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Subjects's rights to privacy should never be violated (confidentiality)

If deception is used, explanation should be given about it in debrief

Hindsight Bias:

"I knew it all along"

If you know the answer, why even do the experiment

Beneficence: Doing no harm to the subject in the experiment

Doctors, psychiatrists, and psychologists have to follow it too

Stanford prison experiment notes:

Perspectives

Behavioralist perspective

Research Method

Scientific Method

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8-5: Is psychology free of value judgements?

Psych is not value free as it affects what we choose to study like worker productivity or morale or can influence the "facts" through bias

Even words we use show values as we can say picky or careful, discreet or secretive, or firm or stubborn

Even applications of psych have values as if you seek pro help you get help w values as well

Psych can help reach goals but cannot set them

Also, if common sense, could psych be used to manipulate people?

Everything can be used for good or evil, including psych, but its purpose is to enlighten and though it cannot answer all of life's questions, it speaks to v important ones

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8-4: What ethical guidelines safeguard human participants?

Stress in psych experiments are very minimal especially compared to other stressful things like reality tv

Occasionally, deceit or stress is needed to analyze violence or mood swings or in a double blind procedure to stop experimenter bias

The main principles are that

You need participants informed consent

Protect them from physical or emotional harm or discomfort

Keep information about them confidential

fully debrief (explain research) after it is done

The goal is to have the researcher be informative and considerate letting the participant be repaid through new knowledge

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8-3: Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Some study animals for interest, others to see if it could work on humans as humans are animals

Humans are complex, but how we learn is seen in other animals w simpler minds, which makes it easy to understand how this works

But there are some that believe it is not correct even though many more are killed for food

These people want to replace these experiments for Naturalistic observation, but it is not as clear especially seeing how it has worked in the past w

Louis Pasteur's experiments w rabies that saved millions, but killed some dogs

New methods of treating mental disorders in children from animal research done before

The answer to this depends on culture and therefore can vary a lot

This debate is based on if human well being should be above animal well being and which is to be sacrificed

But this can vary based on how close we are with those animals as dogs and cats are way off limits but bugs are not even close

Even if animals are used, there are rules to protect them such as good living like companions, food, water, and sufficient space

These experiments have also helped animals as they are either better protected w more info, or have better lives through this

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6-3: What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?

To figure exactly what causes the effect, one can experiment or:

Manipulate variables of interest

Hold other variables in a constant state

Which leads to experimental groups and control groups respectively

Additionally, one must randomly assign said groups to ensure that the only difference in the results is from the manipulated cause

Experiments manipulate variables to know the effect fully

This also applies to new medicines as usually one might start to take a pill when sick and attribute getting better to the pill not their body's immune system

To do this and control all variables, subjects and researchers might not be told of what is going on, which is called a double blind procedure

Using such a procedure ensures that the subject and experimenters are controlled and negates the possibility of the placebo having an effect as well.

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variable: factor that can be varied independently of other factors

Confounding variable: can potentially influence the experiment and make results inconclusive

Dependent variable: measurable behavior affected by the independent or confounding variable

All experiment described with operational definitions that are specific and allow anyone to replicate it

The key to designing an experiment is validity, which means the experiment is testing what its supposed to test

Experiments also help a lot with analyzing social programs

Variable: anything that can vary

At least one DV and IV

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6-2: What are illusory correlations?

A perceived but nonexistent correlation is an illusory correlation and once we believe it is there we might notice or recall events to support it

We are especially likely to notice two events in a sequence and such correlations help explain superstitions

These also happen when we over-rely on one part of the evidence, but not all

When we see random coincidences we may forget they are random which leads to seeing things that aren't there

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6-1: What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?

