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Reading To Deaf Children Who Sign: A Response to Williams (2012) and Suggestions For Future Research

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Reading To Deaf Children Who Sign: A Response to Williams (2012) and Suggestions For Future Research

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by Jean Andrews American Annals of the Deaf Vol. 157 No. 3 2012 p. 307-319.

Summary

This article is a response to Williams article published in the Winter issue 2012 regarding the classroom interventions to teach vocabulary to hearing impaired students. The approaches were successful with hearing children but adapted for hearing impaired students. The article focuses on three areas of classroom interventions involving a whole language approach. The results showed that using cloze methods for hearing students differed in how students defined words using more context clues while deaf students re-read the clues and attempted to use their prior knowledge which was not always accurate. In addition, deaf students unsuccessfully attempted to use graphemic methods. For the purpose of my research I focused on the word attack strategies that the authors used with older deaf students such as cloze methods in reading expository texts where vocabulary words were missing and students had to fill in the blank. The more advanced deaf reader used phonemic decoding methods. I can only infer that higher level students are more proficient with decoding phonemes and root words therefore this is a vital skill to increase vocabulary and therefore reading skills. The lower level readers chose incorrect answers when using sound decoding strategies. However, deaf students demonstrate phonemic awareness and these students were signing deaf students. I hypothesize that my oral students will be more successful in decoding strategies to correctly fill in blanks using the cloze method.

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Are We Hammering Square Pegs Into Round Holes? An Investigation of the Meta-Analyses of Reading Research with Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing and Students Who are Hearing.

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Are We Hammering Square Pegs Into Round Holes? An Investigation of the Meta-Analyses of Reading Research with Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing and Students Who are Hearing.

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by Ye Wang and Cheri William American Annals of the Deaf Vol. 159, Nov. 4, 2014. p, 323-345

Summary

This purpose of this research is to use meta-analyses of reading research to evaluate patterns of similarities and differences of various sources to disseminate strategies used for deaf, hard-of-hearing, and hearing ELL students. The Wang and Williams identify the following strategies as effective with Deaf students, although DHH students' performances were lower than hearing peers. The first strategy is Alphabetics, or using phonemic awareness in providing vocabulary instruction. The research indicated that phonological coding skills predicted 11% of the variance in DHH students' reading level. The authors also noted the lack of research and evidence in this area. The next skill is fluency. These results showed differentiated proof that this skill is critical to independent oral reading. The evidence was not sufficient to prove that this intervention makes a difference in reading ability with deaf students. The next skill is vocabulary instruction. The authors support research that provides evidence for combining explicit and implicit means with varying degrees of experiences with repetition. Some evidence suggests that computer programs teaching vocabulary is valuable with teaching deaf students. The next strategy is Morphology or the study of root word instruction at the student's reading level may be helpful but the research with the deaf lacked evidence. Finally Text Comprehension is the next method. This method has proven valuable with ELL students with small group instruction, teacher modeling and the use of other strategies at the same time. Much of the research is limited and does not give a clear indicator on truly research based methods to use to teach vocabulary for deaf students. I feel my research can only potentially add to the limited information available and will be valuable to me in teaching and hopefully to others too.

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Phonological Awareness and Decoding in Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Students Who Use Visual Phonics

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Phonological Awareness and Decoding in Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Students Who Use Visual Phonics

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by Rachel Narr Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education Advance Access Published January 21, 2008

Summary

The author's purpose of this research is to analyze the correlation between phonemic awareness ability, decoding, reading ability, and the length of time in direct literacy instruction with visual phonics with Deaf and Hard of Hearing K-3 students. This study will be helpful in identifying methods to use in instruction but my students are oral students (not using sign language) and are middle school age. The results demonstrate the correlation between the use of visual cues and phonological awareness and decoding skill however did not show a connection between time in literacy instruction and rhyme judgement. Visual Phonics provides a visual, tactile, and kinesthetic avenue for phonemic awareness . The authors felt that the results show that the "students performance on decoding task showed that the seem to be storing labels for concepts phonologically" (2008). The researchers experienced some limitations that are not uncommon in deaf education, such as small participant size due to caseload, and absenteeism. I anticipate I will have similar disadvantages in getting solid results. However I am optimistic that my results will guide me to better instruction to the valuable skill of vocabulary building.

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An Examination of Twenty Literacy, Science, and Mathematics Practices Used to Educate Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

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An Examination of Twenty Literacy, Science, and Mathematics Practices Used to Educate Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

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American Annals of the Deaf October 1, 2006 by Brenda Stephenson and Susan Easterbrooks.

