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How would you apply the five domains model in a zoo setting?

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How would you apply the five domains model in a zoo setting?

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What might it look like to apply this model in practice in a zoo? How might you make decisions about welfare concerns or opportunities to improve welfare for each animal in your care?

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Health, environment, nutrition and mental 

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Health, environment, nutrition and mental 

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Age and health maybe restricting the use of  the enrichment meaning she might not be getting the nutritional value to spend time her den, the mental state can affect the animal due to it being in a mixed aged enclosure

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The younger bears could be bullying her away from the better parts of the food and taking it for themselves which could affect her

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Bear may be suffering from arthritis/other health problem, causing it to struggle moving- cold weather may affect this
Suggestion would be to move feeders/enrichment lower to allow her to still receive nutrition
Potentially provide supplements
Veterinary attention may be required to find what is wrong with the bear

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The young bears may be using the log feeders which is preventing the geriatric bear from being able to.
Improvement may be having more enrichment in the enclosure ( maybe inside)

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The older female bear may be isolating herself due to disturbances from the younger bears. With less energy and tolerance to the other bears, she may be forced to display antisocial behaviour during the day, taking a phycological toll an her.

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The geriatric bear may benefit to being housed with other bears of a similar age so the competition for food may be less and more similar energy levels and life stages.

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Nutrition: no energy due to poor nutrition
Environment: too high for her age, potentially
sharp edges,
Health: arthritis, obesity, potential pain,
Behaviour: territorial her/and or younger bears
Mental state: depression, fear of the other bears

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May be intimidated by younger conspecifics, so stays in her den more often. Could be solved by separate housing 24/7, rather than just overnight?

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All 5 domains could be applied to the situation
Nutrition - she could not be getting the right diet for her age resulting in lower activity levels.
Physical environment- Might not be easy access to the higher areas and younger bears could be protecting higher areas.
Health - due to the age of the animal it could be developing joint problems.
Behavioural interactions - younger bears could be food guarding or bullying the older bear resulting in it staying away from ares they are in.
Mental domain - bear could be scared of the other there fore avoiding them while in the shared enclosure.

More information could be useful like if the bear has joint problems, the physical design of the enclose and if they are only fed with the elevated feeders

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How to improve welfare for all animals involved:

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How to improve welfare for all animals involved:

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Monitoring behaviour of the two younger bears
visual health checks of the older bear, could be arthritic.
Potentially feed them separately, the two younger bears together and provide more enrichment / motivation for the older bear, encouraging it to move around for food.

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Provide examples of welfare compromise due to health in zoos (search for news articles on this topic)

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Provide examples of welfare compromise due to health in zoos (search for news articles on this topic)

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Can you name any nutritional challenges in specific zoo species? Try to provide a link to an article to support your point. 

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Can you name any nutritional challenges in specific zoo species? Try to provide a link to an article to support your point. 

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Can you suggest what affective states may be involved?

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Elephants are well fed in zoos, however, they don't exercise enough, which causes obesity.

Possible affective state:
Stress caused by pain (obesity can cause foot problems and arthritis).

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Animal welfare officers yesterday urged zoos to phase out keeping elephants, after two damning reports found the animals suffer serious health problems and die much younger in captivity.

Elephants born and raised in zoos live less than half as long as those living in their native Africa and Asia, despite being protected from predators and having better care, according to one of the reports.

Many of the deaths are thought to be linked to obesity, because the animals are well fed but get very little exercise in their small enclosures. Scientists also blamed high stress levels, which the animals suffer most after being transferred between zoos and being separated from their mothers.

Scientists called on zoos to introduce immediate health checks on elephants to identify obese and stressed animals.

In one study, researchers led by Ros Clubb, a wildlife scientific officer at the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, analysed records of 786 Asian and African female elephants kept in European zoos between 1960 and 2005. They then compared the lifespans of the captive animals with Asian elephants used by a logging company in Burma, and African elephants living in the Amboseli national park in Kenya.

Asian elephants born in captivity typically lived for 18.9 years, while those used as working animals in Burma survived for 41.7 years. African elephants also fared worse, living for 16.9 years in captivity and 35.9 years in the wild. When the scientists discounted African elephants killed by people in the national park, the typical lifespan reached 56 years, more than three times as long as those kept in zoos.

"You would expect captive elephants to live at least as long, if not longer, than those in the wild because they are better cared for, but that is not the case. The difference is massive," said Clubb, whose study appears in the US journal Science.

A second report, commissioned by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, examined the welfare of 77 elephants in 13 UK zoos. It found that the animals spent 83% of their time indoors and 71 were overweight. Only 11 were able to walk normally.

"We often hear that zoos play a vital role in conserving elephants but patently this is not the case," said Rob Atkinson, head of wildlife science at the RSPCA.

"The new data shows elephants die young in Europe's zoos, and those Asian elephants born in captivity have a poor chance of survival. Surely the way forward is to encourage conservation programmes in native habitats rather than condemn elephants to a shortened and unhealthy existence in our zoos."

He added: "Elephants are having a torrid time in our zoos, judging by this overwhelming evidence, and action must be taken to alleviate their welfare problems as a matter of urgency."

Zoo enclosures for elephants are typically 60 to 100 times smaller than the smallest wild territories. African elephants can roam over 2,000 square miles, and Asian elephants 300 square miles. In captivity, researchers said, elephants are also at risk from infanticide, tuberculosis, herpes and lameness.

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Stress and lack of exercise are killing elephants, zoos warned

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Animal welfare officers yesterday urged zoos to phase out keeping elephants, after two damning reports found the animals suffer serious health problems and die much younger in captivity. Elephants born and raised in zoos live less than half as long as those living in their native Africa and Asia, despite being protected from predators and having better care, according to one of the reports.

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Iron Storage Disorder in captive mammals (e.g. Odd-toed ungulates)

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Iron Storage Disorder in captive mammals (e.g. Odd-toed ungulates)

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Animals are consuming more iron in captivity than they would in the wild.
Iron toxicity can cause organ damage.

Possible affective states:

Fear arising from novel events (different/ new types of health checks)

Stress caused by frequent health checks (blood draws to monitor iron levels).

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https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/three-giraffes-died-at-the-dallas-zoo-in-less-than-a-month-experts-are-looking-into-whether-two-of-the-deaths-are-connected/ar-AAQdFCd

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https://www.google.com/amp/s/api.nationalgeographic.com/distribution/public/amp/animals/article/tourists-risk-giving-gorillas-coronavirus-other-diseases

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Selfie-taking tourists risk giving wild gorillas COVID-19, other diseases

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COVID-19 isn't merely a human disease-animals can catch it too. Species infected so far include domestic cats, lions, tigers, mink, and dogs. In January, three gorillas at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park tested positive, the first such cases in any non-human primate. The gorillas-which were likely infected by an asymptomatic keeper-recovered, in part with medical help.

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https://wcvmtoday.usask.ca/articles/2019/09/Understanding-metabolic-bone-disease-in-reptiles.php

Affective states:
Depression caused by difficulty with movement from malformed bones.

Discomfort from difficulty moving.

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COVID-19 isn't doesn't just affect humans. It turns out that big cats can catch COVID-19 too. The Denver Zoo has confirmed that two Amur tigers, Yuri and Nikita, have tested positive and showing signs of COVID-19.

The Denver Zoo's Twitter says that the two tigers have been observed sneezing, coughing, experiencing lethargy, and nasal discharge is present in both Nikita and Yuri.

The Denver Zoo caretakers and veterinary medical teams are keeping a close eye on the infected duo. Currently, the Amur tigers' COVID-19 symptoms appear to be mild and improving.

The tweets from the Denver Zoo state they are unsure as to how either Nikita or Yuri became infected with the virus, but they are receiving excellent care. The Denver Zoo is planning on vaccinating the two tigers along with other big cat species when doses of Zoetis, the animal-specific vaccine becomes readily available.

The Denver Zoo installed barriers around the tiger habitat to ensure there was a safe distance between the visitors and the habitat. Currently, there are no other animals in the Denver Zoo that are showing signs of COVID-19 infection.

The Denver Zoo says that they will keep us all updated on the status of Nikita and Yuri. At this time, all daily tiger demonstrations have been suspended until further notice until the two tigers have fully recovered from the COVID-19 virus.

Source: Denver Zoo

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Two Denver Zoo Tigers Test Positive for COVID-19

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COVID-19 isn't doesn't just affect humans. It turns out that big cats can catch COVID-19 too. The Denver Zoo has confirmed that two Amur tigers, Yuri and Nikita, have tested positive and showing signs of COVID-19. The Denver Zoo's Twitter says that the two tigers have been observed sneezing, coughing, experiencing lethargy, and nasal discharge is present in both Nikita and Yuri.

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Snow leopards have died from Covid in captivity before, the affect is discomfort and depression, along with breathlessness and exhaustion
https://www.kfyrtv.com/2021/11/04/dakota-zoo-takes-steps-vaccinate-snow-leopards-against-coronavirus/

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Dakota Zoo takes steps to vaccinate snow leopards against coronavirus

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Zoos across the country have seen outbreaks of COVID-19 in animals. Last week, 11 African lions tested positive and showed symptoms for the virus at the Denver Zoo, as did three tigers at the San Diego Zoo.

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=newssearch&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiIipWA5P7zAhVimVwKHSdwCYMQxfQBKAB6BAgVEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.9news.com%2Farticle%2Flife%2Fanimals%2Ftigers-recover-lions-improve-covid-denver-zoo%2F73-7146a1f0-e28a-4e52-8223-a91afe0f9cbc&usg=AOvVaw1eBp8ofm7DT0HnQsWmJbT-

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affect: vaccine could cause pain and symptoms

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Dakota Zoo takes steps to vaccinate snow leopards against coronavirus

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Zoos across the country have seen outbreaks of COVID-19 in animals. Last week, 11 African lions tested positive and showed symptoms for the virus at the Denver Zoo, as did three tigers at the San Diego Zoo.

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Zoo Knoxville mourning loss of African lion, Jimmy

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Officials said when it became clear his condition was not improving with medication and that his quality of life was deteriorating, the zoo decided to euthanize him.

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Bumblefoot in birds of prey causes pain, stress and anxiety

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Publisher Information

AAZV is an international organization that applies the principles of comparative veterinary medicine to zoo and wildlife species. We work in clinical zoo medical practice, diagnostic laboratories, reproductive and pathological laboratories, pharmaceutical companies, and a wide range of governmental health and wildlife management agencies. Our mission, as an advocate for the profession, is to improve the health care and promote the conservation of captive and free-ranging wildlife. Our website is www.aazv.org.

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Bumblefoot Infections in Birds of Prey on JSTOR

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Publisher Information AAZV is an international organization that applies the principles of comparative veterinary medicine to zoo and wildlife species. We work in clinical zoo medical practice, diagnostic laboratories, reproductive and pathological laboratories, pharmaceutical companies, and a wide range of governmental health and wildlife management agencies.

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Animals fighting and animals escaping causes pain

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BLAIR Drummond Safari Park has been cleared over welfare allegations after a four-month probe into animal deaths.

Attraction bosses were subjected a a "robust" investigation after a spate of fatalities at the reserve, near Stirling.

