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Reimagining Disability & Inclusive Education | Jan Wilson | TEDxUniversityofTulsa

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Inclusive education at a glance research and data

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SWIFT in 60: Strong and Engaged Site Leadership

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This film was created by SWIFT, a national K-8 center that provides academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including students with disabilities and those with the most extensive needs. This film focuses on how strong and engaged site leadership is a foundation for transforming systems throughout a school, empowering the entire faculty to support student success.

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Introduction

What are high expectations for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities? This question has been raised for decades, with the answers changing over time. Although the conclusion has been that all individuals deserve the chance to show what they know and can do, exactly what that means for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities is just emerging.

Evidence

Students with disabilities in the United States have a history of exclusion in education. Although it has been more than 40 years since the first laws were enacted to ensure that a child with any disability had access to school, the placement of students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in segregated settings continue (Morningstar, Kurth, & Johnson, 2017).

Legislation requires access to and assessment of student performance in grade-level academic content (IDEA 1997; ESEA 2001, 2015). Yet, there continues to be a mindset that students with intellectual disabilities should be taught an "alternate" curriculum, one that meets their functional skill needs rather than academics. Spooner and Brown (2011) noted that inclusive efforts for students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities have focused on the location of their learning, but continued the separate curriculum. The assumption was that this population of students could not learn academic content. Even though this myth has been debunked (Saunders & Wakeman, 2018/2019), it persists. Advocates and researchers continue to encourage practitioners to consider what is relevant for students in this population and plan for what they could do instead of assuming what they cannot do (e.g., Courtade, Spooner, Browder, & Jimenez, 2012; Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2017).

The least dangerous assumption was first proposed by Donnellan (1984). It is a concept that has guided the approach taken by some, but not all, educators who work with students with the most significant cognitive disabilities. Still, there is evidence that when there is adherence to the least dangerous assumption, students with intellectual disabilities can make progress on the same academic content as their grade-level peers without disabilities (e.g., Heinrich, Collins, Knight, & Spriggs, 2016; Ruppar, Afacan, Yang, & Pickett, 2017).

The least restrictive environment (LRE) requirement in IDEA was designed to ensure that every child be educated with non-disabled peers to the greatest extent possible. Every Individualized Education Program (IEP) team makes decisions about placement based on the student's strengths and needs, so it is best practice that IEP teams remain up-to-date on current research for educating students in inclusive settings. Research findings indicate that:

Inclusive placements in general education classrooms for students with significant cognitive disabilities correlate positively with their achievement (Kleinert et al., 2015).

When students with intellectual disabilities are educated with their non-disabled peers they also make progress on social goals (e.g., Brock, Biggs, Carter, Cattey, & Raley, 2016; Henrick, Collins, Knight, & Spriggs, 2016).

When students without disabilities are educated in inclusive classrooms, they develop skills like empathy and advocacy, and there is no negative effect on their academic performance (Carter et al., 2016).

Definition

The least dangerous assumption is a theory developed in the early 1980s. According to Donnellan (1984), "The criterion of the least dangerous assumption holds that in the absence of conclusive data, educational decisions ought to be based on assumptions that, if incorrect, will have the least dangerous effect on the likelihood that students will be able to function independently as adults" (p. 141). Evidence gathered by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) indicated much earlier that teacher expectations could influence student achievement. In the current policy environment when so many expectations are created by test score data or disability label, it is vital that high expectations are set for all students.

Donnellan wrote about the need to practice the least dangerous assumption for students with disabilities. She suggested that if a student does not make progress, we should first assume it is due to a problem with the instruction or materials rather than a student deficit. Jorgensen (2005) outlined five reasons for presuming competence as the least dangerous assumption: (a) human intelligence is multi-faceted, (b) measuring intelligence is flawed, (c) communication and high-quality instruction are needed before we can determine capability, (d) presuming incompetence could be harmful, and (e) even if we are wrong, the consequence is not as harmful as the alternative.

Further information on expectations is provided in the following video clips of a parent and a general education teacher talking about the importance of high expectations from each of their perspectives:

Implementation

The ways in which expectations can play out for an individual student are shown in this case study of Leo. Leo has an intellectual disability and has been in a separate classroom for the past four years. His IEP includes goals for using Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) to make simple requests (e.g., more, drink, bathroom, eat), using behavioral self-management strategies, identifying simple sight words, and sorting objects by color or size. The IEP team is discussing the best placement for Leo. His parents have been pushing to have him included in general education classes. This is the conversation:

Parents: We have been attending trainings on building communication systems and using the least dangerous assumption. It seems that Leo's behavior outbursts are linked to the fact that he doesn't have a solid communication system yet. We also are worried because he has been coming home from school with the same types of work for years, and we think he would benefit from joining the regular class where the kids from our neighborhood are.

Principal: What has Leo been working on this past year?

Speech-language pathologist: He's been working with a new AAC system, but he still hasn't mastered the basic needs (asking for a drink, identifying his name, etc.). His IEP goals have been pretty similar since Kindergarten.

Teacher: Well, he has been working on many of the same IEP goals for awhile, but that is because he really struggles to remember anything from one day to the next. We do flashcards for sight words and he knows them one day, but then the next week he has forgotten them all. There is no way Leo can do grade-level work. His academics are not even close, and his behaviors would be detrimental to the rest of the students.

After quite a few meetings and discussions and some reading (e.g., Carter, 2018/2019; Jorgensen, 2018/2019), the IEP team realized that Leo seems more interested in his surroundings when he is with same-aged peers, including those without disabilities. His parents share that he finds ways to communicate with his brother's friends when they come over. Ultimately, on a trial basis, Leo is placed in a general education setting from the time of his arrival at school through lunch. Leo's parents asked that the educators who work with Leo be given some professional development to support planning for Leo's transition to the general education classroom. The principal and teachers agreed. During and after the training, everyone worked together to identify potential barriers to Leo's inclusion and access to the curriculum, and together they problem-solved ways to overcome them. For instance, rather than focusing on Leo having few sight words and a bad memory, the team thought about how to help him access information and show what he knows. Perhaps Leo may not master multiple sight words, but through a free technology, such as Bookshare, he could listen to the same text as his peers, and he could show his understanding using a response board with some choices rather than coming up with each answer on his own.

Leo's case provides examples of how the least dangerous assumption can be implemented. For each implementation example presented below, there is also the likely negative effect if the least dangerous assumption is ignored.

Teaching Life, Social, and Academic Skills

In Leo's inclusive math class, students are working on multi-step mathematical problems. Leo is using his task-analyzed support to complete problems similar to his peers. Leo uses his stamp to write his name, or his AAC to electronically sign, at the top of his math assignment. Like all the students in class, if Leo has a question he is supposed to ask two peers before he asks a teacher. Further, his AAC device is programmed to ask for help and has core words that can be combined to reflect a large number of concepts and ideas. Leo also has some fringe vocabulary for specific units. The math problems are connected to the science lesson being taught later that day.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo works alone at his desk. He circles numbers in isolation on a worksheet. He stamps his name five times in a row on a second worksheet. He staples the worksheets together before he turns them in to his teacher.

