like, whereas for other disciplines (e.g., philosophy, English), it may not be immediately obvious. To help instructors begin to imagine the possibilities that could exist in their courses, Fedesco, Cavin and Henares (in press) recently used a database of 721 field trips from 2015-2018 at a small, private, liberal arts college in the Southwest to create a typology of field study experiences in higher education. The authors identified the following types of field-based learning experiences:

Collecting primary data/visiting primary sources - Students and instructors gather data in a novel setting, with open-ended and unpredictable learning outcomes for students depending on the results of that data. Being immersed within the subject material allows for deep learning for students, as they experience the authenticity of data collection and the process of interpreting that data. Instructors should be flexible and prepared to navigate difficult and/or unproductive outcomes - such as if the data don't reveal anything significant (or present a result that is counter to the instructor's initial predictions). However, these experiences have the highest potential for learning for students, as they are in a sense creating new knowledge.

Guided discovery of a site - The class visits a site that is familiar to the instructor but new to the students and the instructor plans an activity that leads the students to uncover an intended outcome. Students should use the skills and concepts they learned in an earlier portion of the course and apply them in a novel setting to help guide learning. Instructors should consider how their materials and questions will help students develop higher-order skills, such as investigating, questioning, and developing critical thinking skills. Because they are time-consuming and require a significant investment from the instructor, they are best used to teach conceptually difficult or especially important course material. For more information on preparing and facilitating guided discovery problems in your classroom, see the guide on the National Association of Geoscience Teachers website.

Backstage access - The class is granted access to a site or a place that the general public does not have access to, thus giving a unique experience to the students that allows for insights and experiences that are difficult to come by normally. For an on-campus example, a class might visit a University research lab or center that is available only to students registered in a course (such as the Breazeale Nuclear Reactor at Penn State). For off-campus examples, students might visit a net-zero residence, tour behind the scenes of a government building, or meet with employees of a local company. These experiences may require an initial contact with a community partner or a prior-established relationship; however, the learning outcomes for students are enormous, and some companies may be willing to work with classes as the experience offers a networking opportunity for both students and potential employers.

Show and tell - The class is given access to a third-party expert or a site where they might hear from the expert, such as in the collections of a museum with a curator. Like backstage access, this represents an opportunity for students to have an experience that is not available to the general public and can thus result in deep learning and foster meaningful connections for students. This also helps the instructor cover subject material with which they may not be intimately knowledgeable. However, instructors should have a role in planning with the third-party expert to ensure active engagement from their students; otherwise, you run the risk of students sitting or standing for long periods of time for an uninspiring lecture.

Place-based immersion - The class spends a significant amount of time in a place, investigating either a specific subject or an entire breadth of subjects tied to that place. Places have both natural and cultural histories, which therefore lend themselves to examination by all disciplines. Field experiences and research are at the core of many of the natural and social sciences. In the humanities, field experiences might be working in archives, collecting oral histories, performing one's art for a public audience, but it could also include visiting important historical sites and place-based experiences including using places for inspiration.

Community engagement - Professors and students engage in a partnership with a local organization or institution over the span of the course or travel to a site to do time-bound projects, often with a significant investment from the students. These projects, typically designed by both faculty and community partners, allow for students to learn in highly effective ways while helping a community address its needs. In all of these experiences, student growth can be extensive, whether it is through improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills, greater personal efficacy and leadership development, or enhanced social responsibility and career opportunities. For more information on the benefits and methods of these pedagogies, as well as step-by-step guides to successful service learning courses, please visit the CFT's Service Learning and Community Engagement teaching guide and the Community Engaged Teaching Step by Step teaching guide.

Retreats - The class gets away to a remote site for as little as a day or as much as a week to bond, to focus on the subject or a special project, and/or to write. The retreat can be combined with the benefits of place-based immersion, although there need not be a reason for the class visiting a specific site. The main objective of a retreat is to garner the benefits of students spending focused time in close proximity together and away from the hustle and bustle of normal college life. Some outdoor learning experiences, due to their length, are by definition retreats: for example, geologic field trips; wilderness literature backpacking trips; and study abroad experiences.

Special Events - The class travels to a conference or a special event (e.g., a speaker on campus, a film, a performance, etc.) that is pertinent to the course content or objectives. The instructor has little control over what is said during the event and thus should feel comfortable giving up the reins for this experience. A degree of flexibility for the instructor and maturity on the students' parts will help these events fit within the framework of the class schedule. Instructors should be prepared to give a pre-event lesson and a post-event lesson to help ensure students meet the intended learning outcomes.
Benefits for Students Who Participate in These Experiences Include:

knowledge transfer and knowledge recall (Nadelson & Jordan, 2012)

increased relevance, improved perspective-taking, and increased autonomy (Lai, 1999)

increased interest in the subject and influence on one's college major and future career (Hutson et al., 2011)

improvement in concept knowledge (Elkins & Elkins, 2007)

improvements in understanding course content, performance on course assignments, and interest in the subject (Goh & Ritchie, 2011).

increased relatedness with instructors and peers, competence, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation in the course (Fedesco et al., in press)

Key Factors That Promote Successful Experiences Include:
See the section below titled "General Strategies for Successful Field Trip and Field-based Learning Experiences"
Additional Resources:
Study Abroad

These notes adapted from: Gardinier, Lori, and Dawn Colquitt-Anderson. "Learning Abroad." in New Directions for Teaching and Learning. no. 124, Winter 2010.

There are several models for study-abroad programs. In some, participants enroll in foreign universities as visiting, non-matriculated students. In other programs, the sending institution retains more control over the curriculum, duration, faculty selection, and experience. Increasingly, schools are internationalizing their curriculum by offering short-term, faculty-led, study abroad programs. Vanderbilt's Global Education Office administers many programs available for students to study abroad.
Benefits for Students Who Participate in These Programs Include:

increase in student willingness to take courses outside of their major

increased confidence to travel abroad in longer-term programs

increased interest in interdisciplinary studies

increased skills of inter-cultural communication

greater international or comparative understandings of social issues

a more sophisticated understanding of global social change

greater understanding of inequalities and differences in the world system

Key Factors That Promote Successful Programs Include:

academic rigor

use of mixed teaching methods

facilitated reflection synthesizing experiences with academic content

According to Lori Gardinier and Dawn Colquitt-Anderson, "There is no formula for the percentage of time that should be spent in formal class time, seeing cultural/historical sites and events, doing field work, or engaging in peer-to-peer cultural exchange. Regardless of the mix, students should arrive at the destination with a grounding in both the academic and cultural context through a combination of pre-departure lectures, guided research, online discussions, readings, and cultural events relevant to the trip." (26)

In study abroad situations, faculty leaders assume a number of roles that extend beyond the classroom, and setting appropriate boundaries becomes critical. It can be helpful to set specific parameters for how, when, and where you will relate to students during the program.

It is important to identify risks and liability. Directors must be prepared for expected emergencies involving lost or stolen property, illnesses, and so on, as well as unexpected emergencies involving natural and manmade disasters.
Additional Resources:

The Institute of International Education
Founded in 1919, the Institute of International Education (IIE) is a private nonprofit leader in the international exchange of people and ideas. In collaboration with governments, foundations and other sponsors, IIE creates programs of study and training for students, educators and professionals from all sectors. These programs include the flagship Fulbright Program and Gilman Scholarships administered for the U.S. Department of State. IIE also conducts policy research, provides resources on international exchange opportunities and offers support to scholars in danger.

The National Association of International Educators (NAFSA)
NAFSA and its members believe that international education and exchange-connecting students, scholars, educators, and citizens across borders-is fundamental to establishing mutual understanding among nations, preparing the next generation with vital cross-cultural and global skills, and creating the conditions for a more peaceful world.

Journal of Studies in International Education
TheJournal of Studies in International Education (JSI) is a forum for higher education administrators, educators, researchers and policy makers interested in research, reviews, and case studies on all facets of the internationalization of higher education. Each issue brings together the concepts, strategies, and approaches of internationalization, the internationalization of the curriculum, and issues surrounding international students and cross-border delivery of education.

General Strategies for Successful Field Trip and Field-based Learning Experiences
Tips and Techniques: These tips were provided by VU faculty experienced in taking students on field trips.

Set up the field trip as a research project that includes data collection.

Conduct a theoretical examination of the issue in class long before going into the field. Students should have a sense of what the field trip is going to be about before they go.

At least two weeks before heading into the field, develop the rudiments of basic hypotheses. At this point the instructor should give details about the field site so that students know what to expect.

In the field, focus on the things that you've agreed to focus on and let the other stuff be icing on the cake.

Take a backpack full of extra warm/dry clothes and snacks to pass out to students as the need arises.

If for a large class, prepare TAs well to manage smaller groups of the class.

Prepare students for practicalities including appropriate attire, expectations for physical exertion, anticipated rest stops, supplies and materials they should bring.

Additionally, Fedesco et al. (in press) has identified five specific tips to help educators have a successful field-based learning experience:

Begin the trip with a full value contract (FVC). The FVC is a document written for the group, by the group, and establishes agreed upon expectations on what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior on the trip. This document, which can be updated as needed, can be referred to throughout the trip, and provides a sense of safety and community for the class.

Logistics play an important role in the success of a field trip. If students are lacking in basic human needs (e.g., uncomfortable temperatures, hungry/thirsty, standing in direct sunlight, exhaustion), they will be less likely to learn. Check the weather forecast and have students plan accordingly. Make sure you have plenty of food to eat throughout the day, and be mindful of food allergies and preferences to ensure a smooth experience.

Carefully consider the sequence of events during a field trip. Outdoor education expert Jay Roberts (2016) recommends that mornings are better for intellectual topics, afternoons are better for hands-on activities, and evenings are best for reflection and interpersonal discussions.

Balanced programming should be taken into consideration when planning field trips. Instructors should avoid over- or under-programming trips, which could lead to either information saturation or boredom. Instructors should continuously take the pulse of the experience so if necessary, they can implement their contingency plan by either cutting back on some activities or incorporating more experiences or assignments into the trip.

Instructors about to embark on a field trip should be prepared to engage in risk management behavior. Before leaving for a trip, instructors should be familiar with and have contact information for emergency resources in the field location, campus security, administration, transportation, and mental health and sexual assault counselors.

Technology Outside (and Inside) the Classroom

Advances in technology make it relatively easy for students to bring digital technology with them when they leave the classroom, or for instructors to bring the outdoor learning environment into the classroom. In the field, students can use mobile devices-including ones they already own-to engage in learning activities. In the classroom, instructors can use drone footage, mobile apps, and programs like Google Earth to bring outdoor environments inside, thus bringing far-away or inaccessible outdoor phenomena to all students. Below are some examples to help you start thinking about how you might use technology outside (and inside!) your classroom.
Location-Specific Content
With the right apps, students can access content that is tied to a particular location and only available when students visit that location.

Spanish instructors at the University of New Mexico use an iPhone app from the Augmented Reality and Interactive Storytelling (ARIS) project to send students on a fictional murder mystery through the Los Griegos neighborhood in Albuquerque that develops and tests their language skills. Students receive location-specific clues to the mystery by typing their location into the app.

The Iowa City UNESCO City of Literature iPhone app provides text, audio, and video content about Iowa City authors based on the user's GPS-determined location. Instructors at the University of Iowa plan to have students use this app to learn more about Iowa City authors and their connections to particular local environments.

CFT director Derek Bruff incorporated QR codes in an end-of-semester "crypto hunt" in his first-year seminar on cryptography. Students cracked codes and ciphers that led them to particular locations on campus featuring QR codes, two-dimensional bar codes that students scanned with their smart phones to receive additional clues in the hunt.

Instructors can also have students create location-specific content. For example, students at the University of Northern Colorado created a scavenger hunt designed to teach other students about local water rights using the ARIS platform.

Data Collection and Sharing
Mobile devices have a variety of mechanisms for collecting and sharing data. Students can use these devices to generate location-specific content whether on a field trip or on their own.