Zoo inspectors were called in after we revealed monkeys, lions, lemurs and an antelope had died after being attacked by other beasts or escaping their enclosures.

Dr Jo Judge, chief executive of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums, says steps have been taken to improve safety around the centre.

She said: "We are satisfied that there are no ongoing serious animal welfare concerns.

'HIGHEST STANDARD'

"Many of the complaints were historical and we were pleased to find improvements have already been made to address them.

"The management team at Blair Drummond Safari Park are very keen to ensure that their animal welfare is of the highest standard."

Inspectors were called in after a whistle-blower raised animal welfare concerns at the park.

Bosses were quizzed over the deaths of two lions mauled by rivals.

Big cat Makalu was left with a bloodied face and gaping jaw wound after being attacked by the pride leader in 2016. Another lioness 20-year-old Saskia had to be put to sleep after being injured by the male named Zulu just a month earlier.

Inspection teams also probed the death of antelope Arti, which was left with its intestines dangling from its stomach and blood gushing from its nose and mouth following a horror attack.

Fears were raised by staff following the deaths of more animals - including a Barbary macaque savaged by lions in front of visitors in December.

It followed the killing of one-year-old red ruffled lemur Mena, which was found dead in the tiger enclosure after escaping three years ago.

And 15-year-old zebra Melton had to be put to sleep after his "insides were left hanging out" when he was impaled on a rhino's horn after being gored in 2017.

'DEEPLY UPSETTING'

Biaza inspectors confirmed a "number of complaints" at Blair Drummond had been examined.

Safari park owner Hector Muir says the allegations have been "deeply upsetting" for keepers.

He said: "The investigation has confirmed Blair Drummond provides a safe and caring environment for our animals, and this is what we work tirelessly to achieve each and every day.

"The team participated fully with the investigation, and we were confident throughout that the outcome would be positive."

Blair Drummond Safari Park opened in 1970.

The 120-acre site is home to more than 300 animals, including elephants, giraffes and rhinos.
We pay for your stories and videos! Do you have a story or video for The Scottish Sun? Email us at scottishsundigital@news.co.uk or call 0141 420 5300

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Scots safari park CLEARED over welfare claims after probe into animal deaths

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BLAIR Drummond Safari Park has been cleared over welfare allegations after a four-month probe into animal deaths. Attraction bosses were subjected a a "robust" investigation after a spate of fatalities at the reserve, near Stirling. Zoo inspectors were called in after we revealed monkeys, lions, lemurs and an antelope had died after being attacked by other beasts or escaping their enclosures.

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Dallas Zoo Mourns Third Giraffe Death in a Month | PEOPLE.com

Dallas zoo recorded three deaths within a month with one of the deaths resulting in enclosure defects, this resulted in a developing change of environment to the enclosure. the other two deaths have recieved preventative measures including reduced enclosure size, feeding changes by converting food supplies to fresh crops

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Jesse the 14-year-old giraffe died on Oct. 29 at the Dallas Zoo, less than a week after 19-year-old Auggie passed away, which has the facility concerned a shared health issue could link the deaths

The Dallas Zoo is in mourning again.

On Monday, the Texas facility announced on Facebook that its 14-year-old giraffe Jesse died on Oct. 29. Jesse is the third giraffe to die at the zoo in one month.

"You may have seen the news recently, regarding another tragedy in our giraffe herd. Unfortunately, 14-year-old Jesse passed away on Oct. 29, despite aggressive treatment and heroic efforts by animal care staff. He began showing first signs of illness on Oct. 27 and received intense medical care and observation until his ultimate passing," the zoo shared in the post, which also included a photo of Jesse.

"Affectionately known as 'Uncle Auggie' because of how sweet and gentle he always was with new calves, he will be missed by all of us. Death is an inevitable part of zoo life, but we believe sharing these stories - both the good and the sad - helps you stay connected to the animals you know and love," the Dallas Zoo wrote in their Facebook tribute to the animal.

Now, keepers are concerned that Auggie and Jesse's death could be linked due to Jesse's blood test results, "which showed abnormal liver enzymes."

"Currently, while we suspect the two deaths may be connected, we are still working towards definitive proof. We are doing extensive lab testing on blood and tissue samples from Jesse and Auggie to identify commonalities and further pinpoint what may have happened. The necropsy results from both giraffes pointed to liver damage, which is leading us to focus on the possibility that they were exposed to a toxin of some sort, either through a food source, in the exhibit space, or introduced via a foreign object," the zoo shared online, adding that experts are also testing for Zoonotic diseases.

The Dallas Zoo's first giraffe death of October, the loss of a 3-month-old calf named Marekani, has no links to Jesse and Auggie's passing. The zoo humanely euthanized Marekani after the giraffe calf sustained a "catastrophic" injury.

"Our findings show that Marekani and a few of the adult giraffes were running along an inclined section of the habitat when one of her front legs planted in the ground at the top of the incline, causing her leg to hyperextend. We believe one of the adult giraffes was then unable to stop fast enough, colliding with Marekani from behind - the impact of which caused fractures to her radius and ulna," the zoo shared of what its internal review of the baby giraffe's fatal injury revealed.

In response to their findings, the Dallas Zoo will add "substrate material in areas that showed some erosion, and we also will be installing cameras around the habitat."

As for Jesse and Auggie, the zoo is intensely working to "find a possible link between these two deaths and determine what may have led to this."

"The lab results we depend on for diagnosis and confirmation simply cannot come fast enough - for us, and for you. We know it's difficult to hear about these losses. We hope explanations and openness like this help you trust that no one cares more for these animals or grieves more over the losses than the animal care and veterinary teams here at the Zoo," the Dallas Zoo shared in Jesse's death announcement.

The facility added that they have also put "preventative measures" in place across their animal care teams to protect its giraffe heard and other animal residents. These measures include "limiting giraffe movements and access to the habitat and feed yard," discarding food supplies and replacing them with fresh crops, "closely monitoring giraffe and similar hoofstock for any signs of illness," and "conducting regular blood draws to monitor liver enzyme levels."

The Dallas Zoo wrote that it plans to keep animal lovers updated on their efforts to learn more about Auggie and Jesse's deaths and the status of the rest of their giraffe herd through social media.

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Dallas Zoo Mourns Third Giraffe Death in a Month After Losing 14-Year-Old Animal

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Jesse the 14-year-old giraffe died on Oct. 29 at the Dallas Zoo, less than a week after 19-year-old Auggie passed away, which has the facility concerned a shared health issue could link the deaths The Dallas Zoo is in mourning again. On Monday, the Texas facility announced on Facebook that its 14-year-old giraffe Jesse died on Oct.

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https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/how-leopard-behind-hadapsar-attack-was-rescued-7594187/

Affect: Fear/Stress

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In a late-night coordinated operation involving forest department personnel, animal welfare groups and others, a three-year-old male leopard that attacked a man in Hadapsar was rescued after being tranquilised by a dart on Tuesday. The animal was believed to be hiding in a narrow space between two houses, 200 meters away from where the attack took place.

Officials said on Wednesday morning that the leopard has been taken to the transit treatment centre of the RESQ Charitable Trust and was in good health. It will be released into the wild "over next couple of days", taking into consideration various factors, forest department officials said.

The attack was reported at 6 am on Tuesday near Gosavi Vasti, a residential area located at some distance from the campus of vaccine manufacturer Serum Institute of India (SII), which is a central player in the global supply of Covid-19 vaccine.

The injured person, Sambhaji Baban Atole (45), a resident of Gosavi Vasti, is an employee of the Serum Institute of India and works in the civil department of the vaccine major. Gosavi Vasti is a densely populated area with mostly small houses.

After the incident, a perimeter set up with help from the police and people were asked to stay at home as far as possible. Multiple teams of the forest department personnel and other agencies were formed to patrol the area. At 9.30 pm, one of the patrol teams located the leopard, which was hiding in a narrow gap between two houses. Officials said the animal could have been hiding there since it fled from the attack site.

Teams comprising forest officials, veterinarians and experts from RESQ led the rescue effort. They initially closed all the escape routes of the leopard before tranquilising it at 11.30 pm. The leopard was then shifted to a transport cage and moved out quickly to RESQ Charitable Trust's wildlife transit treatment centre.

Principal Chief Conservator of Forest (PCCF) of Maharashtra, Sunil Limaye said, "Gosavi Vasti is a densely populated area in Hadapsar. If the leopard had gotten out, it would have created panic among the people. The Pune Forest Department and RESQ have great working coordination and so, the operation went smoothly because it was strategized properly, teams were fully equipped, took proper measures to secure location and all other stakeholders cooperated - police, public and media. Currently, at the transit treatment centre, the leopard is now alert and awake. He is a healthy young male aged between three and four years and has recovered well from tranquillisation."

Limaye had told The Indian Express earlier that he had directed the installation of camera traps in the area to understand the leopard's path of movement.

On Wednesday evening, Deputy Conservator of Forest for Pune Division Rahul Patil, said, "We are planning to release the leopard into the wild over the next couple of days. We are conducting health check-ups. The animal will be released after the check-ups are complete and conditions are suitable over the coming two days."

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How leopard behind Hadapsar attack was rescued

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In a late-night coordinated operation involving forest department personnel, animal welfare groups and others, a three-year-old male leopard that attacked a man in Hadapsar was rescued after being tranquilised by a dart on Tuesday. The animal was believed to be hiding in a narrow space between two houses, 200 meters away from where the attack took place.

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Be in discomfort from the symptoms of the virus

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Daily Mail 10/26/2021 Chris Ciaccia For Dailymail.Com

Multiple groups of lions at two separate zoos across the U.S. have tested positive for COVID-19, specifically the delta variant, the animal sanctuaries said on Monday.

Eleven African lions at Colorado's Denver Zoo and four from Utah's Hogle Zoo have been observed experiencing symptoms of the virus, including coughing, sneezing and acting lethargic.

The 11 lions at the Denver Zoo, all between the ages of 1 and 9 years old, were tested via nasal swabs at Colorado State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory in Fort Collins, and confirmed positive by the United States Department of Agriculture's National Veterinary Services Laboratories.

'There have been a number of big cats to come down with COVID-19 at zoos throughout the country, including our two tigers, Yuri and Nikita,' said Brian Aucone, Senior Vice President for Life Sciences for the Zoo, in a statement.

'Fortunately, the vast majority have fully recovered, and the upside is that there's an established knowledge base for us to draw from to help treat our animals.

'We've been in touch with other zoos that have also recently managed COVID cases in their big cats to inform the care we're providing.'

© Provided by Daily Mail

The zoo is home to two lion prides - the first comprised of four 6-year old brothers and the second is comprised of a family group of three males (between the ages of 1 and 5) and four females (between the ages of 1 and 9).

All started showing symptoms after the zoo announced that Yuri and Nikita (part of the family group) tested positive, but 'there is no indication that the two groups of positive cases are connected,' the zoo added.

None of the lions have been vaccinated yet, the Denver zoo said, but they will be - along with the zoo's tigers - once more doses of the animal-specific vaccine is available.

The zoo added it would watch and monitor the lions' behavior and symptoms.

Utah's Hogle Zoo is also dealing with a small outbreak of COVID-19 in its lion population, as four of the zoo's five African lions have tested positive via a nasal swab.