Instruction in Natural Contexts and Routines

Leo enters the inclusive classroom and says "hello" to his classroom teacher and friends. What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo is practicing activating his AAC device to say "hello" in a therapy session in four out of five trials.

More Challenging Content

In his inclusive classroom, Leo uses familiar playing cards to sequence numbers on a number line as part of multi-step math problems that the rest of the class is doing. He sorts information from two different stories to create a Venn Diagram. He uses his name and course subject to identify letter sounds.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo completes three tasks each morning when he arrives at school. These three tasks are his IEP goals related to matching colors and pictures of playing cards, sorting blocks, and circling his name. These tasks are not changed until he demonstrates mastery for five out of five days.

Addressing Barriers to Learning

Leo's inclusive classroom teacher plans a lesson related to comparing and contrasting states of matter. She plans using tangible objects so that Leo can touch, see, and hear the differences. She provides picture and object response options for concepts for Leo to use on his AAC device. She uses videos for Leo to see the melting and freezing process in a short period of time.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo's teacher sees Leo as the barrier to learning, and thus uses hand-over-hand support with Leo to sort pictures of hot and cold items because there is only 15 minutes of class time for science.

Focus of Instruction

Leo works on a subset of prioritized vocabulary for each chapter of the text the class is reading. He uses his AAC device for both word recognition and definition. Leo has picture supports that match each vocabulary word and has several opportunities each day to respond to questions using the vocabulary on his communication device. He repeats having the chapter read aloud to him and using his vocabulary as homework.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo's teacher regularly focuses on a narrow set of skills or topics. Thus, Leo's vocabulary instruction focuses on flashcard instruction. He works on five words in isolation each benchmark period.

Summary

The least dangerous assumption pushes us to consider all students as capable (Jorgensen, 2005). Our challenge is to not think in a deficit mindset but consider what can we do to support students in how they access, engage in, and respond not only to life skills content, but academic content, as well. By including students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in the instruction of all content, students and families are included in a community of learning that sets achievable high expectations.

Learning Activities

Least Dangerous Assumption Learning Activities for Educators: Activity 1

Watch the following video. Be prepared to note where you see evidence of considerations of least dangerous assumption and where there are potential ways to increase considerations of least dangerous assumption.

After watching the video, click here to see places to potentially improve considerations for LDA​.

Least Dangerous Assumption Learning Activities for Educators: Activity 2

The least dangerous assumption basically states that if we aren't 100% sure, we should make decisions that, if wrong, have the fewest negative repercussions against the person. At different times of a person's life, these decisions may include what someone should or shouldn't learn, where someone should learn, where someone should live, with whom someone should live, etc.

The least dangerous assumption is important because we know:

Having high expectations makes a difference

IQ is not destiny

Not talking is not the same as not having something to say

So, how do you create least dangerous assumption opportunities in your IEP meetings, your schools, and your life? Let's look at some possible scenarios.

"Shaquan has Down syndrome so I think this classroom may be best. He will learn the functional skills he'll need to get a job."

The assumptions being made:

All people with Down syndrome have the same needs.

Functional skills are often defined as "daily living skills" and typically include hygiene skills, making change, and following basic directions. "Academic" skills such as reading, writing, science, and math are not considered as a priority or achievable for some students.

What is a response that reflects a least dangerous assumption? Write one before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Shaquan's scenario.

"Down syndrome is only one part of who Shaquan is."

"Functional skills for Shaquan are reading, making friends, and learning how to advocate for himself."

"How can we support Shaquan learning all the skills he needs to help him get access to general education classroom and content?"

Kaitlyn needs to learn to better use her AAC system before she will benefit from a general education classroom.

What assumptions are being made?

Communication is taught in isolation.

Not talking is the same as not having anything to say.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Kaitlyn's scenario.

"Let's give Kaitlyn more opportunities to practice communication and more people to communicate with."

"Rather than waiting for Kaitlyn to 'prove herself' by communicating, let's begin by giving her things to communicate about."

"Since Kaitlyn doesn't yet have a strong communication system, we can't be sure what she does and doesn't understand. We must then give her access to as much as we can, in case her receptive language is stronger than her expressive currently is."

Daniel's behavior is not appropriate for a general education classroom. Once he learns better ways to handle his frustration then we can talk about moving him.

What assumptions are being made?

Behavior is a prerequisite for being allowed in a classroom.

Behavior is not communication.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Daniel's scenario.

"What is Daniel's behavior telling us? Is he engaged in the classroom environment?"

"How can we support Daniel to learn better ways to handle his frustration?"

"What strategies and supports can we put in place in a general education classroom to help Daniel?"

What assumptions are being made?

Shandra's IQ is 60. She won't be safe in a general education setting.

IQ is destiny.

Shandra will only be safe if adults take care of her and adults will always be around to take care of her.

Shandra's peers will be mean to her.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Shandra's scenario.

"What are supports that Shandra needs to access reading, writing, math, science, etc.?"

"How can we set up peer networks or a circle of friends for Shandra?"

"What strategies can we use to help Shandra build her advocacy skills?"

TIPS Series: Tip #6, July 2019

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Taub, D., Wakeman, S., Saunders, A., Thurlow, M. L., & Lazarus, S. S. (2019). Using the least dangerous assumption in educational decisions (TIPS Series: Tip #6). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. The Center is affiliated with the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) at the Institute on Community Integration (ICI), College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota. The contents of this report were developed under the Cooperative Agreement from the U.S. Department of Education, but do not necessarily represent the policy or opinions of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Readers should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

The National Center on Educational Outcomes leads the TIES Center partnership. There are six additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina - Charlotte, and University of North Carolina - Greensboro.

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Foundations of Inclusion | TIP #6: Using the Least Dangerous Assumption in Educational Decisions

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What are high expectations for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities? This question has been raised for decades, with the answers changing over time. Although the conclusion has been that all individuals deserve the chance to show what they know and can do, exactly what that means for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities is just emerging.

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LRE has been an aspect of special education law since 1975, when there was widespread public concern about children with disabilities historically being segregated and denied equitable education.

Research shows that children of all abilities learn social skills from one another when they learn side-by-side.

Some Washington schools struggle to support access to general education programs and settings for students with disabilities. In 2019, only 56 percent of students with disabilities are included in general education settings for 80-100 percent of the school day.

Under federal law, a student is placed in a more restrictive setting when the IEP team agrees that the student needs a different placement for education to be appropriately accessible.

Help from a paraeducator might be part of the support services that enable a student to access learning in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Note that a paraeducator is a service, not a placement. Having a 1:1 to help in the classroom does not violate LRE. This topic was included in the resolution of a 2017 Citizen Complaint. Read on for more detail.

Full Article
Some other articles that might be of interest:
Evaluations Part 2: Next Steps if the School Says 'No' to Your Request Section 504: A Plan for Equity, Access and Accommodations
Schools are responsible to provide a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) for students with disabilities. One of the defining principles of special education law is that students with disabilities have access to general education, with nondisabled peers, to the maximum extent possible. That requirement is called Least Restrictive Environment (LRE).