Shaul Kelner, associate professor of sociology and Jewish studies at Vanderbilt, taught a course titled "Tourism, Culture, and Place" in the spring 2011 semester. Students in the course visited different tourist sites around Nashville, captured photos of these locations using their cell phones while on-site, and then blogged about their visits and their photos later.

Margaret Rubega, associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Connecticut, requires students in her ornithology course to use the social media service Twitter to "tweet" about the birds they see as they go about their lives-what birds they see, where they see them, and any connections to course content that occur to the students. They tag their tweets with the hashtag #BirdClass to make it easy for all involved to find and read each other's tweets.

Lawrence University students in an introduction to environmental science course collect geotagged water quality data during field trips using GPS devices and tablet PCs. Students pool their data, then analyze it using geospatial visualization software while still in the field. Many such specialized data collection and analysis tools are developing mobile apps that run on iPhones and other smart phones.

If you're interested in using technology in the field in your courses, please contact the CFT's educational technologist Rhett McDaniel for help getting started.

Assessment of Field Experiences

Additional Resource for Research on Experiential Learning

References

Behrendt, M., & Franklin, T. (2014). A review of research on school field trips and their value in education. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 9, 235-245. http://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2014.213a

Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. New York: E. L. Kellogg & Co.

DeWitt, J. & Storksdieck, M. (2008) A short review of school field trips: Key findings from the past and implications for the future. Visitor Studies, 11, 181-197, http://doi.org/ 10.1080/10645570802355562

Elkins, J. T., & Elkins, N. M. (2007). Teaching geology in the field: Significant geoscience concept gains in entirely field-based introductory geology courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, 55, 126-132. http://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-55.2.126

Fedesco, H. N., Cavin, D., & Henares, R. (in press). Field-based learning in higher education: Exploring the benefits and possibilities. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.

Gardinier, L. & Colquitt‐Anderson, D. (2010). Learning abroad. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2010, 23-29, http://doi.org/ 10.1002/tl.417

Goh, E. & Ritchie, B. (2011) Using the Theory of Planned Behavior to understand student attitudes and constraints toward attending field trips. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 11, 179-194. http://doi.org/10.1080/15313220.2011.575024

Hutson, T., Cooper, S., & Talbert, T. (2011). Describing connections between science content and future careers: Implementing Texas curriculum for rural at-risk high school students using purposefully-designed field trips. Rural Educator, 33, 37-47.

Lai, K. C. (1999). Freedom to learn: A study of the experiences of secondary school teachers and students in a geography field trip. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8, 239-255. http://doi.org/10.1080/10382049908667614

Acknowledgements

¹ This guide was originally written in 2010 by Lily Claiborne and John Morrell (Graduate Teaching Fellows) and Joe Bandy and Derek Bruff (CFT Assistant Directors). It was updated in 2020 by Gregory Smith (Graduate Teaching Fellow) and Heather Fedesco (CFT Assistant Director) to include primary literature research in higher education that has come out since the original iteration.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Lily Claiborne, John Morrell, Joe Bandy and Derek Bruff Updated in 2020 by Gregory Smith and Heather Fedesco1 Print Version Cite this guide: Claiborne, L., Morrell, J., Bandy, J., Bruff, D., Smith, G. & Fedesco, H. (2020). Teaching Outside the Classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/teaching-outside-the-classroom/.

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ACTIVE LEARNING IN THE SCIENCE CLASSROOM

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ACTIVE LEARNING IN THE SCIENCE CLASSROOM

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Teaching Science to Learners With Special Needs: Theory Into Practice: Vol 52, No 1

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Teaching Science to Learners With Special Needs: Theory Into Practice: Vol 52, No 1

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Memorisation methods in science education: tactics to improve the teaching and learning practice: International Journal of Science Education: Vol 40, No 2

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Memorisation methods in science education: tactics to improve the teaching and learning practice: International Journal of Science Education: Vol 40, No 2

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Different habitus – different strategies in teaching physics? : Relationships between teachers’ social, economic and cultural capital and strategies in teaching physics in upper secondary school

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Different habitus – different strategies in teaching physics? : Relationships between teachers’ social, economic and cultural capital and strategies in teaching physics in upper secondary school

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Different habitus - different strategies in teaching physics?: Relationships between teachers' social, economic and cultural capital and strategies in teaching physics in upper secondary school

2014 (English) In: Cultural Studies of Science Education, ISSN 1871-1502, E-ISSN 1871-1510, Vol. 9, no 3, p. 699-728 Article in journal (Refereed) Published

Abstract [en]

With environmental awareness in the societies of today, political steering documents emphasize that all education should include sustainable development. But it seems to be others competing ideals for teaching physics, or why do the physics teachers teach as they do? Physics teachers in secondary school in Sweden have generally, been focused on facts and a strong link with scientific theories and concepts. In general, the curriculum sway the teaching, a standard text book in physics is used, the teaching is organized according to the book and the teacher deals with and demonstrates typical tasks on the whiteboard and group work is common for special issues related to tasks from the textbook or elaborating. The aim with this study is to analyze why physics teachers in upper secondary school choose to teach energy as they do. Data emerging from a questionnaire focused on indicators of the teachers' cultural and economic assets, or capital, according to the work of Pierre Bourdieu´s sociology. Especially his concept on life styles and habitus provide a tool for analysis. We focus on physics teachers' positions in the social space, dispositions and standpoints towards the ideal way to teach physics in upper secondary school (n=268). Our response rate is 29 % and due to the low response rate a non response bias analysis was made. In our analysis we primarily sought for groups, with a cluster analysis based on the teaching practice, revealed common features for both what and how they teach and three different teaching types emerged. Then we reconstructed the group habitus of the teachers by analyzing dispositions and standpoints and related those to the specific polarization of sacred values, that is struggles about the natural order (doxa) in the social space of science education, which is a part of and has boundaries to dominating fields like the natural sciences and the political fields (curriculum etc.). Three teacher-groups' habituses are described and analyzed; 1. The Manager of the

Traditional, 2. The Challenger for Technology and 3. The Challenger for Citizenship. By constructing the habitus of the teachers in the different groups we can explain why teachers teach as they do and thereby make a contribution to both science education research and to teaching training, whereas reflective approach which also includes the individual dispositions and representations are paramount. In our paper we elaborate the grounds and implications of these findings further.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages

2014. Vol. 9, no 3, p. 699-728

Keyword [en]

Physics teachers, Physic teaching, Upper secondary school, Habitus, Life styles National Category Pedagogy Didactics Sociology (excluding Social Work, Social Psychology and Social Anthropology) Research subject Sociology of Education

Identifiers

URN: DOI: DiVA, id: urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-218357 10.1007/s11422-013-9538-z OAI: oai:DiVA.org:uu-218357 diva2:695456

2014-02-112014-02-112017-12-06 Bibliographically approved

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Post-print-authors-version (210 kB) 117 downloads

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Engström, Susanne Carlhed, Carina

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Different habitus - different strategies in teaching physics?: Relationships between teachers' social, economic and cultural capital and strategies in teaching physics in upper secondary school

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Different habitus - different strategies in teaching physics?: Relationships between teachers' social, economic and cultural capital and strategies in teaching physics in upper secondary school 2014 (English) In: Cultural Studies of Science Education, ISSN 1871-1502, E-ISSN 1871-1510, Vol. 9, no 3, p.

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Teaching Science with Technology: Case Studies of Science Teachers' Development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) - Learning & Technology Library (LearnTechLib)

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Teaching Science with Technology: Case Studies of Science Teachers' Development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) - Learning & Technology Library (LearnTechLib)

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CITE Journal ISSN 1528-5804 Publisher: Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education, Waynesville, NC USA

Abstract

This study examines the development of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) in four in-service secondary science teachers as they participated in a professional development program focusing on technology integration into K-12 classrooms to support science as inquiry teaching. In the program, probeware, mind-mapping tools (CMaps), and Internet applications ? computer simulations, digital images, and movies - were introduced to the science teachers. A descriptive multicase study design was employed to track teachers' development over the yearlong program. Data included interviews, surveys, classroom observations, teachers' technology integration plans, and action research study reports. The program was found to have positive impacts to varying degrees on teachers' development of TPACK. Contextual factors and teachers' pedagogical reasoning affected teachers' ability to enact in their classrooms what they learned in the program. Suggestions for designing effective professional development programs to improve science teachers' TPACK are discussed.

Citation

Guzey, S.S. & Roehrig, G.H. (2009). Teaching Science with Technology: Case Studies of Science Teachers' Development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). Retrieved April 9, 2018 from Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 25-45. Waynesville, NC USA: Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/29293/.

Keywords

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Science with Technology: Case Studies of Science Teachers' Development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This study examines the development of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) in four in-service secondary science teachers as they participated in a professional development program focusing on technology integration into K-12 classrooms to support science as inquiry teaching. In the program, probeware, mind-mapping tools (CMaps), and Internet applications ?

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What Does Culture Have To Do With Teaching Science?

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What Does Culture Have To Do With Teaching Science?

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Strategies of Teaching Science Using an Inquiry based Science Education (IBSE) by Novice Chemistry Teachers - ScienceDirect

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Strategies of Teaching Science Using an Inquiry based Science Education (IBSE) by Novice Chemistry Teachers - ScienceDirect

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Strategies of Teaching Science Using an Inquiry based Science Education (IBSE) by Novice Chemistry Teachers

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Teaching Science is not about preparing students for a world that is static and fixed, but it concerns getting students ready to cope with changes and...

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Project-Based Learning Research Review: Evidence-Based Components of Success | Edutopia

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Project-Based Learning Research Review: Evidence-Based Components of Success | Edutopia

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If you are new to PBL, it's best to start with smaller projects that are already part of the curriculum (Ertmer & Simons, 2005). Based on an analysis of studies demonstrating successful PBL, Hung (2008) proposed a model for designing problems or projects, which focuses on content, context, calibration, researching, reasoning, and reflection, or 3C3R. According to Hung (2008), PBL is ineffective when: a) the skills needed for solving a problem are either above or below the learner's abilities, and/or b) the problem asks students to study content that is outside of the content objectives, but required for solving the problem. Teachers can avoid both common mistakes by following a seven-step procedure that sets up the problem for students (adapted from Hung, 2008).

1. Define the Content. What do you want students to learn by the end of the assignment? Expectations should correspond with students' current research and reasoning skills.

2. Identify the Context. Brainstorm a list of real-life activities in which learners could apply the intended content. Be aware of any time or location constraints in these situations.

3. List Possible Problems. Create a list of problems or projects that could occur in each context from Step Two. Select the problem or project that best presents the content objectives and that will be appealing and relevant to learners.

4. Describe Potential Solutions. Fully describe the most viable solution to the problem or project, as well as possible alternative solutions. Identify the known and unknown variables. Note the most realistic path of reasoning and the knowledge (concepts, principles, procedures, and facts) that would result from the most viable solution. Next, identify alternative paths of reasoning and knowledge that would evolve from alternative solutions to the problem. Based on these possible solutions, what researching and reasoning skills will learners need for solving the problem or creating the project? What is the best framework for building students' knowledge? (That is, how do concepts required for solving the problem relate to each other?)

5. Calibrate Your Project. Using the solutions from Step Four, check to make sure that the knowledge and skills generated by the most viable solution match the intended knowledge and skills from Step One. For instance, you might create a chart comparing the intended knowledge and skills with those necessary to solve the problem. To better match intended content with students' level, add or remove problem conditions. To make a problem easier, focus learners' attention on the target knowledge. To make a problem harder, focus learners' attention on peripheral knowledge. To make the problem more realistic, add time, budget, or location constraints that might occur in an authentic professional situation.

6. Describe the Task. To create a description of the task, remove information from the most viable problem solution from Step Four. If researching or reasoning a critical piece of information is beyond students' problem-solving skills, this information should be presented to the learners rather than have them struggle to learn it.