How one trait is related to another is a correlation and can be analyzed for closeness with a correlation coefficient

to see how strongly things correlate, a scatter plot might be used to see the connection

Each data point is represented w a dot and can show a positive or negative correlation which can be perfect, but rarely occurs in the real world

Positive is when both variables go up together

Negative is when one variable goes up as the other goes down

Sometimes statistical information on correlation can help analyze the world better

Correlation coefficients can range from -1.0 to 1.0 and the closer to 1 or -1 the stronger the correlation

Correlation and Causation

Correlations and associations can predict cause but can never prove to have a cause-effect relationship

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To Identify and apply the independent and dependent variables and I can begin to understand statistics in psychology 9/5

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To Identify and apply the independent and dependent variables and I can begin to understand statistics in psychology 9/5

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Psychodynamic went to humanistic as people look more into what they can do

Led to positive psych now

Gestalt then went to cognitive to analyze how we think

Biological from evolutionary

When taking a sample from a population, you must always make sure it is random with random selection

Samples be a representative sample of the population

Then do random assignment for each group, experimental and control

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7-2: How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?

Data can be noisy but can be seen if legit by using inferential statistics to help determine if generalizations of one group can go to larger populations

When is an Observed Difference Reliable?

Representative samples are better than biased samples: always keep in mind what population has been sampled

Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable: averages are more reliable when theyre from scores w low variability

More cases are better than fewer: Averages based on more cases are more reliable

Smart thinkers are not overly impressed by a few anecdotes and generalizations based on few unrepresentative cases are unreliable

When is a Difference Significant?

Statistical testing can estimate the probability of the result occurring by chance

When the averages from two samples are reliable measure of their respective populations, then their difference is reliable as well.

Also applies with if the difference in sample averages is large and shows the difference is also large is well w much confidence

When the difference is big then the difference has statistical significance

Usually psychologists are very conservative about it so it must have odds of occurring by chance of less than 5 percent

With large samples a difference can be statistically significant but not practically significant

Stat significance indicates likelihood something will happen by chances, does not say anything about importance of it

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7-1: How do we describe data using three measures of central tendency, and what is the relative usefulness of the two measures of variation?:

The Need for Statistics

Good to know statistical principles and estimates can often be misread and mislead the public

Always doubt big, round, undocumented numbers

Stat illiteracy can lead to health scares if numbers are not good

Like with british women in 1990s being scared to take contraceptive that might increase blood clots but lead to many unplanned pregnancies and abortions

Descriptive Statistics

Once data is gathered researches can put results into descriptive statistics to organize it usually in a histogram (bar graph).

Can make difference seem v big when it really is not so always be smart and check range

Measures of Central Tendency:

Mode: Most frequent score

Mean: Average of all scores

Median: Midpoint or 50th percentile

In bell-shaped distribution, all are the same or really close

These can change though when there are outliers making the distribution skewed like in income

These stats still tell true stories, except they are very different

Always consider the type of central tendency used especially mean since it can be distorted

Measures of Variation

Central tendencies are good but need a bit more to be totally useful such as variation

Range: most crude estimate of variation and can be stretched or shrunk quite easily

Standard Deviation: Shows how much scores deviate from each other and tells much more than range

Can be understood with looking at nature with bell shaped curves w more near mean than extremes called normal curves

Usually 68% falls within 1 standard deviation while 95% falls within 2

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3-1: What do psychologists in various professions do, and where to they work?

Many things can be done with a college degree and psychology and it can help in many other fields as well

Basic Research Subfields:

Cognitive Psychologists

Study how we

percieve

learn

use language

pay attention

problem solve

make decisions

remembet and forget things

Could work as a professor, consultant or human factors specialist

Developmental Psychologists

Study how the mind changes over time

Have to focus on a certain time period and would work in either a place for young or old people.

Educational Psychologists:

Interested in how people learn and how to make it easier for people to learn

Would be employed at a school or gov. agency to study and improve learning

Experimental Psychologists

Diverse group that investigates different behaviors in humans or animals.

Can be a part of other subfields as well

Would most likely work in an academic setting.