Summary

In this article the authors compiled resources and information on best practices for deaf students in the core areas of literacy, science, and math (2006). The authors kept to the theme of the differences and difficulty in educating deaf students. They have reviewed over 500 articles and highlight the most effective methods based on evidence (2006).  In addition, the authors further support the claims of the lack of research in the area of how to teach the deaf and are left to sharing their own experience for legitimacy of the methods and their usefulness. Although I teach all subjects, for the purpose of my action research I will focus on the practices reviewed in the area of literacy and approaches to teaching vocabulary. The authors examine evidence based practices for teaching literacy. One of the methods that will be helpful in my research is phonemic awareness and phonic. They suggest to accommodate for oral students using Visual Phonics, Cued Speech, or Teacher made visuals. The authors identify six phonemic skills such as phoneme isolation, phoneme identity, phoneme categorization, phoneme blending, phoneme segmentation, and phoneme deletion for the purpose of using letter to sound correspondence and to apply in reading and vocabulary integration. This research area is "still developing", so I feel it will be a valuable source and research area for me to study its effectiveness with oral deaf students.

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Reading Fluency and Students WhoAre Deaf or Hard of Hearing:Synthesis of the ResearchJohn L. Luckner and Jennifer Urbach

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Reading Fluency and Students WhoAre Deaf or Hard of Hearing:Synthesis of the ResearchJohn L. Luckner and Jennifer Urbach

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS QUARTERLY · JANUARY 2012

The online version of this article can be found at: DOI: 10.1177/1525740111412582 Communication Disorders Quarterly published online 21 November 2011 http://cdq.sagepub.com/content/early/2011/11/18/1525740111412582

Summary

The article compares and analyzes 6 articles written about fluency and how it affects learning to read in DHH students.

The table shown below displays the authors Luckner and Urbach's process toward fluency from letter recognition to fluent reading.

Luckner and Urbach 3 Table 1. Fluency Levels and Processing Tasks Level 1—Letter Sample tasks: Distinguish the features of letters Access the visual information rapidly and automatically See letters not as isolated items but in connection with other letters within words Level 2—Word Sample tasks Recognize whole words quickly, both short and more complex ones; be free to concentrate on meaning Recognize familiar words easily Use word parts automatically in a predominantly unconscious process Identify words rapidly while reading continuous text Treat words as connected rather than isolated items Level 3—Phrase and Sentence Sample tasks: Separate language into phrases that make sense Notice and use punctuation to assist in identifying phrase units and sentence structure Notice and use sentence structure as key to meaning Notice and use sentence structure to support reading momentum Stress words in ways that reflect the author’s meaning Understand how one sentence flows into another in the creation of meaningful text Level 4—Text Sample tasks: Anticipate what will logically come next Use previous information, syntax, vocabulary, and the writer’s tone to provide momentum while reading Understand and use the organization of the text to process it effectively Use personal background knowledge to support momentum

The authors could only find 6 studies with deaf and hearing impaired students in the last 39 years that were peered reviewed scholarly articles. So they compared studies from 1970 to 2009, and concluded that more research needs to be done in the area of reading development in deaf education. They also reiterated the need for fluency to be focused on with deaf students as it is a critical skill for reading progress with hearing and deaf students.

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Phonological Awareness and Decoding in Deaf/
Hard-of-Hearing Students Who Use Visual Phonics
Rachel F. Narr
California State University, Northridge

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Phonological Awareness and Decoding in Deaf/
Hard-of-Hearing Students Who Use Visual Phonics
Rachel F. Narr
California State University, Northridge

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1. J. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ. (2008)doi: 10.1093/deafed/enm064First published online: January 21, 2008

2. Summary

This is a study that assessed the correlation between using hand gestures called visual phonics not as a communication method but to give visual cues for the phonemes of words. The study examined the relationship between phonemic awareness, decoding task, and length of time in literacy using visual cues. The teachers used the A-Z reading program, leveled readers, and Classroom Reading Inventory as instructional methods. Curriculum based assessments were used to monitor progress as Standardized testing was inaccurate for some students due to their low level. Deaf students are behind their peers in phonetic awareness and decoding abilities but the use of visual phonics alleviated the problem of the lack of hearing and proved to be beneficial by providing visual, tactile, and kinesthetic methods of instruction. These deaf and hard of hearing students from kindergarten through 3rd grade displayed a difference increased ability to perform using phonics, decoding and rhyming skills from instructional methods using visual cues, but the length of time of instruction did not impact their phonetic abilities.

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Response: Strategies for Vocabulary Instruction - Part One

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Response: Strategies for Vocabulary Instruction - Part One

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Larry Ferlazzo, ELL Specialist and blogger compiles information from other ELL colleagues on presenting vocabulary.