7. Reflect on the Learning. Reflect students' learning by including multiple opportunities to check their progress in the initial assignment and adjust instruction accordingly (for example, let them know they need to keep a journal and report to their supervisor on a weekly basis). The final assessment should also be clearly described in the assignment (for example, a final report, presentation, or follow-up question or problem) and should allow learners to reflect upon their overall learning and problem-solving process. Designing assessments is very important, and is described more fully in the assessment section.

Structured Student Collaboration

Compared to traditional instructional methods, students engaged in small-group learning achieve higher grades, retain information longer, and have reduced dropout rates, improved communication and collaboration skills, and a better understanding of professional environments ( Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000; Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1997; Terenzini, Cabrera, Colbeck, Parente, & Bjorklund, 2001; cited in Oakley, Felder, Brent, & Elhajj, 2004). Collaborative learning promotes time on task as well as friendships across diverse groups, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or school cliques ( Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Collaborative learning benefits students across grade levels, academic subjects, gender, ethnicity, and achievement level ( Slavin, 1996).

To increase the success of group work, team rewards or goals should depend on growth in each individual student's skills and knowledge, with measures that account for such growth. Researchers recommend three- to four-person teams for most collaborative learning assignments (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Lower ability students tend to work best in mixed groups, medium ability students in homogeneous groups, and for higher-ability students, group ability levels make no difference ( Lou, Abrami, Spence, Poulsen, Chambers, & d'Apollonia, 1996).

Two ingredients are critical for successful collaborative learning ( Slavin, 1991):

Team goals and/or rewards based on individual learning growth. When the team goal is tied to the learning of each individual, team members care about others' learning and actively help each other. Assigning interdependent roles to students has been shown to increase students' learning and engagement through teamwork (Slavin 1996; Johnson & Johnson, 2009).

Individual accountability. To increase group-work success, team rewards or goals should depend upon growth in each individual student's skills and knowledge. Individual learning growth must be measured in relation to each student's past performance in order to ensure that everyone has an equal chance of success. For example, teams might be awarded points based on each member's meeting or exceeding past performance, based on individual assessments.

Veteran teachers recommend tracking group progress with clear benchmarks and due-dates, meeting with groups regularly, and making evidence of group progress visible and public by using planning sheets and/or group folders (Mergendoller & Thomas, 2005). Public or classroom presentations also encourage full participation and help to promote accountability (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). Group contracts also help to keep students accountable. Typically, groups collectively agree upon norms and expectations at the beginning of projects, while reflecting on the group process and product throughout (Oakley et al., 2004; Mergendoller & Thomas, 2005).

Assessments That Support Students' Success

Criteria for success on PBL tasks need to be clearly defined at the start of the project, and should include multiple opportunities for feedback, reflection, and time for students to revise their work (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). At the start of a PBL assignment, teachers should provide students with clear and challenging criteria or guidelines for success, using rubrics and examples that demonstrate intended learning outcomes from local professionals or former students (Ertmer & Simons, 2005; Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). Students who have clear criteria for success spend more time discussing and evaluating content, and these conversations increase student learning (Cohen, Lotan, Abram, Scarloss, & Schultz, 2002; cited in Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008).

Inquiry-based learning is most productive when teachers provide students with frequent assessments and redirection through project benchmarks and reflection activities (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). Providing students with feedback that they act upon produces significant learning gains ( Black & William, 1998a; Hattie, 2008). Frequent feedback enables teachers to adapt their instruction to target students' learning needs, while providing students with information to develop their work. What's more, by emphasizing the process, effort, and strategies involved in accomplishing a task -- as opposed to focusing solely on the final product -- students come to understand that learning is the result of cumulative effort. This, in turn, improves their resilience and academic achievement ( Dweck, 2000).

Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008) recommend providing students with several opportunities to review and revise their project work (as a way of delivering a polished performance) and providing comments rather than grades during these assessments to focus attention on the quality of work rather than the worker. For example, students might write a research plan, listing the questions they will need to address and sources they will read, before heading to the library or conducting an Internet search (Mergendoller & Thomas, 2005).

Researchers also recommend end goals that reflect professional practice, such as public exhibitions, portfolios, and presentations, which signal the social value and relevance of student work (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). The final (summative) assessment should use many different criteria that reflect the various skills involved in the task, and these criteria should be communicated openly to students (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008; Thomas, 2000). To ensure that students truly understand final assessment criteria, teachers can ask students to help define the criteria (Mergendoller & Thomas, 2005).

For final (summative) assessment criteria, Hung (2008) recommends these six items:

1. necessary knowledge acquisition (for example, "need to knows," or content objectives)

2. depth of study

3. effectiveness and efficiency of research methods

4. logical and effective reasoning

5. conceptual integration of knowledge

6. effective problem-solving strategies

Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008) recommend assessing these six items:

1. use of evidence

2. accuracy of information

3. evaluation of competing views

4. development of a clear argument

5. attention to writing conventions

6. collaboration

A Supportive Network for Teachers' Professional Development

It should be noted that "the curriculum approach by itself cannot do it all," ( Kolodner, Camp, Crismond, Fasse, Gray, Holbrook, Puntambekar, & Ryan, 2003, p. 542). The success of PBL also depends on motivating and supporting teachers in new roles of facilitating inquiry. Teachers learn PBL by collaborating with colleagues, introducing PBL in the classroom, and reflecting on their experiences ( Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx & Soloway, 1994).

A number of online networks support teachers as they collaboratively develop their expertise in PBL methods. For example, PBL teachers share project ideas, receive feedback, and interact with other PBL classrooms using the Buck Institute for Education's (BIE) Project-Based Learning network on Edmodo and Edutopia's PBL discussion group. BIE also offers a wealth of free project-based-learning resources and online professional-development courses in PBL.

Providing teachers with professional development courses in inquiry-based teaching methods is critical for achieving positive PBL results on a district-wide scale (e.g., Geier, Blumenfeld, Marx, Krajcik, Fishman, Soloway, & Clay-Chambers, 2008; Finkelstein, Hanson, Huang, Hirschman, & Huang, 2010). For more information on effective professional development practices, see Edutopia's Teacher Development and Leadership page.

Although the transition to teaching with project-based learning can be challenging and time consuming, several studies show that teachers ultimately find the PBL approach to be more rewarding and enjoyable than traditional teaching methods ( Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009). Longitudinal research also indicates that when teachers create the interactive and engaging classroom environments typical of inquiry-based learning, students are more successful over the long term ( Darling-Hammond, 1996; Zimmerman, 2002).
Continue to the next section of the PBL research review, Best Practices Across Disciplines.

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Project-Based Learning Research Review: Evidence-Based Components of Success

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If you are new to PBL, it's best to start with smaller projects that are already part of the curriculum (Ertmer & Simons, 2005). Based on an analysis of studies demonstrating successful PBL, Hung (2008) proposed a model for designing problems or projects, which focuses on content, context, calibration, researching, reasoning, and reflection, or 3C3R.

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Why we are teaching science wrong, and how to make it right : Nature News & Comment

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Why we are teaching science wrong, and how to make it right : Nature News & Comment

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Illustration by Vasava

Outbreak alert: six students at the Chicago State Polytechnic University in Illinois have been hospitalized with severe vomiting, diarrhoea and stomach pain, as well as wheezing and difficulty in breathing. Some are in a critical condition. And the university's health centre is fielding dozens of calls from students with similar symptoms.

This was the scenario that 17 third- and fourth-year undergraduates dealt with as part of an innovative virology course led by biologist Tammy Tobin at Susquehanna University in Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania. The students took on the role of federal public-health officials, and were tasked with identifying the pathogen, tracking how it spreads and figuring out how to contain and treat it - all by the end of the semester.

Although the Chicago school and the cases were fictitious, says Tobin, "we tried to make it as real as possible". If students decided to run a blood test or genetic assay, Tobin would give them results consistent with enterovirus D68, a real respiratory virus. (To keep the students from just getting the answer from the Internet, she portrayed the virus as an emergent strain with previously unreported symptoms.) If they decided to send a team to Chicago, Tobin would make them look at real flight schedules and confirm that there were enough seats.

In the end, the students pinpointed the virus, but they also made mistakes: six people died, for example, in part because the students did not pay enough attention to treatment. However, says Tobin, "that doesn't affect their grade so long as they present what they did, how it worked or didn't work, and how they'd do it differently". What matters is that the students got totally wrapped up in the problem, remembered what they learned and got a handle on a range of disciplines. "We looked at the intersection of politics, sociology, biology, even some economics," she says.

Tobin's approach is just one of a diverse range of methods that have been sweeping through the world's undergraduate science classes. Some are complex, immersive exercises similar to Tobin's. But there are also team-based exercises on smaller problems, as well as simple, carefully tailored questions that students in a crowded lecture hall might respond to through hand-held 'clicker' devices. What the methods share is an outcome confirmed in hundreds of empirical studies: students gain a much deeper understanding of science when they actively grapple with questions than when they passively listen to answers.

"We find up to 20% better grades over usual methods," says Tom Duff, a computer scientist who developed a team-based learning approach at the University of the West of Scotland in Paisley, UK. Other active-learning proponents have found similar gains. Last year, a group led by biologist Scott Freeman at the University of Washington in Seattle published an analysis of 225 studies of active learning in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and found that active learning cut course failure rates by around one-third.

"At this point it is unethical to teach any other way," declares Clarissa Dirks, a microbiologist at the Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington, and co-chair of the US National Academies Scientific Teaching Alliance, an initiative to reform undergraduate STEM education.

Active learning is winning support from university administrators, who are facing demands for accountability: students and parents want to know why they should pay soaring tuition rates when so many lectures are now freely available online. It has also earned the attention of foundations, funding agencies and scientific societies, which see it as a way to patch the leaky pipeline for science students. In the United States, which keeps the most detailed statistics on this phenomenon, about 60% of students who enrol in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out (see 'A persistence problem'). That figure is roughly 80% for those from minority groups and for women.

Source: Ref. 2

Tough sell

Not everyone embraces the idea. Active learning can be a tough sell to faculty members who thrived on standard lectures during their own student years, and who wonder whether the benefits of active learning - which requires substantially more preparation than do standard lectures - could possibility justify the time that the approach would take away from their research.

Understanding and addressing the resistance has become one of the reformers' prime concerns. Robert Lue, the other co-chair of the teaching alliance and director of the Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, says that he is "hell bent on erasing this sense that research is where you apply your intellect, and teaching is a rote skill". Scientists need to approach teaching with the same rigour and appreciation for evidence that they exercise in the laboratory, he says. "It's at the frontier of research. And the more people we get involved, the faster that research will go."

On the surface, active-learning classes can seem to differ little from more conventional approaches. Undergraduate students have always had discussion sessions to ask about the course material, and laboratory classes in which they would carry out experiments. But if you look more closely, says Tobin, these are often just 'cookbook' exercises. The typical approach is 'read that and be prepared to talk about these questions', or 'follow that procedure and you'll get this result'. In an active-learning class such as hers, she says, the students take charge of their own education. "They are framing the questions themselves."

The same is true for active learning in first-year courses, in which the teachers often do supply the questions - but frame them in a way that asks for more than a rote recitation of facts. It is the difference between 'name the sensory nerves of the leg', and what neuroscientist Sarah Leupen asks of her introductory physiology class at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC):
You're innocently walking down the street when aliens zap away the sensory neurons in your legs. What happens?
a) Your walking movements show no significant change.

b) You can no longer walk.

c) You can walk, but the pace changes.

d) You can walk, but clumsily.

"We usually get lots of vigorous debate on this one," says Leupen, who spends most of her class time firing such questions at her students. "It's lovely to experience."

What makes those questions special is that the students cannot answer them simply by reading the course material - although they are expected to have done that before attending class. Instead, they have to apply what they have learned, which they do by clustering around tables in small teams and arguing over the options. That struggle is the real pay-off, says Leupen, who eventually explains the right answer (in this case, d). And if a team gets it wrong, she says, "that's usually a good thing - because then they really remember it".