LRE is a key feature of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and has been part of disability rights for students since 1975. PAVE has articles about special education history and key principles of the . The LRE requirements are a response to widespread public concern about children with disabilities historically being segregated in institutions, separated from peers and removed from neighborhood schools.

A student qualifies for the protections of the IDEA and special education services when a disabling condition severely impacts access to learning and specially designed instruction is needed. An eligible student is entitled to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), delivered through an Individualized Education Program (IEP).

The IEP includes specially designed instruction and goal monitoring, supplementary aids and services, accommodations and intentionally chosen spaces to meet the student's needs. Those thoughtfully chosen spaces are a student's "placement." A decision about placement is made after programming decisions are made by the IEP team.

Parents can learn this terminology to help in their advocacy. Here's a statement that incorporates key terms: Placement in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) is part of a school district's responsibility when providing a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) for a student who receives special education services.
General Education is the first LRE option
The general education setting is the first LRE placement option, and how placement is designed is unique to a student's individualized needs. Research demonstrates that students with disabilities perform better academically and learn social skills when they have access to the general education setting with proper support.

According to the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction ( OSPI), which provides guidance to schools in Washington State, "The body of research consistently supports the positive link between access to core instruction in general education settings and improved outcomes for students with disabilities.

"Inclusion is the belief and practice that all students have the right to meaningfully access academic and social opportunities in general education settings."

Still, some Washington schools struggle to provide meaningful access to general education programs and settings. In 2019, the state reports that only 56 percent of students with disabilities are included in general education settings for 80-100 percent of the school day.

The 2019 Washington Legislature passed House Bill 1109 to provide $25 million in 2020-21 to implement professional development in support of inclusionary practices, with an emphasis on coaching and mentoring. Information about the Inclusionary Practices Professional Development Project is available on OSPI's website.
What the law says
The IDEA states that schools are required to provide FAPE in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) "to the maximum extent appropriate." Each state is required to implement the IDEA. The U.S. Department of Education maintains a website that shares language directly from the federal law. According to Sec. 300.114:

"Each public agency must ensure that-

"To the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are educated with children who are nondisabled; and

"Special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily."

LRE decisions follow a 4-part process
OSPI's website includes information directed toward parents: "Placement decisions are made by your student's IEP team after the IEP has been developed. The term "placement" in special education does not necessarily mean the precise physical building or location where your student will be educated. Rather, your student's "placement" refers to the range or continuum of educational settings available in the district to implement her/his IEP and the overall amount of time s/he will spend in the general education setting."

Selection of an appropriate placement includes 4 considerations:

1. IEP content (specialized instruction, goals, services, accommodations...)

2. LRE requirements (least restrictive "to the maximum extent appropriate")

3. The likelihood that the placement option provides a reasonably high probability of helping a student attain goals

4. Consideration of any potentially harmful effects the placement option might have on the student or the quality of services delivered

What if placement in general education isn't working?
If a student is unable to access learning in an appropriate way (FAPE) because of the nature or severity of the disability, then the IEP team considers alternative placement options. It's important to note that a student is placed in a more restrictive setting because the student needs a different location within the school, not because it's more convenient for adults or because it saves the school district money.

According to IDEA, Sec. 300.114, "A State must not use a funding mechanism by which the State distributes funds on the basis of the type of setting in which a child is served that will result in the failure to provide a child with a disability FAPE according to the unique needs of the child, as described in the child's IEP."
Placement options are vast
IEP teams consider a wide range of placement options. They may discuss whether there's a need for a small classroom setting, for example, or home-based instruction. For a child with a behavioral health condition, the team may discuss whether a "day treatment" school staffed with specialists in behavior management might provide the best access to FAPE.

The continuum of placement options includes, but is not limited to:

general education classes

general education classes with support services and/or modifications

a combination of general education and special education classes

self-contained special education classes

placements outside of a school district

home instruction

residential care or treatment facilities

School districts are not required to have a continuum available in every school building. A school district, for example, might have a self-contained setting or preschool services in some but not all locations. This gives districts some discretion for choosing a location to serve the placement chosen by an IEP team.
Placement and location are different
Note that the IEP team determines the placement, but the school district has discretion to choose a location to serve the IEP.

For example, an IEP team could determine that a student needs a day treatment/behavioral health-focused school in order to access FAPE-an appropriate education. If the IEP team chooses a Day Treatment placement, then the school district is responsible to find a location to provide that placement. Following this process, a public-school district might pay for transportation and tuition to send a student to a private or out-of-district facility. If a request for a specialized placement is initiated by the family, there are other considerations.

OSPI's website includes this information:

"... if you are requesting that your student be placed in a private school or residential facility because you believe the district is unable to provide FAPE, then you must make that request through a due process hearing."
Note: Due Process is part of the "procedural safeguards" available to family participants on the IEP team. PAVE has an 1:1 is a service, not a placement and a about options when family members disagree with the school.
The IDEA specifies that a more restrictive placement relies on data showing that "the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily."

Supplementary aids and services can include a wide variety of supports. The student might use assistive technology, for example, or teachers could craft unique ways to present the curriculum. The student may get individualized help from an adult.

The LRE requirement means that schools document efforts to enable a student to access general education, however that might be possible. General education access includes classrooms, programs like PE and art, extracurricular activities, recess.... IEP team members can get creative about how to help the student succeed. Some students design their own clever accommodations. Family members and outside therapists or behavioral specialists also contribute ideas.

A common conflict with families and schools is whether a 1:1 paraeducator might enable access to FAPE in general education. Some parents and schools may have conversations about whether a helper might "restrict" a student's ability to develop independence. Sometimes those conversations lead to misunderstanding about LRE. A 2017 case in Washington addressed the topic and clarified that a 1:1 is a service, not a placement.
"The District is incorrect in its belief that 1:1 paraeducator support is the most restrictive environment for all students. Paraeducator support is a supplementary aid and service, not a placement option on the continuum of alternative placements....
In response to a Citizen Complaint filed by parents in the Lake Washington School District, OSPI issued a public report, with a finding in favor of the family. The parents wanted their child to get help from a 1:1 aide and disagreed with the school that it would "restrict" the student. According to OSPI's report, parents had requested a 1:1 aide because they wanted the school to provide more support in order to increase the student's time in general education. School staff on the IEP team said no to the request, citing a belief that a 1:1 aide "is the most restrictive level of service..."
LRE does not mean students are on their own
OSPI rejected that argument, stating:

"Based on the documentation in this complaint, the District did not base its decision to deny the Parent's request for 1:1 aide support on the Student's individualized needs. The District erred in failing to properly consider if the Student could participate in a general education setting with the provision of 1:1 aide support."

The conversation about what creates "restriction" is complex, and sometimes school staff bring up the concept of "learned helplessness" if they believe that children learn better with less instead of more support. Each conversation and circumstance is unique, but parents can research the topic of learned helplessness to understand various ways that data are interpreted to generate opinions.

Generally, when someone receives help-including education provided by a teacher or a teacher's aide-that person learns how to do something and eventually models what is taught, with mastery over time. Revoking help before a person is ready to do something independently may create a help"less" situation. A person who cannot perform a task with success and doesn't get the needed help to get better at the skill may over time give up and become helpless. Some articles on the subject relate to individuals who have been unable to cope or problem-solve independently and therefore "learn" to be helpless.