Zoo officials said they did not know how the lions contracted the virus.

'The health and safety of UHZ staff, animals and visitors continues to be our primary concern,' Hogle Zoo wrote in a Facebook post.

'Prior to these positive cases in the lions, UHZ established a stringent animal care COVID-19 safety plan.

'Existing protocols such as increased PPE (personal protective equipment), regulated staff involvement, increased cleaning procedures and staff health monitoring continues to be enforced.'

The lions will continue to remain on exhibit for viewers, 'as there is no known risk to the public,' the zoo added in the statement.

'Designed as an open-air environment to best mimic their natural environment in the wild, this allows for a safe distance to view animals.'

The zoo said that no other animals under its care are exhibiting symptoms of infection, but they will remain vigilant about safety.

'We remain extra cautious and vigilant during the pandemic, with a key focus on the safety of staff, guests and animals' said Dr. Nancy Carpenter

The zoo said it will continue to monitor the lions' for worsening symptoms, but presently, they 'continue to do well and are only showing mild signs.'

'We remain hopeful the infection will resolve and they will recover naturally on their own,' said Bob Cisneros, Associate Director of Animal Care.

Cats appear to be 'mildly susceptible' to COVID-19, according to the Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine.

However the severity of the disease that causes SARS-CoV-2 is unclear at this time.

In July, a study found that household cats are more susceptible to coronavirus infection than dogs.

There is no evidence that SARS-CoV-2 can be passed from cats to people, but the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that if a feline caretaker is diagnosed with COVID-19, they should quarantine themselves from people and animals.

Last week, a domestic shorthair cat in Michigan's Ingham County became the first pet in the state to test positive for COVID-19.

The cat was sneezing a lot, but has since recovered.

Separately in July, the U.S. Department of Agriculture said that more than half of the white-tailed deer in Michigan were infected with COVID-19, sparking concerns of a large viral reservoir among wild animals.

ANIMALS AND THEIR IMPACT ON COVID-19

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15 lions at Utah, Denver zoos test positive for COVID's delta variant

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Daily Mail 10/26/2021 Chris Ciaccia For Dailymail.Com Multiple groups of lions at two separate zoos across the U.S. have tested positive for COVID-19, specifically the delta variant, the animal sanctuaries said on Monday. Eleven African lions at Colorado's Denver Zoo and four from Utah's Hogle Zoo have been observed experiencing symptoms of the virus, including coughing, sneezing and acting lethargic.

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Affective snakes  states: pain, discomfort, malaise

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Primates being moved from high fruit diet to a high veg diet to prevent obesity.

Prevents discomfort and pain from physical health issues

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Articles General Health

Modern fruits have been specifically designed to be much sweeter and lower in fiber than traditional fruits eaten by monkeys in the wild. The high sugar content in fruit has caused monkeys in captivity to develop health problems. As a consequence, several zoos have decided to stop feeding monkeys fruit.

Bristol Zoo and Paignton Zoo in the UK have decided to stop feeding fruit to monkeys because of the health problems they've witnessed the monkeys develop.

What kinds of health problems did the monkeys develop? Similar ones to humans who eat too much sugar. They were developing stomach problems, bad teeth, diabetes and they were even becoming more aggressive towards each other and fighting. According to keepers at Paignton zoo, "reducing the sugar in their diets has calmed them down and made their groups more settled".

If you've ever had the chance to taste wild or native fruits, you would know they are usually smaller, more sour, more fibrous and contain more seeds than modern fruits.

Humans love sweet and juicy fruits; therefore modern agriculture has favored the development of high sugar fruits. Most people can get away with eating a few pieces of fruit each day, but if you have insulin resistance, diabetes or you are overweight, cutting down on fruit would help you.

People often increase their fruit intake when they decide they'd like to eat healthier. Sometimes the opposite is more appropriate.
Reference

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Monkeys in zoos are no longer allowed to eat fruit

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Modern fruits have been specifically designed to be much sweeter and lower in fiber than traditional fruits eaten by monkeys in the wild. The high sugar content in fruit has caused monkeys in captivity to develop health problems. As a consequence, several zoos have decided to stop feeding monkeys fruit.

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https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/nutrition-exotic-and-zoo-animals/nutrition-in-zoo-carnivores

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Stress because they couldn't scent thier usual food through symptoms of the virus
Discomfort from eating the meat and need something sofer and easier to chew/digest

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Coronavirus-infected lions and tigers at the National Zoo in Washington won't eat their meat, so zookeepers are adding foods to their diets that sound like they're for a sick human - baby food and chicken broth.

In the week since the zoo said six African lions, a Sumatran tiger and two Amur tigers tested positive for the coronavirus, the big cats have been showing some signs of improvement. But a few of the animals are still experiencing coughs, fatigue and a loss of appetite.

Pamela Baker-Masson, a spokeswoman for the zoo, said Friday that caretakers noticed some of the great cats weren't eating or drinking. "We saw a real decrease in appetite interest, so this week they've done more to stimulate their appetite."

Caretakers added baby food, chicken broth, milk and cheese from goats, and elk meat to the big cats' diets. Animal experts said that since some of the new foods have a strong scent, they're hoping that stimulates the big cats' senses.
Lions, tigers at National Zoo in D.C. test positive for the coronavirus
Caretakers at the zoo first noticed symptoms in some of the animals Sept. 11 and 12.

Fecal samples were taken, and the big cats tested "presumptive positive" for the coronavirus. They're still awaiting final test results, but zoo officials said they're certain the animals are infected and are treating them as such.

Experts at the zoo have said the coronavirus was probably transmitted to the big cats from a human who may have been asymptomatic.

The animals are being closely monitored. "Everybody has improved," Baker-Masson said, "but each animal has varying degrees of symptoms."

Three tigers - a female Sumatran tiger named Damai, a male Amur tiger named Metis and a female Amur tiger named Nikita - are "eating and alert," although Nikita and Damai still have "very mild" coughs, officials said in a statement.

Two lionesses, Amahle and Naba, along with a male lion named Luke, have also shown improvement, zoo official said.
Two tiger cubs probably died of covid-19, reports Pakistani zoo
But officials said they're concerned about three other lions that have "greater and more pronounced" symptoms than the other big cats, according to Baker-Masson.

Three lions - a 16-year-old female named Shera and two 7-year-old males named Shaka and Jumbe - were having "abnormal respiration," a lack of appetite and were dehydrated. Last weekend, they were anesthetized for "fluid therapy" and given "long-acting antibiotics and other supportive medications," officials said. Blood was also collected for analysis.

Shaka and Jumbe remain lethargic and have coughs and nasal discharge but "are improving," officials said. Shera is stable but "still of concern," they said. Her bloodwork showed that she has renal failure, so she had more fluid therapies.

The big cats, which live in groups with their specific species, are not being separated at this time, officials said. They have access to their indoor and outdoor habitats.

No other animals at the National Zoo have shown symptoms of the coronavirus. But other zoos around the country have had infected animals, including the Zoo Atlanta and the San Diego Zoo, where some gorillas tested positive. Two tigers at the Virginia Zoo in Norfolk tested positive this spring.

Dozens of zoos and animal sanctuaries around the United States have been given doses of a coronavirus vaccine that's made for animals from Zoetis, a company that spun off from Pfizer.
Maryland Zoo is one of 70 U.S. facilities vaccinating wild animals against the coronavirus
The National Zoo said it has plans to give the Zoetis vaccine to some of its animals in the coming months. The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore said it also plans to give that same vaccine to its otters, chimps and lions - even though no animals at its facility have tested positive for the coronavirus.

Officials at the National Zoo said they did a "thorough investigation" of all staff who were close to the sickened lions and tigers but found no evidence to pinpoint the source of the infection. The zoo has protocols in place requiring staff to use personal protective equipment, and all staff and animal caretakers are required to wear masks indoors and in all public and nonpublic areas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
National Zoo's covid-infected lions and tigers won't eat their meat, so zookeepers are trying goat cheese and chicken broth

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Coronavirus-infected lions and tigers at the National Zoo in Washington won't eat their meat, so zookeepers are adding foods to their diets that sound like they're for a sick human - baby food and chicken broth.

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Iodine deficiency in budgerigars that are fed an all-seed diet

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Iodine deficiency in budgerigars that are fed an all-seed diet

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https://www.eaza.net/assets/Uploads/Nutrition/Nutrition-old-site-docs/EAZA-Zoo-Nutrition-News-1-99.pdf

Affect: Lack of pleasure in taste, bloating, gastrointestinal problems

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Add species specific examples of how the physical environment may impact welfare in zoo animals. Can you also identify the possible affect that may arise?

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Add species specific examples of how the physical environment may impact welfare in zoo animals. Can you also identify the possible affect that may arise?

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Add your ideas for how to promote agency in a species of your choice here. Include the following in your answer: a) sp. name, b) challenges you selected, c) your ideas to promote agency, d)  which of the types of agency your idea uses? 

# data[].attributes.subject
Add your ideas for how to promote agency in a species of your choice here. Include the following in your answer: a) sp. name, b) challenges you selected, c) your ideas to promote agency, d)  which of the types of agency your idea uses? 

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Elephant -  dirt piles, pools, logs, and scratching posts

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Elephant -  dirt piles, pools, logs, and scratching posts

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'could be important to facilitate self-maintenance behaviors and maintain skin condition'
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0152490

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Brian J. Greco,

Cheryl L. Meehan,

Lance J. Miller,

David J. Shepherdson,

Kari A. Morfeld,

Jeff Andrews,

Anne M. Baker,

Kathy Carlstead,

Joy A. Mench

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Abstract

The management of African ( Loxodonta africana) and Asian ( Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants' nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs. However, these practices are not standardized, resulting in likely variation among zoos as well as differences in the way they are applied to individual elephants within a zoo. To characterize elephant management in North America, we collected survey data from zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, developed 26 variables, generated population level descriptive statistics, and analyzed them to identify differences attributable to sex and species. Sixty-seven zoos submitted surveys describing the management of 224 elephants and the training experiences of 227 elephants. Asian elephants spent more time managed (defined as interacting directly with staff) than Africans (mean time managed: Asians = 56.9%; Africans = 48.6%; p<0.001), and managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age for both species. Enrichment, feeding, and exercise programs were evaluated using diversity indices, with mean scores across zoos in the midrange for these measures. There were an average of 7.2 feedings every 24-hour period, with only 1.2 occurring during the nighttime. Feeding schedules were predictable at 47.5% of zoos. We also calculated the relative use of rewarding and aversive techniques employed during training interactions. The population median was seven on a scale from one (representing only aversive stimuli) to nine (representing only rewarding stimuli). The results of our study provide essential information for understanding management variation that could be relevant to welfare. Furthermore, the variables we created have been used in subsequent elephant welfare analyses.

Citation: Greco BJ, Meehan CL, Miller LJ, Shepherdson DJ, Morfeld KA, Andrews J, et al. (2016) Elephant Management in North American Zoos: Environmental Enrichment, Feeding, Exercise, and Training. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0152490. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152490

Editor: Elissa Z. Cameron, University of Tasmania, AUSTRALIA

Received: June 1, 2015; Accepted: March 15, 2016; Published: July 14, 2016

Copyright: © 2016 Greco et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: For reasons relating to protection of the facilities and animals included in this study, access restrictions apply to the individual-level data underlying the findings. A data set of de-identified, population-level data is available at doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.3383554.