Evidence has been accumulating for decades that students who actively engage with course material will end up retaining it for much longer than they would have otherwise, and they will be better able to apply their knowledge broadly. But the evidence began to draw widespread attention only around the turn of the century - not least thanks to Carl Wieman, who suddenly became one of the movement's most visible champions when he was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics for his co-discovery of Bose-Einstein condensates. "I started way before the Nobel prize," says Wieman, who is now at Stanford University in California. "It's just that people didn't pay attention to me until then."

Wieman's conversion began in the late 1980s, when he noticed something about the graduate students coming into his atomic-physics lab - then at the University of Colorado Boulder. "They had done really well as undergraduates, but couldn't do research," he says. Over the years, they learned how to be good scientists, "but that had little to do with how well they had done in their courses".

In trying to figure out why, Wieman came across the already huge body of empirical research on learning - most of it totally unknown to science departments. Among the most striking findings, he says, was one that explained his own observation. It showed that in the traditional way of teaching, students could pass the test, but did not get a basic conceptual model of the subject, he says.

Other scientists were coming to much the same realization, and they were starting to experiment with other ways to teach. By the time Wieman's Nobel shone a spotlight on the efforts, many fields had started what is now known as Discipline-Based Education Research: investigations into active methods for teaching concepts specific to each branch of science.

Other powerful advocates included biologist Bruce Alberts, then president of the US National Academy of Sciences. In 2004, Alberts consolidated several academy panels into the Board on Science Education: a group of senior scientists, initially chaired by Wieman, that has gone on to release a series of reports on education reform. The most recent of those, published in January 2015, is essentially a how-to manual for applying active learning in undergraduate settings.

Culture shock

Yet there is still plenty of scepticism, says Linda Hodges, a biochemist and head of the Faculty Development Center at the UMBC, and author of a forthcoming book on overcoming obstacles to education reform. One big reason, she says, is that for many scientists, active learning is sharply at odds with their beliefs about teaching.

Researchers often feel that a teacher's job is simply to communicate content: the factual knowledge covered in the course. That is a big stumbling block for active learning, because time spent on team discussions and the like can seem like time taken away from that content. Getting past that requires compromise, says Jeff Leips, a geneticist who teaches ecology and evolution at the UMBC. "You have to accept that you can't cover everything to the same level." But the pay-off is that the students retain much more of the material that is covered, and are able to use that knowledge much more effectively.

Another common belief, says Hodges, is that it is the professor who should be in control of the classroom. "A lot of these pedagogies ask you to relinquish some of your control and hand it over to a bunch of novice students," she says. "And that sounds odd to a lot of faculty." It definitely requires a different set of skills, agrees Leips. "A lecture is like a performance: you know the script." But an active-learning class is more like improvisational acting, he says. "You have to go with the flow", responding to questions and situations as they arise. And not everyone is comfortable with that.

Adding to the resistance is that many faculty members who try active learning hastily back off when the techniques do not seem to work, or when students start to turn in teacher evaluations that say, 'I had to teach myself!' or, 'Just tell me what I need to know!'.

"At this point it is unethical to teach any other way."

One faculty member, who asked not to be named so that she could speak freely about her institution, tells the story of a chemistry instructor who told his students to 'work together', and then spent the rest of the class time reading. "Active learning done badly is worse than a good lecture," says Leips. A 2011 survey of biology teachers at 77 US universities found that, even though most of them claimed to be using at least some active-learning methods, few of them were doing it properly.

Proponents of active learning say that change will come only when innovations are made at every level of a university system (see page 282). To help interested biology teachers to do better, the US National Academies has been running a series of five-day workshops every summer since 2004. "We've had about 1,000 people go through by now," says William Wood, a biologist at the University of Colorado Boulder, and co-director of the programme for its first ten years.

One of the big lessons, says Wood, is that teachers should develop their lesson plans in the same way as they design experiments. Instead of following a textbook or syllabus, they should start with a clear goal - the concepts and skills that they want the students to learn. Then they should choose the instructional methods that will achieve that goal, as well as the methods they are going to use to assess the students' progress.

The summer institutes have undoubtedly done a lot to raise people's awareness, says Leupen, but simply attending a workshop is not enough. "If they come back to the same department full of the same people doing the same things - they will go right back to teaching the old way."

Continuing the support back home is crucial, says Lue. "Science is a team sport. If you're a neuroscientist or a soft-matter physicist, you have seminars, colloquia, luncheons - places you can go on campus to meet with like-minded people and trade best practices." His centre at Harvard is trying to create that kind of community for teaching and learning, he says, and many other US universities are doing the same.

As helpful as such efforts are, they do not get at what many regard as the biggest challenges for active learning. One is the lack of coordination across borders. Educational innovations are clearly happening across the globe (see page 276) and interest in active learning is high. Dirks has received an enthusiastic response to workshops she ran on pedagogy and the responsible conduct of science in Jordan, Turkey, Egypt, India and Malaysia. And leaders such as Wieman say that they regularly get invitations to talk in Europe, Asia and Australia.

Even so, the international flow of ideas is only a fraction of what it could be. The education systems differ between nations, and it is not obvious how lessons learned in one place can be applied elsewhere. What is more, researchers who are trying to get innovations into universities tend to publish in their own languages.

And then there is what Wieman and others regard as the most fundamental obstacle: the university incentive system. Too often, they say, publications and funding are the only things measured for promotion and tenure decisions, which in effect penalizes time spent on classroom innovation. "Until we commit to having teaching be a key role in tenure decisions," says Lue, "we're just paying lip service."

Some scientists say that the increased intellectual respectability of good teaching is beginning to make itself felt. Many small universities such as the UMBC are making it a key part of hiring and promotion decisions. "In our department, you don't get teaching points in tenure decisions unless you've been innovating," says Leupen. Even large research-focused universities such as Harvard are beginning to place more emphasis on instruction. "Because there is a movement, and programmes to impart this knowledge," says Dirks, "people are starting to get it."

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Why we are teaching science wrong, and how to make it right

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Illustration by Vasava Outbreak alert: six students at the Chicago State Polytechnic University in Illinois have been hospitalized with severe vomiting, diarrhoea and stomach pain, as well as wheezing and difficulty in breathing. Some are in a critical condition.

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A Model of Formative Assessment in Science Education: Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice: Vol 6, No 1

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A Model of Formative Assessment in Science Education: Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice: Vol 6, No 1

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Differences in Brain Activation Between Novices and Experts in Science During a Task Involving a Common Misconception in Electricity

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Differences in Brain Activation Between Novices and Experts in Science During a Task Involving a Common Misconception in Electricity

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A study of common beliefs and misconceptions in physical science | SpringerLink

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A study of common beliefs and misconceptions in physical science | SpringerLink

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Abstract

The Science Belief Test is an online instrument comprised of 47 statements that require true or fals responses and request written explanations to accompany these responses. It targets topics in chemistry, physics, biology, earth science, and astronomy and was initially designed to assess preservice elementary teachers' beliefs about general science content. A set of responses for six of the physical science items targeting force/ gravity and physical/chemical change was selected for analysis from 305 respondents. Written explanations were coded into three general categories: (1) correct explanation, Written explanations were coded into three general categories: (1) correct explanation, (2) incorrect explanation, (3) guess or uninterpretable. The correct response rates for the explanations were compared to the correct response rates that were based on the accompanying true or flase answers. The explanations were further analyzed and coded into specific categories that included alternative and naïve conceptions. Correct response rates, when analyzed from the true/false or written explanations, were low (<60%) for five of the six items. Naïve beliefs and/or misconceptions were prevalent for each of these five items, and understanding that students may hold these beliefs prior to instruction may provide teachers with useful information for the purpose of improving instruction.

Keywords

Preservice Teacher Physical Science Preservice Elementary Teacher National Science Education Standard Correct Explanation

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

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References

Larrabee, T. G., Stein, M., & Barman, C. (2006). A computer-based instrument that identifies common science misconceptions Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 6(3). Retrieved February 4, 2008, from www.citejournal. org/vol6/iss3/science/toc.cfm.

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A study of common beliefs and misconceptions in physical science

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Science Belief Test is an online instrument comprised of 47 statements that require true or fals responses and request written explanations to accompany these responses. It targets topics in chemistry, physics, biology, earth science, and astronomy and was initially designed to assess preservice elementary teachers' beliefs about general science content.

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Learning: From Speculation to Science - Early Childhood Development and Learning - NCBI Bookshelf

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Learning: From Speculation to Science - Early Childhood Development and Learning - NCBI Bookshelf

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The essence of matter, the origins of the universe, the nature of the human mind-these are the profound questions that have engaged thinkers through the centuries. Until quite recently, understanding the mind- and the thinking and learning that the mind makes possible-has remained an elusive quest, in part because of a lack of powerful research tools.

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Jerome Bruner's Theory of Development: Discovery Learning & Representation - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Jerome Bruner's Theory of Development: Discovery Learning & Representation - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Jerome Bruner and Education

Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner felt the goal of education should be intellectual development, as opposed to rote memorization of facts.

This lesson will discuss Bruner's theory of development and his three modes of representation. We will also explore his beliefs on learning, language, and discovery and differentiate his views from those of Jean Piaget.

Bruner held the following beliefs regarding learning and education:

He believed curriculum should foster the development of problem-solving skills through the processes of inquiry and discovery.

He believed that subject matter should be represented in terms of the child's way of viewing the world.

That curriculum should be designed so that the mastery of skills leads to the mastery of still more powerful ones.

He also advocated teaching by organizing concepts and learning by discovery.

Finally, he believed culture should shape notions through which people organize their views of themselves and others and the world in which they live.

Three Stages of Representation

Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation.

1. Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.

2. Iconic, which is the visual summarization of images.

3. Symbolic representation, which is the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences.

The enactive stage appears first. This stage involves the encoding and storage of information. There is a direct manipulation of objects without any internal representation of the objects.

For example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby has directly manipulated the rattle and the outcome was a pleasurable sound. In the future, the baby may shake his hand, even if there is no rattle, expecting his hand to produce the rattling sounds. The baby does not have an internal representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand that it needs the rattle in order to produce the sound.

The iconic stage appears from one to six years old. This stage involves an internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental image or icon. For example, a child drawing an image of a tree or thinking of an image of a tree would be representative of this stage.

The symbolic stage, from seven years and up, is when information is stored in the form of a code or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed relation to something it represents. For example, the word 'dog' is a symbolic representation for a single class of animal. Symbols, unlike mental images or memorized actions, can be classified and organized. In this stage, most information is stored as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages we just discussed. Bruner also believed that learning should begin with direct manipulation of objects. For example, in math education, Bruner promoted the use of algebra tiles, coins, and other items that could be manipulated.

After a learner has the opportunity to directly manipulate the objects, they should be encouraged to construct visual representations, such as drawing a shape or a diagram.

Finally, a learner understands the symbols associated with what they represent. For example, a student in math understands that the plus sign ( + ) means to add two numbers together and the minus sign ( - ) means to subtract.

Discovery Learning

The concept of discovery learning implies that a learner constructs his or her own knowledge for themselves by discovering as opposed to being told about something.

According to Bruner, the teacher should facilitate the learning process by developing lessons that provide the learner with information they need without organizing it for them.

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jerome bruner's theory of development: discovery learning & representation - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Jerome Bruner's Theory of Development: Discovery Learning & Representation - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner felt the goal of education should be intellectual development, as opposed to rote memorization of facts. This lesson will discuss Bruner's theory of development and his three modes of representation. We will also explore his beliefs on learning, language, and discovery and differentiate his views from those of Jean Piaget.

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Earlier this month, Australia's chief scientist Professor Ian Chubb released his recommendations for a strategic approach to science and its related fields. In the report entitled Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics: Australia's Future Prof Chubb outlines his vision for a stronger and more competitive Australia.