Parents talking with the school about LRE and appropriate support can do their best to provide accurate and comprehensive information about a student's unique disability condition and what is needed to meet the student where he/she is ready to learn.

Following are a few additional resources:

An agency called Teaching Exceptional Children Plus features an article by a parent about the value of inclusion in general education. The January 2009 article by Beth L. Sweden is available for download online: Signs of an Inclusive School: A Parent's Perspective on the Meaning and Value of Authentic Inclusion.

Understood.org offers an article and a video about the benefits of inclusion.
Evaluations Part 2: Next Steps if the School Says 'No' to Your Request Section 504: A Plan for Equity, Access and Accommodations
An agency that promotes best-practice strategies for school staff implementing inclusive educational programming is the IRIS Center, a part of Peabody College at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tenn.

Some other articles that might be of interest:

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Placement in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Encourages Inclusion

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A Brief Overview LRE has been an aspect of special education law since 1975, when there was widespread public concern about children with disabilities historically being segregated and denied equitable education. Research shows that children of all abilities learn social skills from one another when they learn side-by-side.

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Data & Reports

State Performance Plan
Annual Performance Report

The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), signed on December 3, 2004, requires each state to have in place a performance plan evaluating the state's implementation of Part B of the IDEA. This plan, the State Performance Plan/Annual Performance Report (SPP/APR) is required to be accessible to the public.

The original State Performance Plan submitted on December 2, 2005, contains all subsequent federally required updates and clarifications through February 2, 2009. Copies of the New Jersey Part B SPP/APR for FFY 2005 - FFY 2014 are available on the Department's website. A copy of the most recent SPP/APR which was submitted in February 2020 is available through the United States Department of Education website.
USDOE Responses to New Jersey's SPP and APRs USDOE Determination - NJOSEP's State Performance Plan and Annual Performance Repor Public Reporting of Local District Performance t Local District Special Education Data Profiles
Additionally, in accordance with 20 U.S.C. 1416(2)(C)(ii) each state shall report annually to the public on the performance of each of its local educational agencies according to the targets in its SPP

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State Performance Plan Annual Performance Report

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State Performance Plan Annual Performance Report The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), signed on December 3, 2004, requires each state to have in place a performance plan evaluating the state's implementation of Part B of the IDEA. This plan, the State Performance Plan/Annual Performance Report (SPP/APR) is required to be accessible to the public.

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Use this document with staff to identify necessary instructional practices then use its links to access related resources on selected practices.

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Inclusive Instruction Planning Framework 2024

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Inclusive Instruction Tips and Tools Padlet

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Inclusive Instruction Tips and Tools Padlet

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BY Tim Villegas

What Does Inclusion Look Like?

One of the questions that I get asked the most being an advocate for inclusive education is, "What does it look like?"

Honestly, I think that is the hard part. Inclusion (with a BIG I) is going to look different depending on each school and student. That is why I think it is helpful to see it as a framework as opposed to a one-size-fits all system. But that does not solve the problem that you don't really know what it looks like until you see it. In any case... here are 10 videos that I think are good examples on how particular schools put inclusion into practice. I know that once I saw these, it was impossible for me to go back to my old way of thinking. It is my hope that they will have the same effect on you.

"Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation (SWIFT) is a national K-8 center providing academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including those with the most extensive needs.

SWIFT advances equity and excellence for ALL through the promotion of five core domain areas to support grade level academic and social learning:

Administrative Leadership, Family and Community Partnership, Inclusive Education Framework, Inclusive Policy Structure and Practice and Multi-Tiered Systems of Support

One of six nationally recognized SWIFT Knowledge Development Sites, the Dr. William W. Henderson Inclusion Elementary School in Dorchester, MA, is featured in this film and highlights some of the SWIFT domains and accompanying features."

"A closer look at the transformation of Somersworth High School, site of Who Cares About Kelsey?, through School Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. The film highlights student leadership and data-driven decision making."

At The IDEAL School, children of varying abilities all learn the same topics, but each student does so at their own level with an individual lesson plan tailored to their needs. Specialized services like speech and physical therapy are provided during elective periods so that no student misses out on academics or feels different.

The school, which was started by a group of parents, is built around the idea that inclusion is merely a form of diversity. School leaders and parents say that the extremely inclusive model of education breeds an environment of total acceptance where each child values the strengths of their peers."

"Most importantly, we recognized that the path to full inclusion is a process; it doesn't happen all at once. For schools just getting started I'd recommend taking the following steps:

1. Help all teachers acquire special education licensure.

2. Read or watch a film about inclusion, and create lots of opportunities to discuss them.

3. Reserve lots of time to talk about doubts, fears and questions as a staff.

4. Be explicit with children and families about why inclusion is a community value.

5. Create time/space for discussion about inclusion with students and families.

Who Decides the Limit on a Person's Learning?

"I understand where critics of full inclusion are coming from," Ayla concluded. "It's very easy for inclusion to go horribly wrong, resulting in an environment where the learning shuts down for everyone. One question I would ask, though, is who decides the limit on a person's learning? Full inclusion does not mean students are without supports. With the right supports, who knows what children will learn from one another? It doesn't seem right to me to eliminate peer models for learning and behavior. It also doesn't seem right for children to not have an opportunity to develop relationships and understanding or compassion for people who struggle in different ways. Inclusion done properly is responsive to student needs. There isn't one model for it."

"We began with a parent's vision of an inclusive community for families with and without disabilities. The hope was to use technology, particularly computers, to include individuals with special needs and their typically developing peers into one classroom environment." See more here.

"I don't know which side of the fence you are on in regard to inclusive education. And for all intents and purposes...it does not matter. This post could just as easily have been called, No...Really...I'm Not Crazy...Inclusive Education Works! Usually when I talk to people who are not familiar with the idea of having students with disabilities (including significant disabilities) in the general education setting they say they are having a hard time "wrapping their head around it" or want to see "what it actually looks like". So...just for those of you who need to see it to believe it, I have picked out five videos that will most definitely change your mind about whether inclusive education is really a good thing or not (or at least they should)"

I think everyone has a story of how inclusion has gone wrong. It is harder to find really good examples of inclusive education. Do you have any to add to this list? Please share them with us in the comments section below!

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10 Examples Of Inclusion: For Those Who Need To See It To Believe It - Friendship Circle - Special Needs Blog

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What Does Inclusion Look Like? One of the questions that I get asked the most being an advocate for inclusive education is, "What does it look like?" Honestly, I think that is the hard part. Inclusion (with a BIG I) is going to look different depending on each school and student.

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A practice guide is a publication that presents recommendations for educators to address challenges in their classrooms and schools. They are based on reviews of research, the experiences of practitioners, and the expert opinions of a panel of nationally recognized experts.

To search by Topic or Keyword, use the Practice Guide Search.

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A practice guide is a publication that presents recommendations for educators to address challenges in their classrooms and schools. They are based on reviews of research, the experiences of practitioners, and the expert opinions of a panel of nationally recognized experts. To search by Topic or Keyword, use the Practice Guide Search.