Psychometric and Quantitative Psychologists

Studying techniques used to acquire psych knowledge such as tests and how to make them better

Also would work in a college, testing company, reserach firm or gov agency.

Social Psychologists

Study how people interact with attitudes, aggression, prejudice, interpersonal attraction, group behavior and leadership.

Usually a part of a college faculty, or at hospitals or agencies or businesses doing applied research

Applied Research Subfields

Forensic Psychologists

Apply psychology to legal issues and can assist the legal community

Could work in a psych department, law school, research organization, community mental health agency, law enforcement agency, court, or correctional setting.

Health Psychologists

They try to apply principles of psych to improve people's health through making programs to help others and also to improve gov policies and health care systems.

Could work in a hospital , med school, rehab center, public health agency, or college or private practice if clinical

Industrial Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Study how workers and their environment interacts and tries to improve things like productivity or effieciency

Work at a business, industry, gov, or college/uni

Neuropsychologists

Study connection between neurological processes and behaviors such as looking at conditions like ADHD or autsism.

Could work in a hospital

Rehabilitation Psychologists

Work with people trying to recover after losing function after an accident, injury, or illness.

Could work in a hospital, rehab institute, med school, uni, state or federal vocational rehab agency, or in private practice.

School Psychologists

Assess and intervene with children in educational setting to try to help those that have problems with learning

Could work at schools, guidance centers, labs, or a government agency.

Sport Psychologists

Study the psychological factors that take part in how the athletes play and how to make them perform even better.

Could be in research or working for a team

The Helping Professions:

Clinical Psychologists

Promote psychological health in individuals, groups, and orgs through different treatments or lectures

Could work in many settings like schools, private practice, mental service orgs, legal systems, counseling centers, and gov and military agencies.

Community Psychologists

Work with broad problems in communities to try to make things better and believe it has to do with the environment around the community

Could work for the gov, be and independent consultant, or teach and consult at a college or uni

Counseling Psychologists

Help people adjust to changes in their life or lifestyle to through therapy

Could work in many places like uni counseling, community mental health center, and business or private practice

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To identify and apply the independent and dependent variables 8/31 and 9/5

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To identify and apply the independent and dependent variables 8/31 and 9/5

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Confounding Variable:

A variable that can affect a study which will lead to other things to study and will make the experiment seem wrong.

Could be called third variable or extraneous

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To Describe and Apply Steps of the Scientific Method 8/30

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To Describe and Apply Steps of the Scientific Method 8/30

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Immediate vs. Delayed Gratification:

Gratification: emotional response when we achieve our goals

Hypothesis: If IV then DV

IV is independent variable which you manipulate

DV is dependent variable which you measure

Steps of Scientific Method:

Develop a testable hypothesis with operational definitions

How 2 or more variables are related

Stating results the experiment expects

Educated guess

Design study

How to study the subjects

Would you want to test individually or in groups

Ask as many questions as possible to be able to know exactly how only the desired variables are affecting the experiment

Collect Data

Understand what is being measured

Time

Behaviors (Tantrum)

Analyze Data

Draw conclusions from the data collected

Publish Findings

Publish so others can see and try to replicate to see how good your data is

Longitudinal Study

Studies that take a very long time such as starting out with little kids and ending when the kids are much older

Steps for Marshmallow Test

Hypothesis

If these children from 5-7 years old do wait and delay gratification, then 90% of those that do wait will have higher test scores (SAT, ACT) than those that do not wait.

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5-2: How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?

Case Study

It is when one examines an individual or group to reveal truth in all of us.

Some can be revealing but only show what can happen and suggest directions for more study.

Individual cases are not good though when those studied are atypical and can lead to bad conclusions.

Also dramatic stories of such atypical things can mislead and cause us to make generalizations that are not right.

Case study can only give good ideas.

Naturalistic Observation

This is watching behaviors in their natural environments like parents and children not knowing they are recorded to be studied.

Does not explain behavior but shows it and can be quite revealing as to how animals or people interact.