1. High expectations in using language and using academic discourse.

2. Provide time to play with words

3. sorting terms

4. Use all senses to teach vocab. using feel, taste, see, smell, hear

5. Wall words

6. illustrate

7. Memory Stickers

Celebrate the mastery of every word.

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Modeling Reading Vocabulary Learning in Deaf Children in Bilingual Education Programs

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Modeling Reading Vocabulary Learning in Deaf Children in Bilingual Education Programs

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Daan Hermans, Harry Knoors, Ellen Ormel, Ludo Verhoeven

Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education Advance Access published Nov. 28, 2007

Summary

This research is an introduction of the Model Of Lexical Development and a comparison to the Model of Lexical Development in Deaf Children and how this leads to "lexical fossilization" that prevents deaf children from reaching that final stage of language development. The written word's stages go through the semantic, syntactic, morphological, and the final stage the orthographic. The effect on teaching strategies are the understanding that learning meanings is not enough, students must develop written lexicon that contains the syntactic and morphological parts of each word. The phonological system of words is acquired through intensive exposure to the printed word. However in order to acquire knowledge of the structure of the written and spoken words a phonemic and whole language approach is recommended. Sign language lemma mediation stage becomes the most involved level of language development and is the final stage of an independent continuous processing of natural language.

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Teaching Vocabulary
Across the Curriculum
William P. Bintz

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Teaching Vocabulary
Across the Curriculum
William P. Bintz

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Middle School Journal March 2011 p. 53

Middle School Journal March 2011

Summary

Middle school vocabulary instruction has been an important subject at times and ignored at others. This article is important to my research as its goal is to define vocabulary, how vocabulary is learned, when vocabulary learning begins, and the correlation between reading and vocabulary. A limiting factor for my research in this article is it addresses hearing children only, however I feel I must first begin here with how children learn vocabulary and modify strategies to accommodate hearing impaired students. The research shows that vocabulary learning is continuous and lifelong. Also children learn vocabulary at 2,000 to 4,000 words per year. However, this differs greatly for hearing impaired students. My students require direct instruction on all words because they are less likely to learn words incidentally as hearing children learn words and concepts. As students enter middle school, many are low level readers that is causing a greater gap in achievement as the "depth and breadth" of vocabulary becomes more complicated. So the author recommends various strategies to teach middle school students. The strategies may be a good source for me to consider to use for my action research. The recommendations from the author are as follows:

alphaboxes

word questioning

linear arrays

polar opposites

story impressions

word sorts for narrative text

word sorts for expository text

anticipation guides

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Powerpoint Presentation: Strategies for Teaching Deaf Students Vocabulary

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Powerpoint Presentation: Strategies for Teaching Deaf Students Vocabulary

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EVIDENCE OF BEST PRACTICE MODELS AND OUTCOMES IN
THE EDUCATION OF DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING
CHILDREN:
AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW
By
Marc Marschark, Ph D and Patricia E Spencer, Ph D,
Center for Education Research Partnerships (CERP),
National Technical Institute for the Deaf,
Rochester Institute of Technology.
A report commissioned by the NCSE
2009

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EVIDENCE OF BEST PRACTICE MODELS AND OUTCOMES IN
THE EDUCATION OF DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARING
CHILDREN:
AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW
By
Marc Marschark, Ph D and Patricia E Spencer, Ph D,
Center for Education Research Partnerships (CERP),
National Technical Institute for the Deaf,
Rochester Institute of Technology.
A report commissioned by the NCSE
2009

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http://ncse.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/1_NCSE_Deaf.pdf

Summary

This research studies various methods for instruction of deaf and hard of hearing students. The low reading abilities of children with hearing loss have been found to associate low vocabulary skills Since their vocabulary knowledge tends to be less rich or complete than that of hearing children due to having seen or heard the words in fewer contexts, they have particular weakness in comprehending multiple meanings for the same word. It is suggested that traditional methods of definitions and sentence writing not be used with hearing impaired students for full integration of the new word. The authors report that schematic representations, semantic feature analysis, and repeated use of the word in a natural context is better way to teach vocabulary that will become meaningful to deaf students. The authors discuss a method known as "chaining" which is thought to provide opportunities to teach vocabulary various ways. This involves the teacher directly teaching a new word with sign or fingerspelling, then print to connect with meaning. The authors report that m ost research findings shows that vocabulary development continues to be limited for deaf and hard-of-hearing children and agrees it is an area in which special efforts need to be made. A common theme is that vocabulary instruction needs to occur in meaningful contexts as opposed to simple drill and practice or definition memorization. Also deaf students m ust have direct instruction demonstrating context for identifying word meanings the use of specific activities that build understanding about root and base words, prefixes and suffixes by identifying the print. This level of understanding words in print requires knowledge of phonology, semantics, vocabulary and syntax. This will be helpful to me in researching the best practices for teaching vocabulary to hearing impaired students.