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How to Find a School District's Least Restrictive Environment Percentage

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How to Find a School District's Least Restrictive Environment Percentage

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How do you find what percentages of students with disabilities in your school district are included over 80% of the time in general education?

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SWIFT in 60: Strong and Positive School Culture

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This film was created by SWIFT, a national K-8 center that provides academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including students with disabilities and those with the most extensive needs. This film focuses on how a strong and positive school culture creates an atmosphere in which everyone feels like they belong and work together to serve all kids.

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SWIFT in 60: Trusting Family Partnerships

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This film was created by SWIFT, a national K-8 center that provides academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including students with disabilities and those with the most extensive needs. This film focuses on Trusting Family Partnerships include participants in important school decision-making teams and leadership roles.

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This film was created by SWIFT, a national K-8 center that provides academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including students with disabilities and those with the most extensive needs. This film focuses on how LEA policy framework promotes and sustains a district where every student participates meaningfully in all social and instructional settings.

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Disabling segregation: Dan Habib at TEDxAmoskeagMillyard

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Whatever it Takes_ a SWIFT film on Inclusive Academic Instruction-HD

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"Whatever it Takes" is a SWIFT film by Dan Habib. The film features one of the SWIFT domains, Inclusive Academic Instruction, and features schools in Maryland, Mississippi and Oregon implementing the Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation (SWIFT). SWIFT is a national K through 8 technical assistance center that builds school capacity to provide academic and behavioral support to improve outcomes for all students through equity-based inclusion. To learn more about the 5 SWIFT domains and 10 features, see the SWIFT guide at guide.swiftschools.org

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Inclusion, Exclusion, Segregation, and Integration: How are they different?

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The Power of Social Media Early in our history of using social media, we posted a photo that highlighted the differences between inclusion, exclusion, segregation, and integration. It kinda blew up for us: Various Interpretations To this day, we are not sure who created the original image.

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Under the Table - The Importance of Presuming Competence | Shelley Moore | TEDxLangleyED

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Shelley Moore: Transforming Inclusive Education

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SWIFT in 60: Fully Integrated Organizational Structure

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This film was created by SWIFT, a national K-8 center that provides academic and behavioral support to promote the learning and academic achievement of all students, including students with disabilities and those with the most extensive needs. This film focuses on how a fully integrated organizational structure means students, educators, support personnel and families work together to support full participation in the general education curriculum.

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Look up your district's LRE data here

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Data & Reports

State Performance Plan
Annual Performance Report

The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), signed on December 3, 2004, requires each state to have in place a performance plan evaluating the state's implementation of Part B of the IDEA. This plan, the State Performance Plan/Annual Performance Report (SPP/APR) is required to be accessible to the public.

The original State Performance Plan submitted on December 2, 2005, contains all subsequent federally required updates and clarifications through February 2, 2009. Copies of the New Jersey Part B SPP/APR for FFY 2005 - FFY 2014 are available on the Department's website. A copy of the most recent SPP/APR which was submitted in February 2020 is available through the United States Department of Education website.
USDOE Responses to New Jersey's SPP and APRs USDOE Determination - NJOSEP's State Performance Plan and Annual Performance Repor Public Reporting of Local District Performance t Local District Special Education Data Profiles
Additionally, in accordance with 20 U.S.C. 1416(2)(C)(ii) each state shall report annually to the public on the performance of each of its local educational agencies according to the targets in its SPP

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State Performance Plan Annual Performance Report

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State Performance Plan Annual Performance Report The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), signed on December 3, 2004, requires each state to have in place a performance plan evaluating the state's implementation of Part B of the IDEA. This plan, the State Performance Plan/Annual Performance Report (SPP/APR) is required to be accessible to the public.

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Australian Alliance for Inclusive Education

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Inclusive Education - What Does the Research Say? - Australian Alliance for Inclusive Education

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Introduction For over 40 years, the body of relevant research into education of students with disability has overwhelmingly established inclusive education as producing superior social and academic outcomes for all students. Further, the research has consistently found that academic and social out…

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New Ways of Thinking and Revolutionary Common Sense

See this design and others on posters, bookmarks, note cards, magnets, badges, and T-shirt transfers in our Online Store.

​There is no proof that the presence of a disability automatically confers an incompetent status.

And many negative consequences result from our erroneous, unfair, and prejudicial presumptions. Children and adults with disabilities are segregated from the mainstream and isolated in special programs for treatments, interventions, and services. They may be prevented from engaging in the ordinary experiences most of us take for granted.

This is one of three articles on this topic. The other articles are entitled
"Do Disability Organizations Presume Competence?" and "Eliminating the Presumed Incompetent Paradigm."

​Within our judicial system, a person is presumed innocent. At trial, the person charged with breaking the law doesn't even have to take the stand to defend himself; it's up to the prosecution to present evidence which shows the defendant is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Similarly, in every day interchanges, we meet new people at work, in a store, or in other activities, and we generally presume they're competent. We presume, for example, that someone labeled "teacher," "doctor," "cashier," or "mother" is competent in the role. Sometimes, once we get to know someone better, we might discover he/she is more/less competent in some areas than others, which is true for all of us! (The late, great Ann Landers once cautioned us to remember that 50 percent of all doctors graduated in the lower half of their class-and the same is true for any other category of graduates.) But like the judicial counterpart of "presumed innocent," our initial reaction to others is to presume competence. And there are many other instances where similar positive presumptions are made about a business, situation, organization, etc. It seems that, in general, we initially presume the positive, unless and until we receive information to the contrary.

The same is not always true, however, for individuals who happen to have disabilities. Click here to continue.

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New Ways of Thinking and Revolutionary Common Sense See this design and others on posters, bookmarks, note cards, magnets, badges, and T-shirt transfers in our Online Store. ​There is no proof that the presence of a disability automatically confers an incompetent status. And many negative consequences result from our erroneous, unfair, and prejudicial presumptions.

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We detected a high number of errors from your connection. To continue, please confirm that youâ€™re a human (and not a spambot).

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"The Least Dangerous Assumption", Cheryl Jorgenson, Ph.D., Presenter

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One of our core language posts from last month referred to the criterion of the least dangerous assumption (Donellan, 1984). This week we're pleased to be able to expand on that topic and share a video by Dr. Cheryl Jorgensen, a former project director at the Institute on Disability at the University of New Hampshire. As we near the end of a school year in the US and begin IEPs that will direct the activities for the next academic year, we're all reminded how critical it is to set high but attainable goals. Sometimes, that means making the least dangerous assumption.

You can view the video here.

Donnellan, A. (1984). The criterion of the least dangerous assumption. Behavior Disorders, 9, 2, 141-150.

Filed under: Video of the Week

Tagged With: Cheryl Jorgensen, expectations, goal setting, least dangerous assumption. Anne Donellan, presume competence

This post was written by Carole Zangari

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Presuming Competence and Using the Least Dangerous Assumption

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One of our core language posts from last month referred to the criterion of the least dangerous assumption (Donellan, 1984). This week we're pleased to be able to expand on that topic and share a video by Dr. Cheryl Jorgensen, a former project director at the Institute on Disability at the University of New Hampshire.