Funding: Funding for this work was provided by a National Leadership Grant to the Honolulu Zoological Society from the Institute of Museum and Library Services ( www.imls.gov) grant number: LG-25-10-0033-10. Employers provided financial support in the form of authors' salaries as follows: Oregon Zoo (DS); Chicago Zoological Society-Brookfield Zoo (LM); Busch Gardens (JA); Lincoln Children's Zoo and Smithsonian's National Zoo (KM); Honolulu Zoo (KC). After the IMLS-funded period of performance (November 2010 - December 2013) AWARE Institute provided support in the form of salaries for author CM. The specific roles of these authors are articulated in the 'author contributions' section. Neither the funders nor authors' employers had any role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: LM is affiliated with the Chicago Zoological Society - Brookfield Zoo (an AZA-accredited zoo), DS is affiliated with Oregon Zoo (an AZA-Accredited zoo), and JA is affiliated with Busch Gardens (an AZA-accredited zoo). KC was employed by the Honolulu Zoo (an AZA-accredited zoo) at the time of the study. KM is affiliated with the Smithsonian National Zoo (an AZA-accredited zoo) and was employed by the Lincoln Children's Zoo (an AZA-accredited zoo) at the time of the study. JM is a member of the PLOS ONE Animal Research Advisory Group. CM and BG are affiliated with AWARE Institute. AWARE Institute is a commercial entity founded by CM in 2014 and provides animal welfare assessment, research and education services to zoos and aquariums. These interests do not alter the authors' adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials, as detailed online in the guide for authors.

Introduction

There is significant interest within and beyond the zoological community in understanding the management of Asian ( Elephas maximas) and African ( Loxodonta africana) elephants in zoos, particularly as it relates to evaluating practices that are relevant to welfare [ 1, 2], such as feeding, training, exercise, husbandry and environmental enrichment. While these practices are required elements of all elephant programs accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) [ 3], they are not standardized. Because they are not standardized, there may be significant variation among zoos with respect to daily care, which could in turn affect elephant welfare.

Assessing elephant management at the population level requires the development of systematic methods for measuring and quantifying these varying practices. However, little research has been conducted that either describes management practices or compares them across multiple zoos. This lack of research on management has been cited as one of the major impediments to formally assessing the welfare of zoo animals [ 4].

In addition to gaining an understanding of the management of zoo elephants in general, it is also important to understand how management practices differ between African and Asian elephant zoo populations. One might expect the two species to be managed differently given that they are adapted to different ecological niches [ 5, 6] and may have different life history characteristics. For example, a larger proportion of Asian elephants (38%) than African elephants (21%) in North American zoos are captive born [ 7] and, for those elephants imported from home range countries, Asian elephants are more likely to have previous captive experiences than African elephants [ 8]). Similarly, one might also expect management practices to be shaped by the different physiological ( e. g., size, reproductive cycles, metabolic demands) and behavioral ( e. g., social development and group dynamics) characteristics of female and male elephants [ 5].

This paper focuses on the development and analysis of management variables relating to feeding, exercise, training and enrichment. The dual purpose was to provide a comprehensive review of elephant management in zoos and to generate appropriate independent variables to be used in subsequent epidemiological analyses of behavioral [ 9- 11], physiological [ 12], and health-related [ 13, 14] welfare indicators. A similar approach was taken in a related paper that characterizes the housing and social management of these same elephants [ 15].

Our study focused on feeding, enrichment, exercise and training, because research in many species demonstrates that animals' experiences of these components of managed care play a critical role in their welfare. In the remainder of the introduction, we present the rationale for investigating each management category in the context of welfare assessment.

Management Schedules

Management routines can vary considerably at the zoo and individual elephant level depending on staffing, management philosophy, and the needs of each elephant. However, AZA accreditation standards [ 3] require that all elephants participate in an exercise program, behavior training, and a variety of husbandry activities including baths, foot and skin care, and physical assessments. Each of these activities requires staff to interact directly with the elephants. When not interacting with staff members, elephants spend time independently, housed either alone or in social groups of varying sizes and compositions [ 15] and in enclosures that are visible (on exhibit) or not visible (off exhibit) to the public.

Management schedules may have important implications for elephant welfare. For example, elephants who spend more time interacting with staff may perceive healthcare or medical procedures as less stressful, as demonstrated by studies conducted with other species ( e. g., chimpanzees [ 16], cats [ 17]). Conversely, elephants who spend more time independently may have more opportunity to exercise choice and behave autonomously, both of which have been suggested to enhance welfare [ 18, 19]. Thus, we were interested in characterizing the percentage of daytime hours elephants spend interacting directly with staff and the amount of time spent during those hours in either training, exercise, husbandry, play, or public demonstrations (in an education or show setting).

Environmental Enrichment

Within the zoo and aquarium community, the term enrichment (or environmental enrichment) covers a wide range of practices intended to improve animal welfare by facilitating the expression of important behaviors, such as foraging or self-maintenance, and by providing opportunities for play, exploration, problem solving, and exercising choice [ 20, 21]. Enrichment in zoos can take many forms, ranging from permanent or semi-permanent exhibit features, such as the provision of pools, items that require animals to use an array of skills to access food ( e. g., food-balls, puzzles), or other rewarding stimuli [ 21]. Numerous studies with various species of zoo animals have demonstrated the positive impact of environmental enrichment on welfare outcomes including reductions in stereotypic behavior [ 22, 23] and physiological stress responses [ 24]. However, there are very few published studies of enrichment practices for elephants, and those focus exclusively on food-based enrichment at single zoos ( e. g., Stoinski et al. [ 25],Wiedenmayer [ 26]).

Our goal was to determine the enrichment methods used by zoos. We also wanted to assess whether enrichment was applied systematically, which can enhance its effectiveness [ 27]. This inquiry was informed by the work of Mellen and Sevenich MacPhee [ 27], who proposed the "SPIDER" framework. This model, which starts with Setting Goals and proceeds through Planning, Implementation, Documenting, Evaluation, and Readjustment, presents a framework that emphasizes the importance of regularly assessing enrichment for its biological relevance and its ability to engage the animals.

Feeding

As large herbivores, elephants spend a significant proportion of time (in the wild [ 5, 6] and in zoos [ 28]) manipulating and consuming plant material to meet metabolic needs. In the wild, food resources are temporally and spatially dispersed, and elephants use a range of foraging skills to locate and access them [ 5, 6]. Given the fact that the acquisition and ingestion of food plays such a central role in elephant behavioral repertoire, the timing, frequency, and methods of food provision are important components of zoo feeding programs. In zoos, feeding opportunities are, of necessity, spatially and temporally concentrated [ 25], but it has been suggested that this limitation can be addressed by utilizing a diversity of feeding methods and schedules [ 29, 30]. To better understand the non-nutritional aspects of elephant feeding programs, we sought to determine the patterns in and diversity of food delivery methods. In addition, we were interested in the temporal predictability of food presentation. Although the effects of feeding predictability on elephant welfare have not been evaluated, temporally unpredictable feeding schedules have been shown to improve welfare in other species by increasing exploratory behavior, enhancing memory, and reducing the performance of stereotypic behavior [ 31, 32].

Exercise

AZA accreditation standards require that all zoos have a staff-directed elephant exercise program [ 3]. Elephants can be trained to participate in exercise routines including activities such as stretching and staff-directed walking. Exercise programs have been implemented, in part, because zoo elephants are prone to developing pododermatitis and degenerative bone disease [ 33, 34]. Many zoo elephants are also overweight or obese [ 14]. Research in humans [ 35- 38] and other species (rodents [ 39- 42], dogs [ 43- 45], swine [ 46]) demonstrates that exercise can reduce the risk of developing health issues and mitigate complications associated with these ailments once developed. Our goal was to assess the frequency and types of staff-directed exercise employed.

Training

Care staff train elephants to participate in a number of management practices, including daily foot and skin care, moving between exhibit areas on cue, and veterinary procedures. Elephant training involves teaching an individual elephant to perform, or abstain from performing, behaviors on request [ 47]. However, the methods by which elephants are trained in zoos across North America vary considerably depending on the philosophy and experience of the trainers as well as the age, species, sex, and background of the individual elephant (for a review, see Wemmer and Christen [ 8]). Although the specific techniques and tools used may vary, all elephant training is based on the application of operant conditioning methods that are designed to either: 1) increase the frequency of desired behaviors, typically by either presenting stimuli the animal finds rewarding or removing stimuli the animal finds aversive or 2) decrease the frequency of undesired behaviors, typically by presenting aversive stimuli or removing rewarding stimuli [ 48, 49]. Additionally, trainers may use neutral techniques ( e. g., taking a short pause or not reacting to the elephant's behavior) when they wish to provide the animal with another opportunity to be successful [ 50].

The effects of utilizing rewarding and aversive stimuli in the learning environment have been investigated with humans and other species. For example, humans who learn tasks under conditions where aversive stimuli are utilized are more likely to experience negative affective states and/or frustration than those who are taught tasks with only the use of rewarding or neutral stimuli [ 51, 52]. Similarly animals trained with aversive stimuli show behavioral and neurological responses considered indicative of negative affect [ 51, 53, 54].

There has been no systematic investigation into how the techniques and tools utilized in elephant training influence welfare. However, controversy has arisen with regard to one of the tools used for training elephants: the pole/stick, called a guide. The guide is also known as an ankus or bullhook, since there is a metal hook with a pointed tip at the distal end. Some speculate that guide use creates an aversive training environment, because of its potential to cause physical discomfort [ 55, 56], while others contend that its use has few adverse welfare consequences if rewarding stimuli are used more frequently than the guide during training [ 47]. Since the methods utilized by elephant trainers have never been rigorously documented these assertions cannot be tested empirically. Thus, our goals were to collect data on the use of guides and operant conditioning techniques and to develop variables to characterize the different approaches to elephant training across the North American zoo population.

Methods

Ethics statement

The management at each participating zoo authorized this study, and the University of California, Davis Institutional Review Board determined that the surveys used in this study did not constitute Human Subject Research (IRB #739963-1).

Surveys

We derived the data from two online surveys, referred to as the Management Survey and the Training Techniques Survey. Survey content was developed from multiple sources including expert opinion, focus group interviews with elephant care professionals, and current elephant management literature. For both surveys, we asked respondents to report on their practices during the 2012 calendar year. Online surveys were generated dynamically based on response-dependent branching architecture to avoid presenting redundant or inapplicable questions to respondents. All data were stored upon submission in a relational database using an SQL server, and we ensured confidentiality by using randomly generated unique alpha-numeric codes.

We used customized web-links to invite elephant managers to participate in the Management Survey. The survey included five sections, each consisting of one to five questions. Two of these sections collected information at the zoo level (enrichment and feeding), while three collected information at the individual elephant level (management schedules, use of training tools, and exercise). Questions at the individual elephant level were presented in the survey sequentially for each elephant at the zoo and were based on elephant population data that we collected prior to developing the survey.