"Science is infrastructure and it is critical to our future," he said. "We must align our scientific effort to the national interest; focus on areas of particular importance or need; and do it on a scale that will make a difference to Australia and a changing world."

Part of Prof Chubb's report focuses on supporting high-quality Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education and training.

"We are the only OECD country without a science or technology strategy," he said. "Other countries have realised that such an approach is essential to remaining competitive in a world reliant on science and science-trained people."
Education Matters magazine spoke with President of the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA), Robyn Aitken, about how science education in Australian schools is faring and how Prof Chubb's plan to 'give every Australian child an outstanding science education' can best be achieved.
ASTA welcomes Prof Chubb's strategic approach to STEM education and sees that this report and the national focus on STEM, opens new opportunities for collaboration, partnerships and investment in supporting existing and new teachers of science in building their confidence, capacity and expertise to inspire and encourage students to seriously consider the opportunities STEM can offer in the short term and in the longer career scenarios.
How is science education faring in the Australian primary school landscape?
There are some very passionate science teachers in primary schools. The BHP Billiton Science Engineering Awards science teacher awardee in 2014 was a primary teacher from Victoria and every year the PM science awards recognise an outstanding primary educator. However, a recent survey of primary teachers highlighted that science is rated as a significantly lower priority than literacy and numeracy and is often given little time in the school week. Survey respondents say they average between 1 and 2 hours of mandated time to teach science each week, but it is clear from comments made that these times are not always achieved. Interruptions to the weekly timetable, low confidence levels in teaching the subject as well as a lack of accountability all result in fewer hours taught over the course of any year level.

Resources are also important; many teachers conduct science in the classroom without access to any wet areas. PISA feedback from Australian principals indicated lack of resources as a problem especially in the Northern Territory.
How is science education faring in Australian secondary schools?
The situation is a little different in secondary schools, with timetabling of subjects and the availability of specialist science teachers. However, science and math's teachers are in short supply in some areas and this results in teachers untrained in science, teaching science. This is exacerbated in rural and remote areas, and contributes in part to the low achievement levels of students from Indigenous and disadvantaged backgrounds in science.

Of additional concern is the potential uncertainty on the implementation of the Australian Curriculum by the recent announcement by the Commonwealth Government to review the Curriculum.

ASTA considers the review to be premature and recommended that more time be allowed to implement the current national curriculum.

The Australian Curriculum: Science is still in the early stages of being phased in with different states and territories at differing stages of implementation, ranging from initial introduction to 3 years of implementation.

ASTA has a strong view that all teachers of science across Australia need more time to become familiar with the current national curriculum that was developed through an exhaustive consultation process, agreed upon by each state and territory, is truly comprehensive, is academically rigorous and has a dynamic framework. Consideration needs to be given to the time and expertise ASTA member associations contributed to the development of the current curriculum.

To facilitate and support teachers in the implementation of the Australian Curriculum: Science, ASTA strongly advocates for a greater focus be placed on up-skilling teachers on the knowledge, skills & understandings that are required to teach and assess the new curriculum and senior courses of study. In Physics for example, there are many teachers who are from an era when such topics as Relativity and Quantum Physics were not included in their university courses.
In your opinion how can Ian Chubb's plan to 'give every Australian child an outstanding science education' best be achieved?
First by highlighting and making accessible what is already effective with teachers. All state and territory science teacher associations support and promote inquiry-based learning in science through providing professional learning for teachers and competitions where students' open ended investigations are celebrated and shared. However, there are still many teachers who lack the confidence to allow students to learn in this way.

Teachers are change agents. Their influence on student interest and passion for specific subjects, including science, is well documented. Our teachers must remain relevant and able to reflect the nature and issues of our changing world in their teaching and ultimately increase student engagement in science.

A greater focus must be given to providing routine teacher professional learning. ASTA and the National Youth Science Forum (NYSF) run a summer school for teachers at ANU which puts teachers in contact with cutting edge science and the scientists working in that area. This experience is overwhelmingly positive with teachers re-energised and breaming with new knowledge to share with their students.

ASTA also advocates initiatives that focus on increased networking and mentoring opportunities that connect teachers with teachers and teachers with research and industry. ASTA in partnership with one of the state and territory associations hold a yearly conference (CONASTA) that enables delegates to hear from leading scientists and science educators as well as participate in numerous workshops showcasing best pedagogy in science education. In 2014, CONASTA was held in Adelaide and attracted over 500 delegates from across Australia.
How do you think more Australian school students can be encouraged to pursue science as a career?
Passionate teachers! Past surveys have shown that the teacher plays a significant role in influencing students pursuing science careers (Choosing Science, Lyons and Quinn 2010). Supporting teachers through resources and professional learning is critical if our teachers are to remain relevant and able to reflect the nature and issues of our changing world in their teaching and ultimately increase student engagement in science. As the peak national body representing teachers of science across Australia, ASTA strongly advocates increased support and professional development of teachers of science.

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Science education and Australia's future -

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Earlier this month, Australia's chief scientist Professor Ian Chubb released his recommendations for a strategic approach to science and its related fields. In the report entitled Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics: Australia's Future Prof Chubb outlines his vision for a stronger and more competitive Australia.

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A chance to change science teaching from the grass roots - SciDev.Net

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A chance to change science teaching from the grass roots - SciDev.Net

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By Nir Orion
Teaching outdoors taps into children's natural learning instincts. But it demands systemic change, says Nir Orion.
During the last decade, there has been growing interest in implementing the Blue Planet educational programme developed at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. It is one of dozens of units my research group has developed under a curriculum titled Thinking Science - Understanding Environment that aims to awaken students' natural learning instinct by making the subject relevant to their personal lives.

Blue Planet has been recognised by UNESCO (the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) as a model for scientific environment-based learning about water cycles. [1] It has been translated into Arabic, Chinese, English and Spanish, and we have been invited to conduct workshops with science teachers in nations including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India and Uruguay. Recently, Peru's Ministry of Education announced it will adopt Blue Planet into its school curriculum. [2]

But how can any of this translate to genuine implementation of the programme, in Peru or elsewhere? And is it possible or realistic?

Learning outdoors

Blue Planet, like other units, begins with concrete interaction with the subject before moving to more abstract concepts, using a well-considered inclusion of the outdoors learning environment.

The curriculum sequence starts with an inquiry-based lab unit that prepares students for outdoor learning experiences by reducing the cognitive, psychological and geographic novelty of this non-classroom setting. [3] This preparation also enables students to fully experience phenomena and contemplate concepts in the outdoors through direct interaction with the subjects being studied. And it enables them to raise questions about more abstract issues that cannot be solved in the field. These questions then form the basis for the next learning stage back in school.

"Politicians need to wake up to the need to adjust education in general, and science education in particular, to the natural learning instinct of children."

Nir Orion

Studies into the results of implementing the programme for over a decade, involving thousands of students in Israel, consistently indicate two crucial factors that influence the development of systems-thinking skills - the ability to understand how related things influence one another.

First, the knowledge integration encouraged by active learning both indoors and outdoors, and, second, the emotional aspects such as personal relevance, interest and self-efficacy. Both factors closely relate to the outdoor learning environment, which is central to creating the personal relevance that drives motivation in learning.

The evidence base for this is wider than our own research - hundreds of articles have shown that outdoor learning is important - but only few programmes do it in practice. And few studies support the theory with evidence-based data.

Failing in practice

During the last 30 years, I have worked all over the world with thousands of science teachers. Unfortunately, only a few could easily implement a science curriculum with the above characteristics.

Although administrative and logistical hurdles often discourage teachers from leaving the classroom 'safe zone', we found that most still ignore outdoor learning even in the absence of these hurdles. The main reason is that, in practice, outdoor learning rarely appears as an integral part of the curriculum or in teachers' training.

Last year, I conducted a five-day workshop in Peru to prepare science teachers for teaching the Blue Planet programme. The dominant reflection of participants is captured by this statement: "My school is located near a river and I cannot understand how I was able to teach the water cycle concept without using the river as a learning resource as we did in the workshop."

Statements such as this reflect the tragic gap between the rhetoric of educators about the meaning of learning and how it works in practice. In fact, this gap is so deep that the process of preparing teachers to teach such programmes actually amounts to professional change, not just professional development.

This means that, although the Peruvian government's willingness to adopt Blue Planet is a gratifying step in the right direction, it will be a challenge to implement it as it was designed. Successful implementation will require resources. But it will depend even more on understanding the need for fundamental change: realising that many children struggle to learn in school because education systems everywhere are created to meet the needs of the system itself, and not those of the child.

For example, Peru's Ministry of Education might decide that children have to learn about the water cycle because scientists believe it is an important concept. However, this external need will not necessarily motivate children. Children have to find their own meaning of the importance of the water cycle - and they can do this only when they realise its relevance to their lives.

Like any instinct, the urge to learn is only called into play by a stimulus or need. The classic classroom stifles this natural instinct so encouraging boredom, absenteeism and rebellion. Nevertheless, many governments stick to the traditional model, which is much cheaper and, through the class system, maintains social hierarchies.

Initiating change

The Blue Planet programme is an opportunity to initiate change. It is also an opportunity to advance science education in developing countries by using the outdoors - a strength in places, such as Peru, where cultures are rooted in the natural environment.

It is clear that implementing Blue Planet demands adaptation in educational philosophy. This is complicated but possible. And its fulfilment depends on citizens.

The time needed for genuine educational change is double that of a political cycle. So realistically, as far as school systems are controlled by politicians, there is only a small chance for such a change. This means that a genuine revolution in education will begin only from grass-roots movements - only from those who understand that the traditional school system invented about 200 years ago as part of the Industrial Revolution was designed to serve the economic interests of social elites, not the interests of learners.

Politicians need to wake up to the need to adjust education in general, and science education in particular, to the natural learning instinct of children. Only then will there be real progress for learners, and real progress in closing inequality gaps in society.

Nir Orion is a professor in the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel who barely graduated high school. His work covers all facets of science education, and his laboratory is located in several schools, where he practises research, teaching and training of teachers. Orion can be contacted at nir.orion@weizmann.ac.il

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A chance to change science teaching from the grass roots

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By Nir Orion Teaching outdoors taps into children's natural learning instincts. But it demands systemic change, says Nir Orion. During the last decade, there has been growing interest in implementing the Blue Planet educational programme developed at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.

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Teaching the nature of science (and keeping students engaged)

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Teaching the nature of science (and keeping students engaged)

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There's knowing science, then knowing how to teach it. B Rosen

Last week's Health of Australian Science report, by the Chief Scientist of Australia Ian Chubb, has again highlighted the issue of declining student engagement in science in primary and secondary schools.

Why are we in this position? One factor is a fundamental misunderstanding, at all levels, of the "nature of science" - no small thing! We'll get to the nature of science shortly, but first ...

Declining student engagement has been a source of angst for scientists and educators for some time, and has resulted in no end of solutions being offered by no end of well-meaning individuals - solutions that include streamlining the entry of practising scientists into schools, paying science teachers more than those of other subjects and improving pre-service teacher education.

Teaching teaching

It's important to understand at least two things are essential for effective teaching. The first is knowledge of your subject content and processes; the second is general pedagogical knowledge, which is to say an understanding of teaching.

Knowledge of a subject is what you might get out of a degree in a particular discipline; pedagogical knowledge might come from teacher training in the form of postgraduate qualifications or an education degree.

Anyone familiar with the work of John Hattie - director of the Melbourne Education Research Institute - knows how critical, and quantifiably so, a teacher's pedagogical knowledge is to student success.

The overlap of subject knowledge and teaching knowledge is where we find what is known as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) - knowledge unique to, or at least characteristic of, a particular subject area.

Obviously it's a different thing to teach chemistry than music, history than biology, and indeed physics than mathematics. PCK is something that begins in teacher training and is developed by experience in the classroom and discussion with colleagues.