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When my daughter was first diagnosed at the age of two and a half, presuming competence was not a concept I was ever told about or had heard of. And even if someone had suggested we do so, I'm not sure I would have fully understood what that meant exactly. So what does "presume competence" really mean? And how and why should we carry out a presumption of competence?

In an interview, Douglas Biklen explained: "Assume that a child has intellectual ability, provide opportunities to be exposed to learning, assume the child wants to learn and assert him or herself in the world."

A key component to presuming competence is to become aware of the prejudice that currently exists regarding autism and how these ingrained beliefs harm not just our children, but ALL Autistic people. Like any prejudice, based on layers and layers of misinformation, misperceptions, and misunderstandings, we must be willing to acknowledge our own "beliefs" before we can begin to deconstruct them.

When my daughter was little with almost no language I could not understand how it was possible for her to learn to read and write if she did not speak first. I was surprised and confused when I learned how completely wrong I was. When I read about all the non-speaking Autistic people who had learned to read and write despite being given no formal instruction, it seemed magical to me. This mind that seemed, from my limited perspective, to not understand so much, actually was taking in far more than I could imagine, let alone believe. It wasn't until I was able to see my own limitations caused by the things I had been told about autism and hence, my daughter, that I was able to move beyond that thinking and embrace another way of thinking. I had to acknowledge my misperceptions and the misinformation I was given, then I had to question everything I thought I knew and was being told. I had to seek out Autistic people who were kind enough to share their own experiences before I was finally able to dispense with my erroneous ideas and move beyond them. In case anyone's missing it, there is a certain irony in my early assumptions regarding Autistic competence.

At the Institute on Communication and Inclusion conference, which we've just returned from, and I began writing about in yesterday's post, Tracy Thresher typed, "... couldn't let anyone know I could read and I understood what was said to me the training gave me the way to communicate with others." On the Wretches and Jabberers website, Tracy wrote, "My communication is paramount to my well-being and is key to my being an active citizen." He goes on to say, "I may appear to be a man shrouded by a cloak of incompetence but if you will take the time to listen to my typing you will understand I am intelligent."

What I have come to understand, is that a presumption of competence is much more than a set of beliefs, it is a way of interacting with another human being who is seen as a true equal and as having the same basic human rights as I have.

A presumption of competence may seem like a leap for many non Autistic people, it may even feel like a disconnect. Some may argue that their non-speaking child cannot possibly understand, that they know this beyond any doubt and I must ask, but how can you know this for sure? We may tell ourselves that our child is too "severe" and we are setting them up for certain failure by presuming competence. To these people I would suggest the opposite is true. The only true failure is when we walk away and assume incompetence.

Presume competence means - assume your child is aware and able to understand even though they may not show this to you in a way that you are able to recognize or understand.

To presume competence means to assume your child or the other person does and can understand when they are being spoken of and to.

Presume competence means talk to your child or the other person as you would a same age non-Autistic child or person.

Read and have available age appropriate stories and give access and instruction to age appropriate learning material.

Presumptions of competence means treating the other person with respect and as an equal without pity or infantilization.

It does not mean that we will carry expectations that if not met will cause us to admonish, scold or assume the person is being manipulative or just needs to "try harder".

To presume competence does not mean we assume there is a "neurotypical" person "trapped" or "imprisoned" under an Autistic "shell".

Presuming competence is not an act of kindness.

Presuming competence is not something we do because we are a "good" person.

We do not get to pat ourselves on the back because we have presumed competence. If we believe we deserve a pat on the back and/or acknowledgement, then we are not presuming competence, we are more likely being condescending.

One last thought regarding presuming competence... to presume in competence is to actively do damage. Let's all agree not to do harm to our fellow human beings.

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"Presume Competence" - What Does That Mean Exactly?

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When my daughter was first diagnosed at the age of two and a half, presuming competence was not a concept I was ever told about or had heard of. And even if someone had suggested we do so, I'm not sure I would have fully understood what that meant exactly.

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educational improvement; excellence in education; educational research; national center for special education research (ncser) publications

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This page provides access to National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER) Publications, including High School Completion by Youth with Disabilities, School Behavior and Disciplinary Experiences of Youth With Disabilities, The National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, Academic Achievement and Functional Performance of Youth with Disabilities, Preschoolers with Disabilities: Characteristics, Services, and Results: Wave 1 Overview Report from the Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study.

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In the world of education, a gifted and talented child is defined as someone who has exceptional aptitude or talent in one or more areas. While some gifted children are separated from their peers and educated in special gifted and talented classrooms, others are served by getting involved in special enrichment classes and activities, either during or after school.

Recognizing a student's giftedness by pulling a student out of the general education classroom can often have negative side effects. Keeping gifted students in the classroom through a full-inclusion program, however, can negate some of those side effects. In a full-inclusion classroom, gifted students stay in the classroom with students of all abilities and the classroom instruction is differentiated, allowing gifting students to receive instruction at their level while still interacting with their peers.
Celebrating Areas of Giftedness
One of the benefits of teaching gifted children in a full-inclusion classroom is the ability to focus on their specific areas of giftedness. While some students are gifted in multiple areas, many students may only be gifted in one or two key areas. Unfortunately, when students are identified as gifted, they are often treated as if they are gifted in every area and therefore receive high-level instruction in every area, even if they are not ready for it. In a full-inclusion classroom, instruction in every subject is differentiated, allowing gifted students to work at higher-levels in areas where they are gifted and work at other levels in areas where they are not.
Positive Interaction with Peers
Being gifted is not easy. Often when gifted children are pulled out of the general education classroom they face ridicule from their peers. While teaching gifted children in full-inclusion classrooms does not guarantee they will never be called a "nerd" or made fun of for their giftedness, it does not make their giftedness as obvious to their peers. They have the opportunity to socialize with other students their age and learn to work and interact with students of all different ability levels. In the full-inclusion classroom, every child has his/her own strengths and weaknesses.
Enhancing the Curriculum
When done effectively, full-inclusion programs have the potential to enhance the curriculum for all students, not just gifted students. Special classes and pull-out programs for gifted students typically follow a set curriculum and just work at a higher level than general education classrooms, but they do not always meet the needs of gifted students. Full-inclusion classrooms operate with differentiated instruction, allowing teachers to focus on adapting the curriculum to meet the needs of individual gifted children and all students in the classroom, thereby enhancing the curriculum and improving the instruction all students receive.
Full Inclusion Done Right
For teachers, a full-inclusion classroom full of students with learning disabilities, gifted students and those who are just average can be overwhelming. In order for full-inclusion classes to become overwhelming for gifted students, teachers must be committed to teaching gifted children and all children at their levels through differentiated instruction.
But is being committed enough? When done correctly, gifted students can reap the benefits of being instructed in a full-inclusion classroom, but can it be done correctly in the classrooms of today? Leave your own thoughts in the comments below.

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Teaching Gifted Students in Full-Inclusion Classrooms

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In the world of education, a gifted and talented child is defined as someone who has exceptional aptitude or talent in one or more areas. While some gifted children are separated from their peers and educated in special gifted and talented classrooms, others are served by getting involved in special enrichment classes and activities, either during or after school.