We targeted the Training Techniques Survey at elephant care staff, who had worked with a given elephant for at least one year. Elephants were randomly matched with between one and four qualified care staff respondents depending on the elephant to care staff ratio at that zoo. The survey characterized each individual elephant's training experience by focusing on techniques used during training both when the elephant was compliant and non-compliant. Response choice ranged from Never (1) to Very Frequently (5) on a 5-point Likert scale. A complete list of the Training Techniques Survey questions can be found in Tables 1 and 2.

Data Processing and Variable Creation

We excluded all data from partially completed sections of the surveys. Data from elephants that were born, died, or experienced an inter-zoo transfer during the study year were also excluded from all analyses. We used the data to create a number of novel variables characterizing management schedules, environmental enrichment, feeding, exercise, and training practices. Some of these variables describe raw data and others were calculated to synthesize composite values. Throughout the remainder of this paper, we capitalize all calculated and synthesized variables. Variable descriptions are presented below and in Tables 3 and 4.

Management Schedules.

All management schedule variables were derived from the Management Survey. Managers completed a management schedule for each elephant by estimating the average percentage of the daytime hours (zoo operating hours) per month that the individual spent in various contexts. The contexts were: exercise, husbandry (including footwork, baths, veterinary care), training known (practicing known behaviors), training new (learning new behaviors), training mixed (mixed sessions of known and new behaviors), play and relationship sessions (interactions with elephant outside of training or husbandry activities), public demonstrations (staff-directed activities in education or show setting), on exhibit (not interacting with staff), off exhibit (not interacting with staff) and other (not specified). Data were confirmed upon entry to sum to 100%.

Variables for analysis were created by summing percent time across groups of behaviors as follows: Percent Time Training = sum of training known, training new, and training mixed; Percent Time Managed = sum of exercise, husbandry, Training Time, play, relationship sessions and demonstrations; Percent Time Independent = sum Percent Time On and Percent Time Off Exhibit.

Environmental Enrichment.

All environmental enrichment variables were derived from the Management Survey. Managers indicated the percentage of days in the year the elephants had access to 30 different types of enrichment or exhibit features. They also reported how often their staff used the enrichment program components based on the SPIDER framework ( e. g., setting goals, scheduling activities, documentation, evaluation, and program readjustment). We used these data to generate two enrichment variables, Enrichment Diversity and Enrichment Program, both of which provide composite descriptions of enrichment program implementation and structure. We used the Shannon-Weaver diversity index [ 57] to create the Enrichment Diversity score (as well as feeding and exercise. See method sections below). This index is most commonly used to characterize ecosystem communities, and scores increase as the number of species sampled rises and the abundance of these species become more even [ 57]. Thus, Enrichment Diversity scores characterize the variety of enrichment types utilized as well as the relative frequency with which enrichment types were presented. High Diversity Scores indicate equal and frequent use of all enrichment types, while low diversity scores indicate infrequent use of enrichment in general or reliance on frequent use of only a few enrichment types. The Enrichment Diversity scores we calculated had a possible score range of 0 (one type of enrichment always used) to 3.4 (equal frequency use across all 30 enrichment items). We used principal components factor analysis with a polychoric matrix (to account for the ordinal data) [ 58] to develop a factor matrix describing enrichment program component use. Factor loadings were retained using the proportion of variance method, and these loadings were used to calculate the standardized Enrichment Program factor scores.

Feeding.

Feeding questions addressed the various ways food was presented to the elephants at each zoo. Managers reported the number of feeding events offered to their elephants during specific time frames (Feed Day, Feed Night, Feed Total) and the frequency with which various feeding methods were used ( e. g., piled on ground, spread through exhibit, presented in an open container, suspended, presented in a foraging device, and hidden). Managers also rated the predictability of their feeding activities on a three-point scale ranging from "predictable" to "unpredictable" (Feeding Predictability). We further processed the feeding methods data to generate three synthesized variables: Feeding Diversity, Spread, and Alternative Feeding Types. The Shannon-Weaver Index was used to derive the Feeding Diversity score, with a possible range of 0 (one type of feeding always used) to 1.8 (equal frequency use of 6 feeding types). Two variables measured the use of particular types of feeding methods: Spread (the proportion of feedings where food was spread through the exhibit) and Alternative Feeding Types (the proportion of feedings where food was hidden, hung up, or presented in a foraging device).

Exercise.

Exercise questions addressed the percentage of time individual elephants spent engaged in staff-directed exercise methods [ e. g., A to Bs (directed walking from point A to point B, repeated as needed), calisthenics ( e. g., climbing up and down blocks and lifting objects), intervals, slow walks, strengthening exercises, stretching, swimming, and water walking], and the number of hours per week individual elephants engaged in directed walks (Walking Week) and general exercise (Exercise Week). Walk Week and Exercise Week were categorical variables on a seven-point scale, ranging from less than one hour per week to more than 14 hours per week. We further processed the exercise data to create the Exercise Diversity variable, a score calculated using the Shannon Weaver Index with a possible range of 0 (one type of exercise always used) to 2.1 (equal frequency use across eight exercise types).

Training.

Guide use was determined from the Management Survey, which asked managers whether there was a guide at the facility (Guide Exposure) and the frequency with which each elephant at the zoo was exposed to a guide during staff interactions (Percent Guide Interaction).

The Training Techniques Survey asked qualified care staff to rate their use of 19 different training techniques when working with the assigned elephant(s). We used these responses to create two types of synthesized variables: Training Item Scores and a Rewarding Stimuli Techniques Score ( Table 4). To calculate the Training Item scores, we averaged the staff responses on each of the 19 training techniques for every elephant and then rounded these values to the nearest half integer, forming a nine-point half-integer scale that included the following categories: Never (1), Never/Rarely (1.5), Rarely (2), Rarely/Sometimes (2.5), Sometimes (3), Sometimes/Frequently (3.5), Frequently (4), Frequently/Very Frequently (4.5), and Very Frequently (5).

To calculate the Rewarding Stimuli Techniques Score, we first categorized 12 of the 19 training techniques according to whether stimuli were added or removed, then according to the valence of the stimuli (rewarding or aversive; Table 5). The remaining seven training techniques were categorized as neutral, because they did not have a clear valence. Following categorization, the scores from techniques that involved the provision of rewarding stimuli and the removal of rewarding stimuli for each elephant were summed and divided by the sum of their scores on all techniques. We categorized these values to a nine-point scale that ranged from one, meaning that training interactions lacked the use of rewarding stimuli, to nine, meaning that they utilized rewarding stimuli exclusively.

In addition to developing these two synthesized variables, we also investigated the effect of Guide Exposure on the training experience of elephants. Mann-Whitney U (Wilcoxon Rank Sum) tests were used to determine whether Training Item and Rewarding Stimuli Techniques Scores differed between the Guide Exposure subgroups.

Statistical Analyses.

We calculated descriptive statistics for all variables, and conducted Mann-Whitney U (Wilcoxon Rank Sum) tests to determine species and sex differences for all variables except the zoo-level variables, which could only be assessed for species effects. Where the Mann-Whitney U results indicated a species or sex difference that could be better interpreted with further analyses, we used linear regression models fitted using generalized estimating equations (GEE), which allow for the individual elephant to be used as the unit of analysis and account for the clustering of individuals within zoos [ 59, 60]. Zoos were treated as random effects and an independent correlation structure was specified [ 61]. We used the forward selection approach to build the models [ 62] and continued to add variables until the addition no longer resulted in significant models. Interactions among the variables contained in any significant multi-variable models were assessed during the final model building stage. Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA) and SAS version 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) were used for all statistical analyses. We used regression modeling code: [PROC GENMOD, with options DIST = Normal, LINK = Identity, TYPE = Ind, and REPEATED]. For all analyses, p-values ≤ 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results and Discussion

Our surveys generated a large number of variables that are important for understanding how elephants are managed in North American zoos. In the results and discussion, we will focus only on the subset of those variables that can be directly related to existing literature or have clear links to animal welfare. Although African and Asian elephants are different species and are behaviorally and physiologically sexually dimorphic, there were surprisingly few species or sex differences; those we did find are discussed further below. Results from variables not discussed in the text can be found in the appropriate section Tables.

Response Rates

Sixty-three of seventy invited zoos (90%) submitted completed Management Surveys. Four zoos (5.7%) submitted partially completed surveys, and three (4.3%) zoos declined participation. The number of elephants included in each variable analysis ranged between 83 and 224 based on data availability and applicability. Completed Training Techniques Surveys were submitted by 62 zoos for a total of 602 surveys on 227 elephants.

Management Schedule

We identified significant species level differences in seven of the 11 Management Schedule variables ( Table 6), with the primary difference being that Asian elephants were managed for a significantly greater proportion of their day (mean = 56.9% p<0.001) than African elephants (mean = 48.6). During managed time, Asian elephants also spent significantly more time engaged with staff in husbandry activities (mean = 15.5%), exercise (mean = 6.8%), and play (mean = 4.0%), than did African elephants (mean = 12.2%, 4.3%, and 1.9% respectively). Conversely, African elephants spent significantly more time independent (mean = 51.4%, p<0.001), than did Asian elephants (mean = 43.1%). The only sex difference was that females spent more time in exercise (mean = 5.5%) than males (mean = 4.3%).

Linear regression analysis of Percent Time Managed demonstrated that age and species contributed to the amount of time an elephant spent in managed activities (Tables 7 and 8). Managed time increased by 20.2% for every year of age, and Asian elephants were 6.2 times more likely to spend more time in managed activities than African elephants. There were no significant interactions between age and species, indicating that increases in age influence managed time at the same rate for the two species. Age is a known contributor to foot pathology in both species [ 13, 33], and it may be that additional time is being spent in foot care with older elephants to mitigate risks. However, since both age and species are main effects in this model, we can infer that there is something about being an Asian elephant (other than the fact that Asians in this population are older than Africans [ 7]) driving species differences in managed time. One possibility is that more managed time is being allocated to address musculoskeletal health issues [ 33, 34] or stereotypic behaviors [ 9] which are more prevalent in Asian elephants. Since research in humans [ 37, 38] and other species (rodents [ 40, 41], dogs [ 44]) demonstrates that physical activity can reduce health risks associated with musculoskeletal health issues, managers may be engaging older and Asian elephants in active managed activities ( e. g., exercise and play) in an effort to mitigate these problems. Similarly, managers may be engaging older and Asian elephants in more foot care related husbandry activities in an effort to treat existing foot pathologies.

It should be noted that the night period was not included in any of the Management Schedule analyses. In most cases, elephants are independent for the entire night which, for this population, averaged between 8-18 hours depending on the season, with a modal value of 14 hours in both the summer and winter [ 15].