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Examining Vocabulary Development Strategies Applied to Hearing Impaired Youths
GuzinKarasu, UmitGirgin, YildizUzuner, Zehranur Kaya
ANADOLU UNIVERSITY
ESKISEHIR, TURKIYE

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Examining Vocabulary Development Strategies Applied to Hearing Impaired Youths
GuzinKarasu, UmitGirgin, YildizUzuner, Zehranur Kaya
ANADOLU UNIVERSITY
ESKISEHIR, TURKIYE

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1. Principles of the Balanced Literacy Instruction: a)All forms of expressive and receptive language work together. b) Focus is on meaning of written language in authentic context. c) Classrooms are communities of learners in which literacy is acquired through use. d) Students are motivated when given choice and ownership. e) Literacy development is part of an integrated curriculum. f) Reading behaviors of skilled readers reveal what instruction should accomplish. g) Processes and products are equally important. h) Meaningful, functional and purposeful literacy activities must be instructed in authentic contexts

2.Indirect and Direct Vocabulary Instruction Strategies Direct Vocabulary Instruction Strategies: a) Working on words in advance of reading. b) Planning which words to teach and how to teach them. c) Moving from the known to the unknown when teaching vocabulary. d) Matching, definition, word maps, semantic feature analysis and the others… Indirect Vocabulary Instruction Strategies: a)Using context clues. b) Developing dictionary skills and motivation to use dictionaries. d)Identifying meaning through roots and affixes) Daily spoken language experiences, listen to read, close test, answering the question and the others…

3. The used strategies and activities: definition,matching, word maps, underlying the important words in the text, informing the students about the content of the following activities, word games and puzzles. The strategies of asking questions to improve hearing impaired students’ vocabulary development, fill in the blanks an guessing the meaning of the word related to the text context have been used as indirect vocabulary development.

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Vocabulary Instruction for the Development of American Sign Language Deaf Children: An Investigation into Teacher Knowledge and Practice

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Vocabulary Instruction for the Development of American Sign Language Deaf Children: An Investigation into Teacher Knowledge and Practice

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Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/3237 Author: Lianna Pizzo Doctoral Dissertation Boson College 2013

Summary

The author investigates the learning style of deaf children and the best methods to teach vocabulary. She identifies deaf children are visual learners, however I have found this is not always the case! In addition, retention, and memory should be the ultimate goal. She writes about various methods to use to accomplish this goal such as information from The Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center at Gallaudet University which supports the practice of shared reading with young deaf children. The resulting program. T he Shared Reading Project (SRP), “is designed to teach parents and caregivers how to read to their deaf and hard of hearing children using American Sign Language, and to use strategies to make book sharing most effective” for deaf children. Some reading strategies are as follows:

1. Deaf readers translate stories using American Sign Language. 2. Deaf readers keep both languages visible (ASL and English). 3. Deaf readers are not constrained by the text. 4. Deaf readers re-read stories on a storytelling to story reading continuum. 5. Deaf readers follow the child's lead. 6. Deaf readers make what is implied explicit. 7. Deaf readers adjust sign placement to fit the story. 8. Deaf readers adjust signing style to fit the story. 9. Deaf readers connect concepts in the story to the real world. 10. Deaf readers use attention maintenance strategies. 11. Deaf readers use eye gaze to elicit participation. 12. Deaf readers engage in role-play to extend concepts. 13. Deaf readers use ASL variations to sign repetitive English phrases. 14. Deaf readers provide a positive and reinforcing environment. 15. Deaf readers expect the child to become literate.