Knowing which teaching techniques work well within your field, how students work with subject-specific concepts in terms of misconceptions and misunderstandings, and how to link and develop ideas as you guide students through a course of study, are part of what defines excellence in teaching.

But there's something missing here - and it's a biggie. What's particularly disturbing about current science education at the primary, secondary and tertiary level is the almost complete lack of explicit consideration of what I've referred to as the "nature of science".

Not only are many teachers unaware of the nature of science, they would have little idea how to teach it in detail even if their knowledge was developed.

This is a contentious claim, but it is supported by research and certainly matches my experience of teaching science in state and private schools over many years.

Nature of science

I mean something very specific by the term "nature of science", as the following points will hopefully illustrate:

it's about the philosophical and practical understanding of the processes and reasoning of science, including its nature as a very human endeavour

it's knowing what the difference is between hypotheses, laws and theories (and how most science textbooks get this wrong) and what the characteristics of a good hypothesis are

it's about how the structures and processes of science are the way they are, in large part, to account for our cognitive biases, and that unique subjective experience is not foundational in science as it is in other areas of knowledge

it's about knowing that there is no one scientific method, but that there are many scientific methodologies and that what makes an idea scientific is the goal of maximum explanatory and predictive power combined with exquisite falsifiability

it's understanding that solid scientific ideas have many defined parameters - the more the better - and that this is what separates them from pseudoscience, where goalposts are constantly shifted (ever seen a psychic renege on a promise to read minds because the presence of a sceptic is "disrupting the energy"?)

it's being able to explain the difference between induction and deduction, to characterise and instantiate the types of inferential reasoning that are acceptable in science and what problems and opportunities this presents in public understanding

it's realising that the search for certainty in much of science is a fool's game, but to ignore levels of confidence makes you a bigger fool.

Thinking critically in science means, in large part, to be able to do such things.

Moving forwards

All the above and much more can be articulated and taught alongside traditional science content but hardly ever is. The pressure of content-driven standards, in which factual content is pegged out to signpost progress and the learning of which is the key indicator of success, is overwhelming and simply crowds out what are seen as less quantifiable aspects of science.

Even experimental work is all too often prescribed via worksheets that lay out methods to follow and hypotheses for testing that leave little room for serious reflection, imagination or understanding.

Some (many) even contain phrases such as "has the hypothesis been proved?", which shows a miserable understanding of the nature of experimentation.

So discussion in classrooms about the nature of science is scarce because:

1) the nature of science is not well understood by science teachers or even scientists

2) the clear implication that without content knowledge in the nature of science there can be no pedagogical content knowledge

3) science curricula rarely articulate exactly what skills or knowledge are constituent of an understanding of the nature of science.

The Australian Curriculum has developed what it calls General Capabilities (GCs) in Critical and Creative Thinking, which are quite well presented but in very general terms.

How they link to what is a very ordinary content-based structure is indicated by an icon - and that's it. There is no detail given and no guidance for developing PCK outlined, and no sense of how these GCs are to be understood or delivered.

Teachers need assistance to ask and answer pointed questions. How do you teach about the nature of science? What are the techniques, strategies, opportunities, unique mental processes to be aware of and best examples to do this within a curriculum that does not acknowledge its importance, as many do not?

This is a difficult challenge, and an important one, as it is very often these themes that students find engaging and which provide a narrative to their experience of science. It is almost farcical that these are seldom explicitly outlined in programs of work.

Knowledge of the nature of science is as least as important in creating scientifically literate citizens as factual content knowledge - perhaps more so.

Few of us can claim a deep knowledge of all the scientific knowledge relevant, indeed critical, to our lives. But at least through knowing something of the nature of science we can appreciate the epistemic credibility of what comes out of scientific inquiry.

The Health of Australian Science report laments that students are bored with, and do not see the relevance of, science. Conversation revolves around availability of teachers and delivery of standard courses, and curriculum design remains driven by factual content.

Meanwhile, the potential to create more engaged, scientifically literate students who themselves might be more inclined to teach and communicate science sits relatively untapped.

We should change that - and soon.

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Teaching the nature of science (and keeping students engaged)

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Last week's Health of Australian Science report, by the Chief Scientist of Australia Ian Chubb, has again highlighted the issue of declining student engagement in science in primary and secondary schools. Why are we in this position? One factor is a fundamental misunderstanding, at all levels, of the "nature of science" - no small thing!

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Ruben Puentedura on Applying the SAMR Model Video | Common Sense Media

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Ruben Puentedura on Applying the SAMR Model Video | Common Sense Media

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Common Sense Education provides educators and students with the resources they need to harness the power of technology for learning and life. Find a free K-12 Digital Citizenship curriculum, reviews of popular EdTech apps, and resources for protecting student privacy.

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A suite of teaching resources have been designed to ensure that the classroom teacher is supported to confidently deliver the inquiries.

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Session B - Measuring learning in complex environments

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Session B - Measuring learning in complex environments

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Five challenges for science in Australian primary schools

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Five challenges for science in Australian primary schools

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Kids need to love science to thrive. from www.shutterstock.com.au

Science education has been in the spotlight after federal Education Minister Christopher Pyne recently proposed to make science and maths education compulsory through to year 12.

While this is welcome news, such a proposal needs to include long-term plans for improving the status of science in primary schools and ensuring teachers have the requisite support. Here we outline some of the challenges faced as the new science curriculum is implemented across the country.

The Australian curriculum is not a 'national curriculum'

Many people in education are somewhat bemused that the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority's Australian Curriculum is not national.

Every state and territory is implementing the curriculum in their own way. This is most noticeable in NSW. Primary school teachers have to follow the NSW syllabus, which combines an additional "technology" component along with science.

Primary Connections - one size does not fit all

Primary Connections is a program developed to support the teaching of the Australian science curriculum. It has been overtly promoted and endorsed by the Australian Academy of Science plus the science panel on Q&A in 2014, which included Chief Scientist Ian Chubb, Professor Suzanne Cory and Nobel Laureate Professor Brian Schmidt. Schmidt even used some of his Nobel Prize money to support it.

Primary Connections does provide a wealth of ideas, activities, background knowledge and safety considerations. However, it also has several issues.

While Primary Connections is free to all schools via the online platform Scootle, many schools are still spending money to get it via the Primary Connections website, to which the Australian Academy of Science website points all those interested.

Primary Connections is essentially just a bunch of PDFs, which is a long way from an inspiring instructive for teachers to get kids interested in science.

Many schools are also implementing Primary Connections in its entirety, which might not be consistent with their state or territory requirements. This will not allow for a personalised journey into scientific inquiry.

In some states, relying solely on Primary Connections would make a school non-compliant with the requirements of the state syllabus. For example, Primary Connections does not cater for the technology knowledge and skills in the NSW syllabus.

Science is a high-anxiety, low-confidence subject for many primary teachers

As a primary school teacher once told us, "primary teachers are expert generalists". Most lack the training and experience to teach science, and a deep understanding of the subject and experimentation. Many feel under-confident in science.

USArmyRDEcom/Flickr, CC BY

The declines in science participation are longstanding and will have fed into the teaching profession. So, increasingly, teachers will not have studied science at upper secondary school or university. Only around 50% of teachers teaching science in 2013 had received training in teaching methods for science.

There are also issues in secondary schools. One in five teachers in science classes teaches out of their area of specialisation.

The introduction of the new curriculum adds to the challenges teachers face. It may lead some to cling onto any resource they find - even if it does not cover all of the curriculum needs.

Time demands on primary schools

When primary teachers face disruptions due to impromptu assemblies, excursions ( reported as causing serious disruption in Australian schools in particular) and extra-curricular activities, they have to choose what to chop from their teaching. This has been demonstrated to impact most on subjects that the teachers themselves are least comfortable with. This is traditionally mathematics, where teachers are under-confident and often have limited content knowledge.

While mathematics is assessed in NAPLAN, there is currently no comprehensive national assessment of science. Thus, despite (or perhaps because of) the new emphasis on science, science is at risk of being the new sacrificial lamb of choice.

NSW mandates that 6-10% of curriculum time is spent on science in primary schools - that's 1.5 to 2.5 hours a week. There is substantial variation in the time devoted to science across states and schools. Many schools are operating on only one hour a week, which could easily become 45 minutes when you factor in "pack-up time" at the end of the day and other interruptions.

Author provided

Specialist teachers an unlikely dream

Ian Chubb recently wrote about aspiring to something magnificent with science in Australia. He said:

Every primary school ought to have a science teacher with continually updated knowledge.

This is a noble dream. However, it also raises several issues.

First, there are enough problems recruiting specialist science teachers into secondary, let alone primary schools. And what happens to those students already in school during the hiatus to train up specialist primary science teachers?

Second, in a large primary school, only one science specialist would not be enough. They would not be able to get to every class for the recommended curriculum time. Teaching science, as with any subject, is the responsibility of all primary teachers. With science being somewhat neglected historically in pre-service training, how are we going to train up all of the incumbents?

There are some wonderful primary teachers out there who openly admit they need help with teaching science. However, national, state and school structures currently conspire to make this more difficult and less enjoyable than it should be.

To benefit the national economy, we need to raise the profile of science and develop a long-term plan to nurture it in schools and industry. Educational attainment in science is linked to national economic growth and competitiveness. These high stakes prompted the UK Royal Society to develop a 20-year plan and a follow-up UK government strategy.

Here, Australia's Chief Scientist has outlined the need for such planning. Central to this is the need to support teachers in schools, because, in the words of Ian Chubb:

... every child needs to love science to thrive.

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Five challenges for science in Australian primary schools

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Science education has been in the spotlight after federal Education Minister Christopher Pyne recently proposed to make science and maths education compulsory through to year 12. While this is welcome news, such a proposal needs to include long-term plans for improving the status of science in primary schools and ensuring teachers have the requisite support.

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Men's Health Magazine [How a Protein Becomes a Muscle]

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This is one in a series of videos for the iPad subscription version of Men's Health Magazine. Each spot gives us an opportunity to breathe life into a static infographic from the print publication. These awesome illustrations were done by Mike MQuade. Go grab a dumbbell and follow along.

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By the end of the term, Evelyn was sitting in the front row, volunteering to demonstrate how to solve problems, and getting frustrated with herself when her final grade in the class was a B.

Evelyn's grade had gone from a 60 percent to an 85 percent, but the real changes that I saw in her were much more rewarding than an improved grade point average-she was engaged in learning, taking risks, and working harder than she had once believed she could.

Many students will avoid working hard in a class that they see as challenging because of the risk involved. If they work hard and fail, they've proven their inadequacy. But if they don't work hard and manage to get a D, their pride remains intact and they haven't lost anything. That's why I make failing harder work than passing.

Turning "I Can't" Into "I Can"

Here's the typical learning cycle for a unit in my chemistry class.

1. I present the students with a list of learning objectives for the unit. The list is short and worded as "I can" statements. For example, these are some of the objectives for the unit on dimensional analysis and the mole (Holt Chapters 7 and 3):

I can identify the mole as the unit used to count particles, and use Avogadro's number to convert between moles and particles. (7.1)

I can calculate the molar mass of an element or compound. (3.4)

I can perform molar conversions (use the Mole Road Map). (3.4)

2. There are guided practice opportunities for students on each of these objectives. I also use formative assessments, which can be homework, quizzes, or labs. They count for very little in the grade. The point of these assessments is to give kids a lot of practice with the material in a low-risk environment, and to provide feedback on their progress toward mastering the objectives.

3. Students prepare for the summative assessment. After a period of guided practice, formative assessment, feedback, and review for each objective, the students get ready for the unit test. This summative assessment is weighted heavily in determining the grade, so we practice the types of questions they'll encounter on it.

4. Students take the summative assessment. A passing grade is 70 percent. Students who don't pass have to retake the assessment. I give them a test map like the one below showing which objectives they didn't master. The test map is accompanied by an intervention worksheet organized by objective. Students are expected to complete the worksheet sections that they need to practice in order to improve their score.