Environmental Enrichment

All sixty-three zoos provided their elephants with enrichment ( Table 9), (median = 73% of enrichment options included in our survey, max 97%, min 43%). Of these, the most common types were dirt piles and browse, which were used to some degree by all zoos ( Fig 1). With respect to frequency of provision, most zoos provided dirt piles, pools, logs, and scratching posts nearly every day (median = 10; available on 90-99% of days) (Figs 2 and 3). These features could be important to facilitate self-maintenance behaviors and maintain skin condition and, as such, are integrated into enrichment programs as permanent or semi-permanent exhibit features. Our data also show that while problem-solving opportunities were components of most enrichment programs (97% of zoos), they were provided infrequently (problem-solving opportunities with food rewards median = 3; problem-solving opportunities with non-food rewards median = 1). Taken together these findings are consistent with a survey-based study that examined enrichment practices for mammals at 60 Oceanian, North American, and European zoos. Hoy et al. [ 63] found that permanent or semi-permanent exhibit features were perceived by staff to be the most important types of enrichment, and that enrichment types that required considerable time to prepare or were difficult to set up were provided less frequently. Logistical problems associated with time or preparation difficulty may explain why our data also show lower frequencies of use of problem solving methods, as they may need to be tailored to individual animals and regularly updated to ensure the animals continue to use their cognitive and behavioral skills in novel ways [ 20]. Since problem-solving requires animals to use cognitive and behavioral skills to exert control over their environment and can be self-reinforcing [ 20, 64], we had hoped to test the effects of problem solving enrichment in the subsequent welfare models. However, we were unable to do so, since the frequency of use was so low.

Like Hoy et al. [ 63] we found that scheduling enrichment with a calendar was the most frequently used enrichment program component (median = 4; frequently) derived from the SPIDER framework. The other four program components were only used sometimes (median = 3 for each component) by most zoos, resulting in mid-range Enrichment Program scores (mean = 0; on a scale from -2.2 to 2.1). Equal and integrated use of all five of these components is likely to ensure that enrichment activities continue to be stimulating for animals [ 27].

Enrichment Diversity scores were moderate (mean = 2.9 on a scale from 0 to 3.4), indicating that there is opportunity to increase the variety and frequency of enrichment presentation for zoo elephants. To our knowledge, only two other large scale studies have attempted to quantify enrichment complexity, but using different indices than the Shannon Weaver. One [ 65] used an index that places less emphasis on evenness and gives more weight to the most dominant types experienced, and thus underestimates variety[ 57], while the other [ 66] generated a novel "environmental complexity" score. Given the complex nature of enrichment programs, it is necessary that methods for quantifying this practice continue to evolve such that variability within and between programs can be robustly assessed. For example, both measures that account for how individual animals utilize enrichment items and how novelty is incorporated into enrichment provisioning are topics that could be included to strengthen assessment methods.

Feeding

Research on elephants and other species has shown that providing animals with smaller portions of food more frequently can improve body condition (sows [ 67]), reduce abnormal behavior (Asian elephants, giraffe, okapi [ 28, 68]), and increase naturalistic feeding behavior (African elephants [ 25]). Since elephants in the wild feed during diurnal and nocturnal periods [ 5, 6], a pattern of smaller more frequent meals could be beneficial during the daytime and the nighttime. However, most elephants were fed only once during the nighttime (Tables 10 and 11). While we did not collect data on the timing of this feeding, other studies have shown that nocturnal feedings are often offered at the beginning of the nighttime management period [ 69, 70]. Providing food in this manner has been linked to rapid consumption early in the evening and a linear decrease in feeding behavior as the nighttime progresses [ 70].

Nearly half (47.5%) of all zoos feed their elephants on a predictable schedule, with food most commonly presented in clumps ( i. e., piles composed of multiple flakes of hay, browse items, or pellet) on the ground (median = 4; 30-39% of feedings included this method) (Figs 4 and 5). The low average Spread scores (mean = 0.2, on a scale from 0 to 1) and Feeding Diversity scores (mean = 1.3 on a scale ranging from 0 to 1.8) also indicate that food is typically provided in concentrated locations with a moderate amount of variety in food presentation. Taken together, these results indicate that many elephants are fed on temporally predictable schedules with high spatial predictability and only moderate feeding method variation. Relying on temporally and spatially predictable feeding programs is potentially problematic. Animals are capable of anticipating the arrival of predictable events, even in the absence of external cues [ 71], and this ability is hypothesized to play an important role in stimulating appetitive searching behaviors [ 32]. However when food is presented in a temporally and spatially predictable manner, these appetitive behaviors can become dissociated from their original function and develop into stereotypic behaviors [ 32]. In some species, food-associated anticipatory stereotypies can be disrupted and reduced by providing animals with temporally and spatially unpredictable feeding events [ 31], and it seems possible the same may apply to elephants.

Exercise

Asian elephants had higher scores on all exercise variables than African elephants (Tables 12 and 13), confirming and expanding upon the management schedule findings. African elephants were rarely given any exercise ( Fig 6), while elephant managers typically engaged Asian elephants in a variety of types of exercise, including stretching, calisthenics, and slow walks. Considering that the AZA's exercise program requirement is intended to mitigate complications associated with degenerative bone disease and obesity [ 3], it is interesting that aerobic exercise types are not used more frequently. Aerobic exercise has been shown in humans [ 35, 36] and other species (rodents [ 39, 42], dogs [ 43, 45], swine [ 46]) to reduce the risk of obesity and, when combined with strength building exercises, is also important for treating and reducing the risk of bone and joint diseases (humans [ 37, 38], rodents [ 40, 41], dogs [ 44]).

Training

Most of the elephants in this study were trained using a variety of methods, the majority of which involved rewarding stimuli (Rewarding Stimuli Technique Score median = 7) (Tables 14 and 15). The predominance of these techniques may reflect awareness that their use can minimize the animals' negative states ( i. e., frustration) during training and lead to more efficient individualized learning [ 51, 72] by increasing communication clarity [ 51, 73]. Additionally, the removal of rewarding stimuli as a means of reducing undesired behavior is less likely to cause negative affective states and/or frustration than the addition of aversive stimuli [ 51, 52].

Providing food rewards and positive verbal stimuli were the most common techniques utilized when elephants complied with a request ( Fig 7A), and neutral techniques such as repeating the request for a behavior and not giving a food reward were most frequently used when elephants did not comply with a request ( Fig 7B). Saying "No" was the aversive stimulus used most often to reduce the frequency of undesired behavior [experienced by 72% of elephants, median frequency = 3.5 (sometimes/frequently)], while aversive techniques involving physical contact were experienced by 44% percent of elephants, with a median frequency of 2 (rarely) ( Fig 8).

When we subdivided the population according to Guide Exposure, we found that 81 elephants were housed at 27 zoos that did not keep guides on their premises, while 138 elephants were housed at 38 zoos with guides onsite ( Table 14). Of these 138 elephants, however, 52 were never trained with a guide ( Table 16), which indicates that guides were not used for routine management of these elephants but may have been kept onsite for emergencies. At nine zoos, we found that some elephants were trained with guides, while others were not. This within-zoo variation highlights the need to assess training at the level of the individual elephant rather than the herd. Analyses of Training Item scores by Guide Exposure revealed several significant differences ( Fig 7C-7F). These differences showed a general trend for elephants that were exposed to guides to experience techniques that involved the removal ( e. g., remove negative) or addition of aversive stimuli ( e. g., gentle pressure, "No," showing an aversive stimulus) at a significantly higher frequency than elephants that were not exposed to guides. Accordingly, Rewarding Stimuli Technique Scores were lower for elephants with guide exposure (median(GE = 1) = 7, median(GE = 0) = 8; U = 11,474.5, p<0.05). All of these findings demonstrate that exposure to guides coincides with more frequent use of aversive stimuli in training interactions. Interestingly, the converse appears not to be true, since 97.5% of all elephants at zoos where guides were not on site experienced aversive stimuli during training when non-compliant. Therefore, our study shows that while the frequency with which these techniques are utilized is higher for animals that are trained with guides, the absence of guides in the training environments does not guarantee that techniques that have been shown to evoke negative emotional states [ 51, 53] or behavioral responses [ 54, 74] in humans and other animals are not being used. However, it is also important to note that across the whole population, these types of techniques are used with much less frequency [median = 1.5 (never/rarely)] than techniques involving rewarding stimuli [median = 3.5 (sometimes/frequently)] and neutral techniques [median = 3.5 (sometimes/frequently)].

The few studies that have attempted to evaluate the welfare effects of training categorize methods according to whether they rely entirely on the addition of rewarding stimuli, aversive stimuli, or a mix of methodologies (techniques involving the removal of rewarding stimuli are nearly always excluded from examination) without quantification of the relative proportion with which rewarding stimuli or aversive stimuli are experienced (dogs [ 54, 74] horses [ 75]). Our study demonstrates that elephant training (and likely the training of many other zoo species) is practiced along a continuum. Thus, categorizing training without quantifying the degree to which different methods are used, or classifying training programs simply based on the presence or absence of guides, may mask valuable information about the variability in training experiences of individual elephants. It is also possible that, within the operant conditioning framework, different techniques have different effects on welfare. The Rewarding Stimuli Techniques Score and Training Item scores we developed in this study are the first to quantify the continuum of experiences of animals with respect to the operant conditioning framework, including those trained with mixed conditioning methods. The challenge from here forward is to test the association between these types of operationalized training variables and behavioral or physiological outcomes, such that training protocols may be optimized to support positive welfare.

Conclusion

Assessing the welfare of zoo animals requires detailed descriptions of their physical and social environments as well as the day-to-day care practices they experience. Remarkably few studies have examined the practices used in managing zoo animals, and ours is the first multi-institutional study to do so in a systematic manner. Our methodology provides a model that could be applied to assessments of management practices for a variety of zoo-housed species. In particular, our methods for assessing enrichment program quality and diversity and the utilization of training techniques should be broadly applicable. In addition to describing animal populations of interest, a major strength of the types of variables we have synthesized is that they can be readily used as resource based measures to assess and improve welfare [ 76]. For example, we and our colleagues have found that the management factors described in this paper play an important role in predicting stereotypic behavior rates, walking rates, female reproductive physiology, and body condition in zoo elephants. More specifically, stereotypic behavior rates were negatively associated with Percent Time Managed [ 9], distances walked were positively associated with Feeding Diversity scores and an unpredictable Feed Schedule [ 10]. Also, the likelihood of a female African elephant having normal ovarian cyclicity was improved with her Enrichment Diversity score [ 12]; normal prolactin levels were more likely for female elephants with higher Alternate Feeding Methods and Enrichment Diversity scores [ 12]. Finally, ideal body condition was associated with higher Walk Week scores and an unpredictable Feed Schedule [ 14]. The results of our study and the subsequent welfare analyses clearly illustrate that elephant management exists on a continuum, can be modified to support best practices, and are pertinent to elephant welfare.

Acknowledgments

This project was part of a large-scale collaboration entitled Using Science to Understand Zoo Elephant Welfare. The authors would like to acknowledge the significant efforts of the full project team: Christy Alligood, Jeff Bolling, Mary Bonaparte-Saller, Janine Brown, Anne-Marie de Passillé, Candice Dorsey, Greg Guagnano, Jennifer Hogan, Matthew Holdgate, Mike Keele, Katherine Leighty, John Lehnhardt, Georgia Mason, Jill Mellen, Michele Miller, Steve Paris, Harry Peachey, Josh Plotnik, Natalia Prado-Oviedo, Jeff Rushen, Daniel Sneed, Joseph Soltis, Nadja Wielebnowski, and James Witte.