The author also suggest several Reading Programs designed for deaf children such as • Reading Milestones • Reading Bridge • Edmark Reading Program • Fairview Reading Program • Reading Recovery

The author also reveals a Four-Part Vocabulary Program as a framework for instructional strategies to use with deaf children in teaching the vital vocabulary based on data collected. The Vocabulary Program is as follows: Providing Varied Language Rich Experiences, Promoting Word Consciousness, Teaching Individual Words (Signs), Teaching Word Learning Strategies (sign). Some activities identified by Pizzo for the four part program is as follows:

• Read-alouds • Casually drawing attention to words and their meanings • Providing embedded meanings during conversation • Casually labeling basic vocabulary in conversation • Access to varied literature • Focus on variety of language experiences Teaching Individual Words • Direct instruction of word meanings • Providing definitional information about words • Providing contextual information about words • Use of wait time during discussion • Multiple exposures of words • Providing new labels for previously learned concepts (synonyms) • Providing clarifications on words meanings Teaching Word Learning Strategies • Use of context to figure out new word meanings • Use of reference materials to figure out new word meanings • Use of word parts to figure out new word meanings • Use of patterns in words to figure out new meanings Teaching Word Consciousness • Playing games with words • Developing metacognition about words • Promoting a positive affective stance toward words • Pointing out differences between spoken/sign language and print • Discussing words with multiple meanings.

Finally, teachers should use 5 instructional strategies when teaching deaf children. These methods are as follows: • Teachers should be skilled in using the language of their students • Explicit instruction of both language and literacy is necessary • Instruction should promote higher-order language use and critical thinking • Scaffolding children’s learning is important for instruction • Instruction should involve the use of visual supports.

Deaf education teachers should be proficient in all these skills in order to give access to vocabulary impoverished students due to deafness. For the purpose of my research, I can use these methods as a guide in teaching vocabulary to deaf oral students.

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Reading Vocabulary Knowledge and Deafness
Peter V. Paul
Ohio State University 

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Reading Vocabulary Knowledge and Deafness
Peter V. Paul
Ohio State University 

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http://jdsde.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/1/3.1.full.pdf

1. With respect to reading vocabulary knowledge and deafness, this article addresses two broad questions: (1) Why is vocabulary knowledge related to reading comprehension ability? (2) How is reading vocabulary (i.e., word meanings) acquired? The article argues that the answers to these questions are best addressed by a vocabulary acquisition model labeled the knowledge model. Both breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge are critical. It is necessary to teach vocabulary, especially to poor readers, who are not likely to derive many word meanings from the use of context during natural acquisition during reading for enjoyment. On

2. It is important to "teach" vocabulary. To develop depth of vocabulary knowledge, teachers should avoid the use of definitions. Rather use context so students feel ownership. 3.Relate to previous experiences

4. Give opportunities to encounter the word frequently.

5. Give meaning to the word these concepts are, respectively, integration, repetition, and meaningful use. .. . (p. 59)

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The Efficacy of Utilizing a Phonics Treatment
Package with Middle School Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing Students
Beverly J. Trezek
The Ohio State University
Kimber W. Malmgren
University of Wisconsin-Madison

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The Efficacy of Utilizing a Phonics Treatment
Package with Middle School Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing Students
Beverly J. Trezek
The Ohio State University
Kimber W. Malmgren
University of Wisconsin-Madison

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1. J. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ. (Summer 2005) 10 (3): 256-271.doi: 10.1093/deafed/eni028First published online: April 27, 2005

2. Summary

3. This study support the idea that deaf and hard-of-hearing children are able to utilize alternative systems to develop phonological awareness That are not dependent on the ability to hear sounds or accurately pronounce words. A quasi-experimental, pre and post test design was used in this study that evaluated the ability of students to produce the desired result using a phonics treatment package with middle school deaf students. The results indicate that the acquisition of words is not dependent upon the degree of hearing loss.

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Implications of Utilizing a Phonics-Based Reading
Curriculum With Children Who Are Deaf or
Hard of Hearing
Beverly J. Trezek
DePaul University
Ye Wang
Teachers College

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Implications of Utilizing a Phonics-Based Reading
Curriculum With Children Who Are Deaf or
Hard of Hearing
Beverly J. Trezek
DePaul University
Ye Wang
Teachers College

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1. J. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ. (Spring 2006) 11 (2): 202-213.doi: 10.1093/deafed/enj031First published online: February 1, 2006

2. B. J. Trezek and K. W. Malmgren (2005),

3. Summary

4. This study demonstrated that given 1 year of instruction from a phonics-based reading curriculum supplemented by Visual Phonics, kindergarten and first-grade students who were deaf or hard of hearing demonstrated improvements in beginning reading skills as measured by standardized assessments of (a) word reading, (b) pseudoword decoding, and (c) reading comprehension. The acquisition of beginning reading skills did not vary with degree of hearing loss. All benefitted equally well from this phonics-based reading curriculum while using the Visual Phonics method of giving cues as to the phonemic sounds. This finding is consistent with the original research by Trezek and Malmgren in 2005 when a similar intervention was used with deaf and hard of hearing middle school students. This will be helpful for my research using phonemic vocabulary instruction and assessment, but will be used with oral deaf students.