Differentiation and Incentive

The final stage of the learning cycle is where instruction is truly differentiated. Students who are required to retake their test must show me their completed intervention worksheet so I can see if they're getting closer to the targets. Usually they raise their grade to a passing score on the first retake. Sometimes it takes a couple of rounds, but they have a time limit: They have to finish the retake cycle before the next unit test.

Students who score below 90 percent but have passed the assessment may also go through this cycle. Many students in the 70-89 percent band opt to do the intervention and retake the test.

Students who are content to score at or below 60 percent are faced with extra work they wouldn't have to do if they scored just 10 points higher. This cycle helps them understand that, if they can do the work required to get 70 percent, it's not much more work to get an even higher grade. And the progress is addictive.

This isn't a canned curriculum. I write my own tests, quizzes, test maps, intervention worksheets, homework assignments, and labs. I use sample questions from the state tests as a guide for the types of questions to include on my exams. I do all of the grading and fill out the test maps by hand. It's time consuming, and I have to take work home with me every single day. I do my grading while my own children do their homework. While this learning cycle works, it requires a lot of effort. But I think the final result is worth all that effort.

UPDATE

For the past two years, I've been teaching chemistry and physics in an International Baccalaureate program at a school in Albania. My own children have been students in my classes. I've continued to use this method of instruction with intervention and retesting, and I've also added rewriting lab reports for the B and C rubrics as part of the IB Science Criteria.

More than 90 percent of my students are English language learners, and they definitely appreciate the chance to retake their assessments and use the feedback I give them. One of the Approaches to Learning (ATL) skills that the IB program emphasizes is giving and receiving meaningful feedback. The method I outline above provides an excellent opportunity for students to work on this ATL skill.

In addition, the Learner Profile for IB students includes the attribute of Risk Taker. I think students who believe teachers are willing to help them learn from their mistakes are more likely to be risk takers and invest the time and energy needed to be successful. So all the effort still seems worthwhile.

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Making Failure Harder Work Than Passing | Edutopia

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By the end of the term, Evelyn was sitting in the front row, volunteering to demonstrate how to solve problems, and getting frustrated with herself when her final grade in the class was a B.

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Buljan no longer rushes to cover everything in the pacing guide. Instead, she spends as long as is necessary on the most fundamental structures of math, making sure students know those really well. By her logic, going slower at the beginning is more efficient because her students learn concepts like subtraction well once, rather than having to learn it again in third, fourth and fifth grade.

She applies the Teaching For Robust Understanding of Mathematics (TRU) framework in her classroom. TRU could feel like another "new" math program, but it's actually a simple way to remember the things many good teachers already know. TRU is five basic dimensions that will sound familiar to most teachers: content, cognitive demand, equitable access to content, agency, authority and identity, and uses of assessment.

"I've organized things that the whole field knows, so that there's a small enough number of things to keep in mind," said Alan Schoenfeld, University of California Berkeley professor of education and mathematics, and the person behind the TRU framework. "The main virtue of TRU is not that I'm telling you anything new."

The TRU Framework focuses on how students experience the math, not on what the teacher is doing. "Our framework says you should really be focusing on, 'What does it feel like to be a student in that classroom?" Schoenfeld said. "What's the experience from the point of view of the student? Because that's what shapes who the student becomes." And how a student feels about him or herself has everything to do with motivation, persistence and agency.

When Schoenfeld introduces the TRU Framework to teachers, he often shows three classroom videos and asks educators to make a list of all the behaviors they see happening. As a group they then categorize those observations into the five framework dimensions. In this way, teachers co-construct an outline of important elements in a classroom and can see that when they are present rigorous learning is happening.

"They provide a straightforward way to focus on and reflect on practice in a way that will really make a difference," Schoenfeld said.
TEACHING WITH TRU
Buljan teaches second grade at Glassbrook Elementary school in Hayward, California. She's been using the TRU framework for several years and finds it particularly helpful when her students are having difficulty with a concept. Thinking through the TRU framework lens helps her step back and focus on aspects like agency and authority.

For example, if two students get different answers, she might talk about the idea of proof, asking them to convince one another of their right answer. "That's some of the richest growth, when they're able to have that conversation," Buljan said. Approaching their learning impasse through the TRU dimension of authority helped her to structure students' conversations differently. Focusing on authority and agency in that moment led to student growth.

"You don't ever just use one [element of the framework]," Buljan said. She has found the idea of cognitive demand particularly helpful in her diverse classroom, where students speak 11 different languages, and 90 percent qualify for free or reduced priced lunch. Buljan says teachers have a tendency to provide too much support to English language learners in their attempt to help them access the content.

"The danger we get into is you can scaffold so much that you pull the thinking out of it," Buljan said. "So the trick is, how do we create access into certain kinds of problems, but still make it about the kids doing the proof and doing the thinking themselves?"

The TRU framework has kept Buljan focused on creating cognitive demand for all her students, regardless of language barriers or prior knowledge. She does that largely by focusing on the structure of problems, as opposed to one specific standard in the second grade curriculum. She wants her students to deeply understand fundamental mathematical structures like place value, or how to group and ungroup numbers, so she tries not to give students "rules" that will help with one kind of problem, but later could lead to confusion.

Subtraction is a good example. Some teachers tell students the "rule" is to always subtract the smaller number from the larger number. But that rule gets subverted when students start doing multidigit subtraction and they see each column of numbers as a free floating problem detached from the idea of place value.

Instead, Buljan gives students a lot of thinking time. "It is brutal," she said. "Sticking with second graders long enough for them to push through all that confusion and get to a place where all those underlying structures are part of who they are is tough." But, it's also rewarding. When her students hit challenging problems, she tells them if it was easy, they would already know it. "They totally get it," Buljan said. "They will say things like, 'I'm really learning now,'"

Teaching with the TRU framework has also prompted Buljan to think creatively about how structures she uses for English instruction could be applied to math. She joked that in second grade, no one really cares about math, it's all about reading, so there's a lot of professional development around reading strategies. Buljan has adapted many of them for math.

For example, she's applied writers and readers workshop to math workshop. She usually introduces a topic quickly, gives kids 30 minutes to think through the problem together, and then she does a quick wrap-up. There's very little direct instruction in her math teaching. She also has adapted the idea of a "mentor text," or in math a "mentor problem."

"When you teach reading there's this idea that I'm not teaching you to read this book, I'm using this text to teach you a strategy that you can use to read any book," Buljan said. She's used that same idea to teach kids math problem solving. She's not teaching them how to do a certain type of problem, she's trying to teach how this problem can help her students solve any problem. Instead of teaching rules of adding and subtracting, as a class students focus on describing the parts of the problem, what's happening in the problem and how to talk about patterns in math.

Buljan said her second graders work on just six problems for half the year. The quantities will change and the items being added or subtracted change, but essentially the problem is the same. Within that familiarity, students are identifying parts of the number sentence, using location and quantity to describe patterns, determining what type of problem it is and moving forward with various strategies, but it all feels safe. And for second graders, small changes in the problem feel big - going from adding apples to adding stickers makes it a whole new problem, Buljan said.

To meet the equitable access to content part of the TRU framework for her many English language learners, Buljan has modified the common practice of using sentence frames. She felt a typical sentence frame like " I thought __ because __" funneled student thinking too much. So now she just gives sentence stems like, "I noticed," to help model how students can have an academic conversation. She then monitors how they are using those stems and gives immediate feedback.
COACHING FOR TRU
David Foster from the Silicon Valley Mathematics Initiative shot videos from the first several weeks of Buljan's class and the last several weeks of class to show how she works to develop her students' language, conversation ability, and classroom culture. Foster has been coaching math teachers for decades and he likes the TRU framework because it distills all the research into five easy-to-understand and recognize dimensions. He finds teachers often struggle to get kids to work productively in groups because they haven't spent time at the beginning of the year developing a class culture of trust and collaboration. And they often aren't giving students a worthwhile task that's worth discussing in the first place. He says if teachers pull a problem out of the textbook only one in 90 times will it be a worthwhile problem.

Foster says many of the structures Buljan used intuitively are great strategies to home in on questions of equity, agency, authority and cognitive demand. Sentence frames help students get into the habit of defending their thinking with evidence. Number talks help teachers pinpoint exactly where student misperceptions lie and are a venue for students to practice talking about math. Roles and norms can help ensure every group member has an equitable role.

Good teachers are doing these things already. Foster has seen very effective math classrooms in almost every school he enters. His work is to help all math teachers improve the quality of their teaching, something everyone needs. He finds the teachers who are most effective in this process are the ones who are never completely satisfied. They are the ones who leave at the end of the day worrying about how to reach the one kid who is still struggling. That hunger to improve is a huge part of becoming more effective.
OAKLAND STUDY
Alan Schoenfeld, in collaboration with colleagues at the University of Michigan, recently received a National Science Foundation grant to develop tools to coach math teachers in effective classroom practices. Schoenfeld is focusing his side of the work on high school teachers in Oakland using TRU along with lesson study. The central office math coaches have found the framework useful as a point of departure for conversations with teachers.

"It creates a structure for someone to give feedback and engage in reflecting with that teacher on something the teacher is interested in working on," said Barbara Shreve, Oakland Unified's Secondary Math Coordinator. She's also found it helps administrators on classroom rounds focus in on what they're seeing.

"There have not been a huge number of spaces where teachers get to talk together about the meat of what happens day-to-day in the classroom," Shreve said. She hopes conversations centered around TRU will give everyone the same point of departure and a useful language to move towards solutions. "Success is going to look like having a much more common language for talking about the successes and challenges we're experiencing as educators," she said.

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Five Classroom Dimensions That Show Deep Math Learning Is Happening

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Buljan no longer rushes to cover everything in the pacing guide. Instead, she spends as long as is necessary on the most fundamental structures of math, making sure students know those really well. By her logic, going slower at the beginning is more efficient because her students learn concepts like subtraction well once, rather than having to learn it again in third, fourth and fifth grade.

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Differentiated Instruction

Differentiation provides ways to cope with large workloads and with the feeling that there's never enough time.

© Shutterstock.com/Aimorn1992

Student learning and growth can become obscured by three obstacles that teachers may feel powerless to address: class size, overall workload, and instructional time. These are genuine concerns, so let's take a closer look at each challenge and possible solutions.

The Class Size Challenge

Large classes are a difficult challenge faced by many teachers. Proponents of smaller classes point to studies that show achievement results, with the largest impact appearing to be on early elementary students. To a lesser extent, smaller classes can help English language learners and those who have large skill deficits. Critics counter that costs rise as class size falls and that the impact of smaller classes decreases for older grades. John Hattie found that small class size has "a positive but small effect" on learning. What is more important is teacher expertise in the instructional setting.

Having taught in urban, suburban, and rural schools, and having worked with teachers in these environments, I can say from experience that class size does make instruction and student learning a daily puzzle to solve.

Differentiation solutions for navigating large classes:

1. Transform whole class instruction into small learning teams. Working with 40 or 50 students at once can feel overwhelming at times. Differentiation through content can be done by dividing students into small learning teams of four or five. Provide tasks that specifically target skills or outcomes through respectful work based on students' readiness level. Teams develop internal supports as one resource for shared problem solving before asking for teacher assistance. Strategies to help structure small learning teams:

2. Use a variety of structured dialogue protocols to focus learning experiences. Students need opportunities to make sense of material through reflection and review. Structured protocols have time-sensitive steps with defined roles for participants. This helps learners stay focused on the topic they are processing. The result can be that more students are ready to move forward with product-oriented learning experiences. A few examples of effective protocols:

The Workload Challenge

Workload is a different but at times related issue. A secondary teacher may see 200 students during the day in five classes, with 40 students per class. A large workload can make it difficult for the teacher to get to know all of their students. With large workloads, relationships become even more important. Knowing students' names and something about them is necessary if student buy-in to a supportive learning environment is to happen.