In addition, special thanks to the AZA Elephant TAG and TAG Chair Martha Fischer for logistical support, Jackie Ogden for communications support, and Vistalogic, Inc., for technological support and software services.

Also, thanks to Guy Lichty, Erin Ivory, Michael Boos and Tim Sinclair-Smith for their contributions to the development of the Training Techniques Survey.

Finally, sincere thanks to the people and elephants at each of the following zoos for their enthusiastic participation and support of the project:

Africam Safari, Albuquerque Biological Park, Audubon Institute, Birmingham Zoo, BREC's Baton Rouge Zoo, Buffalo Zoological Gardens, Busch Gardens, Buttonwood Park Zoo, Caldwell Zoo, Calgary Zoo, Cameron Park Zoo, Cheyenne Mountain Zoological Park, Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Dallas Zoo, Denver Zoo, Dickerson Park Zoo, Disney's Animal Kingdom, El Paso Zoo, Fresno Chaffee Zoo, Greenville Zoo, Honolulu Zoo, Houston Zoological Gardens, Indianapolis Zoological Society, Inc., Jacksonville Zoological Gardens, Knoxville Zoological Gardens, Lee Richardson Zoo, Little Rock Zoological Garden, Los Angeles Zoo and Botanical Gardens, Louisville Zoological Garden, Lowry Park Zoological Garden, Maryland Zoo, Memphis Zoological Garden and Aquarium, Metropolitan Toronto Zoo, Milwaukee County Zoological Gardens, Montgomery Zoo, Nashville Zoo, National Zoo, Niabi Zoo, North Carolina Zoological Park, Oakland Zoo, Oklahoma City Zoological Park, Oregon Zoo, Parque Zoologico de Leon, Phoenix Zoo, Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium, Reid Park Zoo, Riverbanks Zoological Park, Roger Williams Park Zoo, Rosamond Gifford Zoo at Burnet Park, San Antonio Zoological Gardens & Aquarium, San Diego Safari Park, San Diego Zoo, Santa Barbara Zoological Gardens, Sedgwick County Zoo, Seneca Park Zoo, Saint Louis Zoo, The Kansas City Zoo, Topeka Zoological Park, Tulsa Zoological Park, Utah's Hogle Zoo, Virginia Zoological Park, Wildlife Conservation Society-Bronx Zoo, Wildlife Safari, Woodland Park Zoo, Zoo Atlanta, Zoo de Granby, Zoo Miami.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: CLM BJG JA KC LJM DJS JAM KAM AB. Performed the experiments: CLM. Analyzed the data: BJG LJM CLM. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: BJG CLM LJM JAM. Wrote the paper: BJG CLM JAM LJM DJS.

References

1. 12. Brown JL, Paris S, Prado-Oviedo NA, Meehan CL, Hogan JN, Morfeld KA, et al. (2016) Reproductive health assessment of female elephants in North American zoos and association of husbandry practices with reproductive dysfunction in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). PLoS One pone.0145673.

2. 16. Lambeth SP, Hau J, Perlman JE, Martino M, Schapiro SJ (2006) Positive reinforcement training affects hematologic and serum chemistry values in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Am J Primatol 68: 245-256. pmid:16477594

3. 28. Rees PA (2009) Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo. Zoo Biol 28: 79-97. pmid:19367622

4. 66. Bennett C, Torgerson-White L, Fripp D, Watters J, Petric A (2015) A Multi-Institutional Assessment of Factors Influencing Locomotion and Pacing in Captive Okapis (Okapia johnstoni). J Appl Anim Welf Sci 18 Suppl 1: S43-61. pmid:26440496

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Elephant Management in North American Zoos: Environmental Enrichment, Feeding, Exercise, and Training

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The management of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in zoos involves a range of practices including feeding, exercise, training, and environmental enrichment. These practices are necessary to meet the elephants' nutritional, healthcare, and husbandry needs.

# data[].attributes.body
positive condition:
mixed substrates e.g. sand and soil
positive affect:
cognitive and physical enrichment/comfort
negative condition:
low intensity/lack of heat source
negative affect:
physical discomfort/malnourishment from inability to digest food

# data[].attributes.body
1) water quality (pool) - positive affects = physical comfort, wellness. negative affects = gastrointestinal issues, eye infections, skin diseases, physical discomfort, pain, thermal discomfort, stress, inactivity

2) variability of enrichment - positive affects = variety-based comfort, excitement, high activity levels. negative affects = inactivity, boredom, malaise

# data[].attributes.body
Bedding in house: could cause a negative physical affect such as skin irritation or respiratory affect like 'asthma'

Platforms: would cause a positive physical affect by stimulating muscle movement

# data[].attributes.body
Platforms - are a positive welfare for these animals as it would allow them to naturally exercise through climbing as they would in the wild
Plants - would be a positive welfare as the animals would be able to naturally scent their environment/territory. However, could be negative welfare if when accidentally ingested it could impact the animal's health.

# data[].attributes.body
Using rotational exhibits to help make their environments more varied each exhibit could have different:
-substrates
-decoration
-scents(especially if in rotation with another species or the opposite gender)

The types of agency that this will cover would be both exploration ones/ asses uncertainty and social learning

# data[].attributes.headline
Aonyx cinereus, Asian short clawed otter 

# data[].attributes.subject
Aonyx cinereus, Asian short clawed otter 

# data[].attributes.body
Environment/organisms resist use:
Provide feed by burying it in sandboxes/substrate = operant learning

Open world: cycle between several different enclosures with different factors e.g. bigger water pool, underground tunnels etc = assess uncertainty/flexibility

# data[].attributes.body
New objects - novel enrichment device
Open world - rotating enclosure

# data[].attributes.body
new objects, situations, events:
new object comes into the enclosure, observe it from all angles, touch it, sniff it, taste it maybe, scent mark it
open world:
causes deforestation, due to palm oil plantations, caused them to nest higher up, for less time due to noise and vibrations.
agency:
inquistive exploration
assess uncerentaintly update 'knowns'

# data[].attributes.body
food on end of sting
- rich and complex
- new objects, situations, events

agency
flexibility & play
inspective exploration

# data[].attributes.body
New Objects/Situations/Events

• Hessian Sack full of prey scents and materials

• The sack incorporates a willing urge for the Lions to learn, identify, and retrieve the inner contents

• This method therefore covers agencies of Inquisitive Exploration and Operant Learning

# data[].attributes.body
Lack or loss of control, add cohabiting species tp enclosure

New objects: add enrichment such as human items, bright colours, moving objects etc

# data[].attributes.body
Mixed species enclosure (eg, red ruffed lemurs): rich and complex, social learning
Puzzle feeders- New objects, exploration

# data[].attributes.body
Rich and complex -
Different enrichments in trees and climbing apparatus to meet the foraging needs and to be challenging to climb up and exhibit natural behaviours
New objects: with scent or senses to use the enclosure to full ability and make the red panda travel to different places in the enclosure

# data[].attributes.body
Environmental challenges:
Presence of other males during breeding season, rivalry

Enrichment:
Provision of a mirror or soft toy during natural breeding season

Agency promoted:
Agency promoted through triggering of rivalry hormones that mentally stimulate the males and allow them to exhibit natural defensive behaviours

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Enrichment, is the encouraging of natural behaviours, or making the life more interesting in terms, of various stimuli for the physical and mental health in the Captive environment.

Split into sections there are five forms of enrichment variety nutritional =(foraging, grazing, foods.
Treats, colours, textures, smells, taste, sometimes hunting in some species but for this I will focus on herbivores)
cognitive enrichment which is (occupational, problem solving, encouraging exercise physical and mental stimuli, enclosure furnishings, (by toys i mean something the animal will use or exploit) branches substrates, and sometimes actually toys.

The logical basis for how your animal is interacting with its living environment, reptiles including iguanas are often labelled as animals without the capacity to register stimulation or activities,because of there inability to display behaviours (visionry stimuli) as some mammals and birds or other domestics do is very difficult to see visually, or measure just how an animal uses its enviroment.

Aside from the debates whether reptiles do or don't I would pose this question, is it better to provide it on the
off chance they do benefit or do we not provide these things because we cant see how they feel?
I would ask which is the better choice?

Let's explore some of them.
Infact all these are far more realisitic than most people realize.

Pleasure is chemical (Dopamine - a reward based learning system found in most animals, aswell as being triggered by reproduction/sex (displays) courting.The reproduction and sex cycle is a very important part of an iguanas mental health, the ability to show alpha behaviours, and throw his dominance around
is mentally stimulating, he is always on the look out for potential passing females eyeing his territory, he's also on the look out for potential rivals, this is often displayed in captivity when we offer them a cuddly toy, my big male charges at his reflections in an attempt to rid that other invader, he has a collection of cuddly toys, one I bought from Chester zoo equivolent in size, and colour to another semi dominant male with Jowels, he will attack this toy aggressively, while throwing his dominance around and communicating with it, equally he has smaller green cuddly toys that he will use as his mating devices since they are a similar shape to his females, sometimes, if space allows, introducing cage mates can encourage this natural behaviour, both male and females.

I have seen my females even display behaviours when they are not

Aside from throwing around dominance behaviors, pleasure can also be found in which an animal associates a situation or spot, or another animal. How-ever it is important to differentiate this as emotions such as love, anathromorphising iguanas is by far not something advisable.

How-ever they do seem to associate favourite spots, objects, colors and sometimes approaches, engaging the five sensory enrichment phase.Animals can take preferences over a variety of surfaces, and situations, (some may come to learn and appreciate bath times for example)
Or a higher point during semi free roam oppurtunities like a book case, or an area on the back of the couch, in the wild they don't just live on one type of surface.But are exposed to a whole variety of surfaces ranging from forest beddings, leaf litter, soils, sands, rocks, patios, even roof tops, branches, boulders, gravels as they walk across angry resident gardens to eat their flowers, while it may not always be possible to acheive this in a captive enviroment, the engagement of the five senses should be encouraged.
The more stimuli they are offerd, the better it can be to their mental health and development, and give them oppurtunities that they the real experts can expand on themselves.

All captive iguanas suffer some degree of stress (either by making eye contact with their owners) some individuals may flip out knowing they have been spotted and identified.
It is a predator avoidance move, throwing them into fight or flight response (which is why we often see new owners continiously) struggling to
cope with their new scaley companion darting off from them without understanding why, well now you know.
While aiming to condition them down and reduce predator avoidance levels in captivity has it's benefits, it ultimately is not black and white, and some
individuals may take longer, or never at all to calm down, having a highly defensive animal, is a good sign of a healthy animal.

Zookeepers often use scent-oriented enrichment for their reptiles; leaving scent trails or dragging another snakes shed through the enclosure while the animal is off exhibit can achieve this. Another way in which reptiles and amphibians can be enriched is the use of leaf piles, this provides a place to
hide and scents to explore and is a very natural behavior that should be encouraged.