Gives snapshots but could also be effected by uncontrolled variables all around.

The Survey

Surveys look at many cases not too in depth.

Questions can be difficult to understand though and can give many different ideas to the readers.

Wording Effects:

The wording of a questions is quite important as how it is worded can totally change even yes or no answers like comparing "welfare" to "helping the poor".

Random Sampling

We tend to follow a sampling bias where we generalize from few, vivid, unrepresentative cases compared to many representative ones that are better for analysis

It is best to get a group that represents the whole population which can be done through a random sampling.

Large representative samples are better than small ones but small representative samples are better than large unrepresentative ones.

Without this it results would be very misleading and not good to analyze with.

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5-1: How do theories advance psychological science?

A theory explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize whats happened.

Can be simplified with isolated facts or can become a summary with deeper principles included.

Theories of effect of sleep on memory organize all observations of sleep and memory like more sleep= better scores and more questions right.

Theories must then be put to the test with a hypothesis, which designates what results would support in an experiment.

Bias can take its toll though as one could want to see a pattern that is not there, but think they see it.

To stop biases, operation definitions, specific measures or procedures to let anyone replicate the experiment, are used.

A good theory:

effectively orgainzes a range of reports and observations

leads to a clear hypothesis that anyone can use to check

often stimulates research that leads to a revised theory which better organizes and predicts what we know. Or, our research may be replicated and supported by like findings.

Hypotheses are tested and theories are refined by:

Descriptive methods that describe what happens in case studies, surveys or naturalistic observations.

Correlational methods that associate different factors or variables

Experimental methods that manipulate variables to discover their effects.

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2-4: How can psychological principles help you learn and remember, and do better on the AP exam?

Re-testing to study is the best way to remember for tests.

To master, you must actively process it like a muscle that cannot be filled passively.

Try to look over before reading and attempt questions you will know the answer to after you read.

Then read actively just enough so that you will fully understand and be able to process such information.

After reading find the main ideas and test yourself to understand better and better.

Lastly review and attempt to understand the concept before rereading to check understanding.

Distribute study time:

Its better to go with spaced practice compared to massed practice but requires better time management.

Learn to think critically: Try to fully analyze what goes on around you to fully understand and get a good takeaway.

Process class info actively: Listen to main ideas and write them down, ask questions, and try to relate whats read to whats known.

Overlearn: Try to give yourself more time to study so you do not overestimate what you know.

Be a smart test-taker: Try to do essays first and fully understand whats up in the question. Multiple choice questions should be done as fill in the blank to find the best one. Try to test yourself more often to try to understand better. input<output

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2-3: What are psychology's main subfields?

There are many subfields to psychology giving those that study it a lot of options.

Some psychologists do basic research to increase knowledge such as:

Biological psychologists looking at links between body and mind.

Developmental Psychologists studying changing abilities throughout life.

Cognitive Psychologists that experiment with how we perceive, think, and solve problems.

Educational Psycholgists: studying influences on teaching and learning

Personality Psychologists: Investigating persistent traits

Social Psychologists: exploring how we view and affect one another

Others conduct applied research such as Industrial Organizational psychologists who try to help companies and organizations with psych.

This also goes with human factors psychologists that focus on interactions of people, machines, and physical environments.

Psychology also can go into help with Counseling and clinical psychologists and psychiatrists who can help with talking, treating disorders, or giving medicine respectively.

To balance out human problems in psychology, others like Martin Seligman have made positive psychology to explore how psychology can make lives better.

Community psychologists try to cater an environment to the needs of those in it such as making schools less bully friendly.

Psychology can relate to many fields as psycholgists can be found anywhere doing work.

Psychology also has a great effect on modern culture as once people learn more and more they can change their views and change themselves.

Though psychology might not give all the answers to life, it does give many like how to think critically or understand things better.

Psychology deepens how we understand ourselves and others and can totally change our vision on life to hopefully make things better.