Differentiation solutions that address this issue:

Learning Profile Cards: Get to know all students from their perspective. Use these cards to thoughtfully create teams based on more than behavior.

Learning preferences through art: A high school math teacher used this approach to group students. His students evaluated themselves based on an inventory, creating designs that represented themselves as squiggles, circles, squares, or triangles. The students identified a secondary trait that also represented themselves, which helped the teacher to avoid thinking of them as one-dimensional.

Norms: Student-generated norms can reflect their ideas about what makes a supportive environment. Adults and students must abide by the norms. Students and the teacher can coach anyone in the room on breaches in norms.

I Wish My Teacher Knew: The approach presented in this book empowers students to share about themselves in a private way. Students can use sticky notes, emails, or private direct postings to the teacher. The insights can provide needed perspective that informs a teacher's actions. This ABC video shows the tremendous effect this can have:

The Time Challenge

My teaching career started in the Chicago Public Schools system, where the classes were 40 minutes long. As a first-year teacher, it was a challenge to figure out how best to manage learning in such a limited span. It felt like the period ended just when we were getting into the thick of learning experiences. Later in my career, I taught classes that were 100 minutes long. At first, this longer time frame seemed as challenging as the 40-minute span.

Studies on instructional time focus on the length of the school day and on extending the school year. Here we'll focus on the day. We should look at how we can create learning experiences within the time frame that place students in the role of active learners instead of passive receptors.

Differentiation solutions: Teacher efficacy with a variety of methods is as important with instructional time as it is with the number of students. Maintaining student engagement is critical. Use a variety of learning experiences that keep students' attention on the learning outcomes. Here are some considerations:

1. Focus students on deeper learning. Plan what students need to know, understand, and do, or KUD (to borrow a term from Carol Ann Tomlinson). With this clear focus on the end in mind, plan a variety of activities and experiences that build connections for students based on their different needs. Each activity must pass the acid test of the KUD. Include up to three processing experiences. Use informal formative reflective moments, in which students consider what they understood and did not understand from the lesson. These moments may be a quick journal write-up or partner talk. Or use the protocols shared above. Students need opportunities to check their understanding before moving forward on their learning journey.

2. Plan from the learner's perspective. Provide activities that students find meaningful and engaging. If students don't care for the task, their attention may wander. Follow the Goldilocks Rule: The time frame cannot be too long or some students will be done early or start too late. Downtime in the midst of work can lead to behavior management issues. If the time frame is too short, some students will feel frustration at being unable to finish, which could lead them to shut down. Ensure that the activity appropriately meets the readiness needs of each participant, from the quick learner to those who need more support.

Please share your strategies to overcome these challenges, so all can learn.

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Differentiated Instruction Differentiation provides ways to cope with large workloads and with the feeling that there's never enough time. © Shutterstock.com/Aimorn1992 Student learning and growth can become obscured by three obstacles that teachers may feel powerless to address: class size, overall workload, and instructional time.

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Punishment, Rewards, and Commitment

The issue with classroom management policies in most institutions is that it operates on a carrot-and-stick model. Carrots include PBIS (Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports), Classroom Economy, and other class rewards. Sticks include punishment such as detention, suspension, or withholding from other activities. Teachers and educational leaders believe that these measures will help control the students. However, self-persuasion produces more powerful and longer-lasting benefits than direct techniques of persuasion produce. The key is letting the students convince themselves.

The goal of self-persuasion is to create cognitive dissonance in the mind of the one being persuaded. Cognitive dissonance is characterized by holding opposing thoughts. (Example: "I am a good person, but I just lied.") This produces discomfort, and humans put pressure on themselves to reduce or eliminate the dissonance by telling themselves a story. (Example: "The teacher made me lie.")

Punishment

In 1965, Jonathan Freedman conducted a study in which he presented preschoolers with an attractive, desired, "Forbidden Toy." One group was told not to touch it or they would be severely punished, and the other group was told not to touch the toy because it was wrong. He left the room, and the preschoolers stayed away from the toy. Afterward, the children were asked how much they wanted the toy. The severe threat group still really wanted it, but the mild threat group were less interested.

Weeks later, Freedman pulled the students out of class one by one and had them do a drawing test. While he examined their drawings, he allowed them to play with any toy they wanted. Of the severe threat group, 77 percent played with the Forbidden Toy, while only 33 percent of the moderate threat group engaged with it. This latter group had to justify to themselves why they did not want to play with the Forbidden Toy since the external motivation (the degree of punishment) was not strong enough by itself. Therefore, they convinced themselves that the toy was not very attractive.

Recently studies (PDF) have shown that using fear in high-stakes testing actually lowers performance on that test.

Rewards

Programs like Classroom Economy may appear to work because the extrinsic rewards offer short-term motivation. Stanford's Mark Lepper and David Greene found that those being offered a reward "tended to work more quickly," yet were less likely to do the puzzles later. Extrinsic motivation is found in meta-analysis (PDF) after meta-analysis to produce only short-term effects (at best).

Commitment

The goal here is getting people to commit to something, but it has to be their own decision. According to Robert Cialdini's Six Principles of Influence, "Once we have made a choice or taken a stand, we will encounter personal and interpersonal pressures to behave consistently with that commitment."

Punishment and rewards may have their place in certain circumstances, but we should never rely on these methods to persuade the class to comply with requests. Instead, classrooms should model their management on self-persuasion.

7 Examples of Self-Persuasion

1. Two Lines

Dan Pink, in his show Crowd Control, got people to stop double dipping their chips in guacamole by setting up bowls for double dippers and single dippers. Before class, form two lines called "Ready to Learn" and "Going to Misbehave." Then have students select a line to stand in.

2. Questions With a Scale

In the book Instant Influence, Yale Professor Dr. Michael Pantalon describes a counterintuitive way for people to persuade themselves.

First ask students, "On a scale of one to ten, how ready are you to . . . ?"
Then ask, "Why didn't you pick the lower number?"

For example: "On a scale of one to ten, how likely are you to do your homework tonight?" The follow-up question is key to their persuading themselves that they are likely to complete the task.

3. The Goal Sheet

A simple form, filled out every class period, has students commit to learning at the beginning of the class, and then has them review their commitment at the end of class.

4. Student-Created Rules

Have the students set the class rules. Violating those rules creates cognitive dissonance.

5. Public Goals

If students publicly declare goals, they become accountable not only to themselves, but to others as well. No one wants to think of him- or herself as a hypocrite. Therefore, we convince ourselves that our commitment should be honored or we would feel this shame.

6. Remind by Asking

If you tell students what they are supposed to be doing, it may cause psychological reactance, an aversive reaction caused by a real or perceived reduction in autonomy or freedom. However, if you ask students what they are going to do, the freedom to choose is one of the most persuasive tactics ever found.

7. Commitment Cards

This is one reason that the De La Salle High School football team holds the record for the longest winning streak. They all made commitment cards each week and were held accountable by a partner.

In conclusion, self-persuasion takes patience and some critical thinking. But when it's May and the class next door is still unmotivated through rewards and punishments, your own class will be asking you for more.

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Strategies to Build Intrinsic Motivation | Edutopia

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The issue with classroom management policies in most institutions is that it operates on a carrot-and-stick model. Carrots include PBIS (Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports), Classroom Economy, and other class rewards. Sticks include punishment such as detention, suspension, or withholding from other activities. Teachers and educational leaders believe that these measures will help control the students.

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I have discovered that there are five components of effective classroom management that establish structures strong enough to entice and motivate student learning:

1. Developing effective working relationships with students

2. Training students on how learning takes place in your classroom

3. Protecting and leveraging time

4. Anticipating student behaviors in well-written lesson plans

5. Establishing standards of behavior that promote student learning

1. Develop Effective Working Relationships With Your Students

The most important component of classroom management is relationships. The relationships with my students start at the door when I shake the their hand and greet them with a smile (regardless of what misbehaviors might have happened the day before). Those relationships are strengthened, for example, when I use a student's name and actively praise him or her. Those relationships are solidified when I spend individual time with each student to get to know them and then use that knowledge to create personal learning opportunities.

From the professional development program, Capturing Kids' Hearts, there was one takeaway that benefited me the most: If I have a good relationship with my students, I can push them harder and further to learn because they trust me.

2. Train Your Students on How Learning Takes Place in Your Classroom

Your students need to know that you do not expect them to instantly learn, that everyone has an individual process for learning, and that if they follow your guidance, they will be successful in learning.

This is more than just talking about your homework policy, late work, and absences. It is revealing to your students how you are going to create -- with them -- a highly effective, low-maintenance, learning team. For example, I discuss with my students that the true power of a strategy such as Cornell Notes is not dividing the paper in two parts. The benefit of that strategy comes from writing the questions on the left side of the paper while reviewing their notes, and then taking the time to summarize what they learned. You have a learning philosophy that guides your teaching style; teach it to your students. Clearly map out for your students what you do to help them learn so that when you do it, they know what you are doing and why, and they will be more willing to help.

3. Protect and Leverage Your Time

An effective classroom manager must be prepared with materials and know how to transition students from one activity to another without wasting time. The number one thing we could do to increase our students' academic performance is to increase the time spent on learning. Time is chipped away by taking attendance, announcements, summons to the office, restroom breaks, pep rally schedules, class meetings, special presentations, awards ceremonies, celebrations, and a myriad of other things.

Some disruptions and time stealers we cannot avoid, but being successful at managing the classroom also includes managing the time, protecting it, and leveraging it to your best advantage. In Teach Like a Champion, author Doug Lemov effectively demonstrates how to use routines tominimize lost time in activities like handing out papers; he also demonstrates routines to help students train their minds to adopt useful habits and skills, like being able to quickly answer and ask questions.

4. Anticipate Your Students' Behaviors in Well-Written Lesson Plans

Channeling student behaviors, interests, and attention into productive learning paths requires intuitive lesson planning. First, focus on how students will be able to demonstrate that they understand and have achieved the learning objective, emphasizes Grant Wiggins, coauthor with Jason McTighe of Understanding by Design. Then build learning activities that lead students to that point.

According to Robert Marzano, an education researcher, the focus of our lesson planning efforts should be getting students to ask and answer their own questions. Coming up with those types of questions on the spur of the moment can be difficult, but with a little advanced thought, you can incorporate those types of questions into your lesson plans. Ultimately, the best discipline management plan is a good lesson plan.

5. Establish Behavioral Standards

These standards should promote learning, as well as consequences that diminish or eliminate behaviors that impede learning. They shouldn't be so detailed as to list every behavior and the corresponding consequence for failure to comply, but they should hit the main points regarding showing respect, communicating correctly, and coming prepared to learn. The standards should also interact smoothly with the other four components, especially teaching your students how learning takes place in your classroom.

I have learned to frame each lesson as it is taught. This means that for each learning activity, I explain the standards of performance, as well as the limits of behavior. For example:

You have 15 minutes, and you will be working with your partner on designing a structure out of newspaper that will reach the ceiling. You may use inside voices to quietly discuss your plans with your partner. If you have questions, please put the red cup on your desk, and I will come and help you as soon as possible. Meanwhile, keep working on other things until I get there.

From Day One

Establishing an effective plan for classroom management has to begin at the start of school, but it doesn't end there. Throughout the year, we have to be consistent and persistent in developing relationships of trust, following and teaching the best learning theories, honoring student time, being responsive to student behaviors and needs in our lesson plans, and holding true to high and rigorous standards of learning behavior. We also need to be flexible and adjust to tangles that can derail even the best management plans. What classroom management practices have worked best for you?

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The 5 Priorities of Classroom Management | Edutopia

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I have discovered that there are five components of effective classroom management that establish structures strong enough to entice and motivate student learning: Developing effective working relationships with students Training students on how learning takes place in your classroom Protecting and leveraging time Anticipating student behaviors in well-written lesson plans Establishing standards of behavior that promote student learning The most important component of classroom management is relationships.