They tend to partially at least laze around and bask in the sun all day. In reality though, reptiles need enrichment just as much as other animals do.Reptile enrichment tends to be fairly simple and you can even do some of the enrichment with your own scaly pets, social intersctions through taming, daily
baths and activities, nutritional and sensory enrichment provides different olfactory stimulation, providing ample cover (this indoors can be achieved withlive or plastic plants, my own often spy on me through them, while my own dominant male, routinely hides himself in it, awaits for me to go in before tryingto jump out and surprise me with his territorial intentions, this demonstrates thst he has a memory, and is using his envromebt in a multitude of ways, otherthings in environment (such as pools of water (bathing shedding aid, defecting) rocks branches for lizards to promote dominant behavior) as is seen in mineis also a form of enrichment and induces exploratory behavior, this should be encouraged.

Captive life can also become just that, my girl miny likes to sit on my knee or shoulder when I watch tv, I doubt she knows what is happening or understands a word of it! But she does watch it, she used to do this routinely ontil she cycled, not much any more but she does sometimes, on days I can't take them outside or supervise them they will sit on the window sill and watch the wild life, birds, squirrels, or me tittering about the room, it is all good.Adding new things routinely, introducing new situations and food challenges, interacting with them, and giving them the opportunity to swim in the baths, offering cuddly toys, rotating in new cage furniture or moving it around, will and should help keep them thinking,
it's the little things that will make the
massive differences to their lives.

Enriched life styles, are what creates an animal that can thrive.
From day one I exposed my animals to live plants, even today, I have observed them many times deliberately walk past many more of the considerd toxic ones, Just to get a plant they are familiar with, I am sure this is demonstrating a conditioned intelligence based on routine, and regular introduction to
Alien items, I have never had an iguana here injest a toxic plant from this, so to me that is just another form of proof I need for offering enriched life styles.

But I do know, having been a sterile keeper myself, and now keeping these animals in enriched living spaces. I have seen the differences, and seen a host of behaviors and functions I have never once seen.
For example, I have seen my male iguana dig, and I am not talking about scraping away at the sides to get out, this was in the middle of his enclosure.
Actually digging, what he was doing I truly do not know.
Whether he was attempting to dig up a root, or access a humidity gradient I do not know. The only reference I found of this behavior was in one of G Burghard't's and Stan Rand's studies where they noted a similar behavior in a wild male. While it is irresponsible of us to assume anything, we should take that as a lesson, that perhaps, if it is being done in the wild, and rarely being seen in captivity. It does suggest, that many of these animals, are being deprived of some of there natural functions and behaviors. (Some of which we may not have observed) I refer anyone for some interesting little mysteries to Stand Rand and G Burghartds observations.

For completeness, and to summarise this and the references up regarding complexities of emotions, communication, intelligence.

It's an impossible argument.

The term 'emotion' is a human label for a set of 'feelings' that we experience.
The term 'instinctual reaction' is also a human label for things that animals will do in order to survive.
The debate always dissolves into a discussion about the semantics of the term 'emotion'.

However for completeness, we must use discernment, and be logical, and never "assume anything" but be open to the possibility.
I summarise my thoughts up below.

Emotion as oppose to instinctual reaction is a phenomenon that, I believe is restricted to the higher mammals and, perhaps, certain birds and specifically those animals that have evolved to have complicated social structure.
The evolution (time frame) of living in social groupings carried with it an increase in brain size and complicated communication and also the need to
empathise and I believe this led to the evolution of complex emotions.

Rather than debate what counts for an 'emotion at the moment, I would hypothesise based on extensive amounts of research, first hand expeirence, trials and experiments.
that lizards in general can and do experience the things we would call.

1.Fear
2.Lust
3.Hunger
4.Pain
5.Recognition
6.Memory,
7.indifference
8.Stress
9.Anxiety
10.Anger.

and will react with aggression, defence (pretty similar in most animals)
1.Feeding response
2.general interest
3.Apathy
4.Sexual frustration.
5.Perceived intereaction.

However, I do not believe they are capable of experiencing the things/feelings/phenomenon that we would call.

1.Love
2.Jelousy (often mistaken for chemosensory behavioraial differences).
3.Hate
4.Empathy
5.Angst
6.Passion,
7.Appreciation
8.Compassion,
9.Ecstasy
10.remorse
11.Guilt.

This how-ever,is not to say they don't feel anything, there is still much to learn and understand, but we should not assume anything.
They may not "feel" the things we know to be in those phenomenon, how-ever, they may have elevated emotional responses of other of baisic emotions to recompensate.

Dixon.

References of research.

https://www.google.com/patents/US5879719
http://zookeeperdiary.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/household-reptile-enrichment.html
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FB%3ACOGE.0000014062.86556.e3?LI=true
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:3%3C223::AID-ZOO3%3E3.0.CO;2-D/abstract;jsessionid=EB9084832C3378AE86E97E72982589A7.f03t02
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159113001214
http://www.reptileforums.co.uk/forums/lizards/1059717-do-lizards-enjoy-being-handeld.html
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/enrichment/
http://www.enrichment.org/MiniWebs/Australasia/workshop01.pdf
http://fortheloveofherpetology.tumblr.com/post/46042784052/enrichment-is-the-practice-of-changing-a-captive
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888705.2014.917556#.Vp2zPJqLSt8
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/267/1454/1745.short
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016648002000187
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2108/zsj.14.833 ScienceDirect - Progress in Brain Research : Emotion, motivation, and the brain: Reflex foundations in animal and human research
Emotion: An Evolutionary By-Product of the Neural Regulation of the Autonomic Nervous Systema - PORGES - 2006 - Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences - Wiley Online Library

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Enrichment, is the encouraging of natural behaviours, or making the life more interesting in terms, of various stimuli for the physical and mental health in the Captive environment. Split into sections there are five forms of enrichment variety nutritional =(foraging, grazing, foods.

# data[].attributes.body
* Others are knowledgeable
providing food puzzle - animals have to move different parts of the puzzle to receive an apple. Others will learn by observing.

Agencies:
- operant learning
- inspective exploration

# data[].attributes.body
Environmental challenge:
Boredom due to lack of diverse environment.

Enrichment:
Adding platforms for climbing, variety of vegetation, different substrates.

Agency:
Inquisitive exploration.

# data[].attributes.headline
Add your plan for reducing boredom in zoo species here. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Add your plan for reducing boredom in zoo species here. 

# data[].attributes.body
Appropriate social structure to keep them occupied during keeper absence

# data[].attributes.body
Creating ways for the animal to interact with its environment in order to obtain essential resources.
Eg: providing ways for animal to adapt, modify and create its own shelter/bed area.
Animal has to work for food/to obtain it from environment, alike how it would obtain it from the wild, such as allowing otters to wash their food, crack open shells etc. Carnivores provided with whole carcasses may have to spend longer getting to edible bits of food

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placing herbs hidden in enclosure of red river hogs before closing of zoo

when putting animals in for the night, housing different species together e.g. mara and alpaca

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Rotation of enclosure, swapping the tigers around so then they can get more enriched and more stimuli, meaning they can show more natural behaviours, exploration.

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multi species enclosures e.g. sheep and lemurs

including moving enrichment such as wheels into prey driven animals such as lions

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boring alone time
- intermittently bring a member of the opposite sex past the enclosure to simulate meeting within a wild environment (cheetahs)
- use of technology to display shadows or sounds that they may encounter within a wild environment as long as it doesn't stress the animal(meerkats)
Boring routines
- changing the staff that work with the animal to change who they are seeing on a regular basis.
- changing when the animal is fed to keep them guessing when food is going to arrive within the enclosure.
Boring enclosures
- use of spring based climbing apparatus to simulate flexibility of branches that they would encounter within the wild (lemurs)
- multiple heat sources that change in temperature within a enclosure to simulate the day light cycle or even seasonal cycles
Boring essential resources
- use a variety of water sources within a environment this can help simulate dry seasons for African species by having shallower pools during summer but fuller ones during the winter.
- giving the choice of a variety of shelters for a animal to use such as red pandas giving them a variety of heights to nest at facing different directions.

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changing feeding routine e.g. food enrichment throughout day instead of specific times

night zoo tours, enriching for animals as not used to seeing and engaging public at those times

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BORING ALONG TIME
- having access to indoor and outdoor areas

BORING ENCLOSURES
- mesh trails leading into different areas of the zoo

BORING ROUTINES
- feeding at different times, by different keepers, different food type, different part of enclosure

BORING ESSENTIAL RESOURCES
- being able to go to different areas of shelter

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Vary when husbandry takes are completed around the zoo, to keep the animals guessing and this can then help with stimulation and keeping the animal enriched too

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Boring alone time:
Mirrors for macaws
Puzzle feeders for Giraffes

Boring enclosures:
Re arranging perches in birds of pray
Climbing opportunities for big cats

Boring routines:
Sectioned enclosure to change up environment for each day in cheetahs
Randomize feeding time in otters to prevent anticipation behaviours

Boring essential resources
Provision of tools for sourcing food in Apes
Feeding whole carcasses to painted dogs

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Boring alone time-
Marmosets - scent enrichment in indoor enclosure, gum/ honey  put in logs
Chimps- balls and toys scattered

Boring Routines-
Meerkats- Change feeding times regularly (weekly schedule changes)
Rotate training sessions

Boring enclosures-
Meerkats- arrange tunnels and other structures
Tigers- enclosure rotation

Boring essential resources-
Raccoon- Food boxes where they have to work to get the reward
Meerkats- live insects in logs blocked with fruit

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Boring alone time - Frozen foods PM, allowing for gradual overnight feeding?

Boring routines - introduce trickle feeders with live food

Boring enclosures - Bury food, vary depth and type of substrate

Boring essential resources - Add natural water springs and more enriching feeding methods such as the previously mentioned trickle feeders

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Boring alone time:
Goats can be fed just before keepers leave and given browse to pick at during the evening/night.

Often primate species that aren't housed together can have sleeping chambers where they can see each other, to encourage interactions at night time.

Boring routines:
In small zoos, routines may vary as different keepers will be in and do jobs in different orders, which can stop animals from showing expectant behaviours.

Boring enclosures:
For meerkats, safe seasonal decorations can reduce boredom such as pumpkins at Halloween and eggs at Easter. (This works best for species that use their claws a lot to manipulate objects)

Green iguanas can have a range of plants accessable to them and by changing or replanting different plants, they can explore new scents, textures and climbing spaces. (This would not work as well for more terrestrial species)

Boring essential resources:
Green iguanas can be given large swimming pools during the summer to help them cool off and encourage swimming. (Not suitable for none aquatic species)

Presenting fruit to parrots in ice cubes during the summer to encourage beak usage to access food.

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BORING ALONE TIME
- access to indoor and outdoor areas

BORING ENCLOSURES
- different scent enrichment in enclosure (rhino dung)

BORING ROUTINES
- changing feeding times

BORING ESSENTIAL RESOURCES
- food on the back of the moving truck -chase involved

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Boring Alone Time
- Gerbil running on a spinning wheel whilst an effective method of improving the body conditioning score. can become a dependancy in terms of expresion of a stereotypical behaviour built up by a lack of enrichment and subsiquent boredom and frustration. Perhaps instad play into there love of problem solving and escaping by having a maze which u can alter to allow acses into difrent areas of the enclosures. to make the foreighn enviroment less stressful leave small almounts of substrate within tubes and mazes to utelise a gerbils olfactory marking reasuring the gerbil that its a freindly and safe domain.

Boring Routines
- Small animals are constantly given same amount and type of food, would be better to give them starve days