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TIES Belonging Resources | Creating communities of belonging for students with significant cognitive disabilities

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Membership and Belonging in the Classroom

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Membership and Belonging in the Classroom

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These five strategies can help ensure that students feel they belong in your classroom.

©Ikon Images/Trina Dalziel

About a year ago, I received a text in the middle of the teaching day from the mother of a student I had taught eight years earlier as a second grader. She thanked me for always being there for her son, who had come out as gay to their family the night before. She shared that her son-now a senior in high school-mentioned me in their conversation and said I had taught him that all people have equal value in the world, a lesson that helped him face the truth of who he was.

Early elementary teachers rarely see the seeds we try to plant in our young students come to fruition, but we always hope they will grow into the people we imagine they can be. For the last 16 years, I've taught in an inclusion classroom where many students have learning differences that can pose a challenge to connecting with others. I've learned that if students feel anxious socially, they will not be open to taking academic risks, so building a culture of belonging has become my greatest priority. It is important to clarify that when I say "belonging," I am not talking about "fitting in"-students' individuality and uniqueness should always be valued. Belonging in the classroom means ensuring that all students feel welcomed, comfortable, and part of the school family.

Here are five simple ways I've found with which I can convince every student that he or she was meant to be in my classroom:

1. Shine a light on each student. Students often look to their teacher for a cue on how to handle social situations. In learning, we simply call this modeling. When working with students who have learning differences, I've learned it's important to model that every child has something special about him or her that we can celebrate. I had a student who ate alone every day the year before she joined my class. Her behaviors set her apart, and other students naturally started avoiding her. When she became my student, my co-teacher, my aide, and I made an intentional effort to laugh with her and praise her around her classmates. Soon, my students began to see her in a different light, and she never ate alone again. Help your students see each other through your eyes, so they can see each other's greatness.

2. Foster student identity building. Five times per year, I allow my students to do genius hour or passion projects of their choosing. I require only a two-paragraph written or typed piece to ground the work in English language arts. For students, these projects become very personal and a way to share more about who they are with their classmates, while boosting their public speaking skills. I've had students present about their rare medical conditions that they were previously afraid to talk about. Other students have explored their family heritage or activities they participate in, like karate or dance. In every case, students are empowered by their interests and passions, and they regularly say they enjoyed the learning that took place-about themselves and each other.

3. Always leave one desk empty. Every year, I have had at least one new student join us halfway through the school year. Chances are, for any 8-year-old going through a midyear move, it is one of the most difficult times they will ever endure. Seeing an empty desk when they arrive signals that our class has been waiting for them all year-and reminds other students throughout the year that our class could grow and change at any time. I also have my students make and hand out cards for the new student to welcome him or her upon arrival. Teachers have the power to send the message that they've been inconvenienced or the message that they're excited and happy for a new student to join the class.

4. Make sure that each child feels chosen. Several times a year, I ask my students to anonymously write down the names of three students they want to sit with or work with-ranked in order of preference. I go over the results to see who is being selected and who is not. With that knowledge, I seek out students who aren't chosen and create opportunities for them to build relationships with their peers. I may call on one of them and say, "Choose anyone you want to walk this to the office," for example, to help improve their social equity in the eyes of their peers. Other times, I will assign these students specific partners who will help them by modeling good social behaviors.

5. Weave social and emotional practices throughout the day. Toward the end of a school year, I start allowing students to choose their partners for activities, but I change up the traditional classroom social dynamics by letting the students who are typically not chosen to be the choosers. Knowing how this could easily backfire, I remind students of the proper and improper ways to react if the person who chooses them wasn't who they had in mind by stating, "When someone chooses you, they are giving you a gift-the gift is saying, out of all the people in the class, I choose you." This simple exercise takes only about three minutes, but it builds an important social and emotional foundation that teaches students to appreciate each other.

We can never take for granted the importance of our students feeling they belong. In a world that does not yet fully welcome everyone, schools can reinforce existing divisions or provide students a safe community that feels like a second home. That former second-grade student of mine went on to attend the prom with his boyfriend in our very conservative town and initiated a town-wide pride campaign. I have never felt more proud of my impact as a teacher. As educators, we really can help change the world, one child at a time.

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Every Student Matters: Cultivating Belonging in the Classroom

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These five strategies can make a big difference in ensuring that students feel they belong in your classroom.

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Access a padlet containing explanations and examples of key elements and considerations for building a master schedule that supports inclusive education

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Creating a Master Schedule that Supports Inclusive Practices

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Strategies for Transitioning to an Inclusive School Environment_0

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Considering the potential of inclusive education at your school? Perhaps you are currently working in an inclusive classroom and looking for effective strategies. Lean into this deep-dive article on inclusive education to gather a solid understanding of what it means, what the research shows, and proven strategies that bring out the benefits for everyone.

What is inclusive education? What does it mean?

Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-appropriate general education classes that are in their own neighborhood schools to receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

The school and classroom operate on the premise that students with disabilities are as fundamentally competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms and in the local school community. Much of the movement is related to legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means they are with their peers without disabilities to the maximum degree possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students (Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to student differences and diversity, which can include physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional. This is not to say that students never need to spend time out of regular education classes, because sometimes they do for a very particular purpose - for instance, for speech or occupational therapy. But the goal is this should be the exception.

The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged, and supported in their efforts. It's also critically important that the adults are supported, too. This includes the regular education teacher and the special education teacher, as well as all other staff and faculty who are key stakeholders - and that also includes parents.

The research basis for inclusive education

Inclusive education and inclusive classrooms are gaining steam because there is so much research-based evidence around the benefits. Take a look.

Benefits for students

Simply put, both students with and without disabilities learn more. Many studies over the past three decades have found that students with disabilities have higher achievement and improved skills through inclusive education, and their peers without challenges benefit, too (Bui, et al., 2010; Dupuis, Barclay, Holms, Platt, Shaha, & Lewis, 2006; Newman, 2006; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

For students with disabilities ( SWD), this includes academic gains in literacy (reading and writing), math, and social studies - both in grades and on standardized tests - better communication skills, and improved social skills and more friendships. More time in the general classroom for SWD is also associated with fewer absences and referrals for disruptive behavior. This could be related to findings about attitude - they have a higher self-concept, they like school and their teachers more, and are more motivated around working and learning.

Their peers without disabilities also show more positive attitudes in these same areas when in inclusive classrooms. They make greater academic gains in reading and math. Research shows the presence of SWD gives non-SWD new kinds of learning opportunities. One of these is when they serve as peer-coaches. By learning how to help another student, their own performance improves. Another is that as teachers take into greater consideration their diverse SWD learners, they provide instruction in a wider range of learning modalities (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic), which benefits their regular ed students as well.

Researchers often explore concerns and potential pitfalls that might make instruction less effective in inclusion classrooms (Bui et al., 2010; Dupois et al., 2006). But findings show this is not the case. Neither instructional time nor how much time students are engaged differs between inclusive and non-inclusive classrooms. In fact, in many instances, regular ed students report little to no awareness that there even are students with disabilities in their classes. When they are aware, they demonstrate more acceptance and tolerance for SWD when they all experience an inclusive education together.