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2-2: What are psychology's levels of analysis and related perspectives?

We are made of many systems like social systems, the nervous system, and even smaller systems like cells, molecule, and atoms.

There are many systems around us that suggest different levels of analysis which, though different, relate and create the big picture that is humanity.

All levels together make the biopsychological approach made up of biological influences, pyschological influences, and sociocultural influences.

Each level together makes up the big picture, but alone is not fully able to describe what goes on.

Behavioral: How we learn observable responses

Biological: How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences and how genes and the environment influence individual differences.

Cognitive: How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Evolutionary: How the natural selections of traits has promoted the survival of genes.

Humanistic: How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment.

Psychodynamic: How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

Social-cultural- How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Each is like a 2D view of a 3D object as by itself it cannot show the whole.

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2-1: What is Psychology's historic big issue?

This is the nature vs. nuture agrument going back all the way to the days of Scorates (nature) and Aristotle (nurture).

Locke and Descartes kept this going in the 1600s but was carried on by Darwin with nuture as he got the idea of Natural selection.

This issue is still recurrent in psychology with the clashing of external factors with internal ones in what decides how someone is.

But this argument might be negated as some could say psychological events, thoughts and emotions, could be a mix of both.

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1-2: What are some important milestones in psychology's early development?

Modern Psychology began with Wilhelm Wundt as he tried to measure how long the simplest mental processes took to occur.

From this came different perspectives or "schools of thought" such as:

Structuralism

Functionalism

Behaviorism

Thinking About the Mind's Structure:

Edward Bradford Titchener introduced structuralism and sought to find how out the mind's structure through its many parts in consciousness ,thus needing introspection to fully understand what goes on.

Introspection though, was not reliable and needed smart and verbal people and eventually fell off with structuralism.

Thinking About the Mind's Functions:

Others decided that it would be better to analyze the mind as a whole like William James, who with Charles Darwin, began the functionalist view that what we do is driven by adaptation based on natural selection.

James was a outgoing joyful man being light and funny while also supporting new ideas such as higher education for women as he taught Mary Calkins even though she was not given a Ph.D from Harvard.

She was also denied membership to an organization of experimental psychologists who studied behavior and experience through experiements.

This is very different from today as there are many more women in psychology now than men.

James then introduced Psychology with a text book that even today astounds those that read it.

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1-3: How did psychology continue to develop from the 1920s through today?

Up to the 1920s psychology was only the science of mental life with introspection but changed with John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.

These two rejected introspection and decided that sensations could not be measured, but people's behaviors could be and began the behaviorist perspective.

Another area was Freudian Psychology, that analyzed how the unconscious affected the conscious but these two were also rejected by new ideas in the 1960s.

The first of these was Humanistic Psychology which explained that humans could control their destinies if they realized their own potential, controlling anything about themselves.

The other was Cognitive Neuroscience which went back to the structuralist basics but added new technology which allowed scientists to analyze how the brain carried out all of its processes over time.

Now we define it as "the science of behavior and mental processes" behaviors being something an organism can do and mental processes being inner experiences organisms feel.

Also, psychology is still a science, but not rooted in sets of findings but asking and answering of questions.

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1-1: How did Psychology develop form its prescientific roots in early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science?

Early peoples wondered about the how they thought and came up with their own ideas even though they were not right.

In Ancient Greece Socrates and Plato thought knowledge was always within us only to be proven wrong by Aristotle with data showing that it comes from our experiences.

Nothing else changed until modern science came up and Descartes began to study animals and agreed with Plato and Socrates but also found the connection between mind and body, the brain.

He was on the right track, but still way off compared to how much psychology has advanced since the 1600s.

Francis Bacon, across the English Channel, studied the mind's shortcomings including its eagerness to perceive patterns mostly in religion where its failures were not so focused on as the successes.

50 years later John Locke came around and claimed that humans were born as a "blank slate" having experience give them knowledge and personality.