Parent's feelings and attitudes

Parents, of course, have a big part to play. A comprehensive review of the literature (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2010) found that on average, parents are somewhat uncertain if inclusion is a good option for their SWD. On the upside, the more experience with inclusive education they had, the more positive parents of SWD were about it. Additionally, parents of regular ed students held a decidedly positive attitude toward inclusive education.

Now that we've seen the research highlights on outcomes, let's take a look at strategies to put inclusive education in practice.

Inclusive classroom strategies

There is a definite need for teachers to be supported in implementing an inclusive classroom. A rigorous literature review of studies found most teachers had either neutral or negative attitudes about inclusive education (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2011). It turns out that much of this is because they do not feel they are very knowledgeable, competent, or confident about how to educate SWD.

However, similar to parents, teachers with more experience - and, in the case of teachers, more training with inclusive education - were significantly more positive about it. Evidence supports that to be effective, teachers need an understanding of best practices in teaching and of adapted instruction for SWD; but positive attitudes toward inclusion are also among the most important for creating an inclusive classroom that works (Savage & Erten, 2015).

Of course, a modest blog article like this is only going to give the highlights of what have been found to be effective inclusive strategies. For there to be true long-term success necessitates formal training. To give you an idea though, here are strategies recommended by several research studies and applied experience (Morningstar, Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015; Alquraini, & Gut, 2012).

Use a variety of instructional formats

Start with whole-group instruction and transition to flexible groupings which could be small groups, stations/centers, and paired learning. With regard to the whole group, using technology such as interactive whiteboards is related to high student engagement. Regarding flexible groupings: for younger students, these are often teacher-led but for older students, they can be student-led with teacher monitoring. Peer-supported learning can be very effective and engaging and take the form of pair-work, cooperative grouping, peer tutoring, and student-led demonstrations.

Ensure access to academic curricular content

All students need the opportunity to have learning experiences in line with the same learning goals. This will necessitate thinking about what supports individual SWDs need, but overall strategies are making sure all students hear instructions, that they do indeed start activities, that all students participate in large group instruction, and that students transition in and out of the classroom at the same time. For this latter point, not only will it keep students on track with the lessons, their non-SWD peers do not see them leaving or entering in the middle of lessons, which can really highlight their differences.

Apply universal design for learning

These are methods that are varied and that support many learners' needs. They include multiple ways of representing content to students and for students to represent learning back, such as modeling, images, objectives and manipulatives, graphic organizers, oral and written responses, and technology. These can also be adapted as modifications for SWDs where they have large print, use headphones, are allowed to have a peer write their dictated response, draw a picture instead, use calculators, or just have extra time. Think too about the power of project-based and inquiry learning where students individually or collectively investigate an experience.

Now let's put it all together by looking at how a regular education teacher addresses the challenge and succeeds in using inclusive education in her classroom.

A case study of inclusive practices in schools and classes

Mrs. Brown has been teaching for several years now and is both excited and a little nervous about her school's decision to implement inclusive education. Over the years she has had several special education students in her class but they either got pulled out for time with specialists or just joined for activities like art, music, P.E., lunch, and sometimes for selected academics.

She has always found this method a bit disjointed and has wanted to be much more involved in educating these students and finding ways they can take part more fully in her classroom. She knows she needs guidance in designing and implementing her inclusive classroom, but she's ready for the challenge and looking forward to seeing the many benefits she's been reading and hearing about for the children, their families, their peers, herself, and the school as a whole.

During the month before school starts, Mrs. Brown meets with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez - and other teachers and staff who work with her students - to coordinate the instructional plan that is based on the IEPs (Individual Educational Plan) of the three students with disabilities who will be in her class the upcoming year.

About two weeks before school starts, she invites each of the three children and their families to come into the classroom for individual tours and get-to-know-you sessions with both herself and the special education teacher. She makes sure to provide information about back-to-school night and extends a personal invitation to them to attend so they can meet the other families and children. She feels very good about how this is coming together and how excited and happy the children and their families are feeling. One student really summed it up when he told her, "You and I are going to have a great year!"

The school district and the principal have sent out communications to all the parents about the move to inclusion education at Mrs. Brown's school. Now she wants to make sure she really communicates effectively with the parents, especially as some of the parents of both SWD and regular ed students have expressed hesitation that having their child in an inclusive classroom would work.

She talks to the administration and other teachers and, with their okay, sends out a joint communication after about two months into the school year with some questions provided by the book Creating Inclusive Classrooms (Salend, 2001 referenced in Salend & Garrick-Duhaney, 2001) such as, "How has being in an inclusion classroom affected your child academically, socially, and behaviorally? Please describe any benefits or negative consequences you have observed in your child. What factors led to these changes?" and "How has your child's placement in an inclusion classroom affected you? Please describe any benefits or any negative consequences for you." and "What additional information would you like to have about inclusion and your child's class?" She plans to look for trends and prepare a communication that she will share with parents. She also plans to send out a questionnaire with different questions every couple of months throughout the school year.

Since she found out about the move to an inclusive education approach at her school, Mrs. Brown has been working closely with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez, and reading a great deal about the benefits and the challenges. Determined to be successful, she is especially focused on effective inclusive classroom strategies.

Her hard work is paying off. Her mid-year and end-of-year results are very positive. The SWDs are meeting their IEP goals. Her regular ed students are excelling. A spirit of collaboration and positive energy pervades her classroom and she feels this in the whole school as they practice inclusive education. The children are happy and proud of their accomplishments. The principal regularly compliments her. The parents are positive, relaxed, and supportive.

Mrs. Brown knows she has more to learn and do, but her confidence and satisfaction are high. She is especially delighted that she has been selected to be a part of her district's team to train other regular education teachers about inclusive education and classrooms.

Summing Up

The future is very bright indeed for this approach. The evidence is mounting that inclusive education and classrooms are able to not only meet the requirements of LRE for students with disabilities, but to benefit regular education students as well. We see that with exposure both parents and teachers become more positive. Training and support allow regular education teachers to implement inclusive education with ease and success. All around it's a win-win!
Lilla Dale McManis, MEd, PhD has a BS in child development, an MEd in special education, and a PhD in educational psychology. She was a K-12 public school special education teacher for many years and has worked at universities, state agencies, and in industry teaching prospective teachers, conducting research and evaluation with at-risk populations, and designing educational technology. Currently, she is President of Parent in the Know where she works with families in need and also does business consulting.

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Inclusive Education: Definition, Examples, and Classroom Strategies | Resilient Educator

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Get a solid understanding of what inclusive education means, what the research shows, and proven strategies that bring out the benefits for everyone.

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A helpful exercise that can clarify our thinking and generate great outcomes.

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We don't know it all; when we get curious, we'll learn what's really important to and for people with disabilities.

When it all feels overwhelming, let's focus on just one thing so we can get it done and be successful. ​

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What if you didn't meet benchmarks and were compared to others throughout your life? Yikes! Let's do better. A helpful exercise that can clarify our thinking and generate great outcomes. Let's focus on what a person with a disability can do, instead of what he can't.